The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki (August 6 and 9, 1945, respectively) are the only two examples of the combat use of nuclear weapons in human history. Carried out by the US Armed Forces at the final stage of World War II in order to hasten the surrender of Japan in the Pacific theater of operations of World War II.
On the morning of August 6, 1945, the American bomber B-29 "Enola Gay", named after the mother (Enola Gay Haggard) of the crew commander, Colonel Paul Tibbets, dropped the atomic bomb "Little Boy" ("Baby") on the Japanese city of Hiroshima with the equivalent of 13 to 18 kilotons of TNT. Three days later, on August 9, 1945, the atomic bomb "Fat Man" ("Fat Man") was dropped on the city of Nagasaki by pilot Charles Sweeney, commander of the B-29 "Bockscar" bomber. The total death toll ranged from 90 to 166 thousand people in Hiroshima and from 60 to 80 thousand people in Nagasaki.
The shock of the US atomic bombings had a profound effect on Japanese Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki and Japanese Foreign Minister Togo Shigenori, who were inclined to believe that the Japanese government should end the war.
On August 15, 1945, Japan announced its surrender. The act of surrender, formally ending World War II, was signed on September 2, 1945.
The role of the atomic bombings in Japan's surrender and the ethical justification of the bombings themselves are still hotly debated.
Prerequisites
In September 1944, at a meeting between US President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in Hyde Park, an agreement was reached, according to which the possibility of using atomic weapons against Japan was envisaged.
By the summer of 1945, the United States of America, with the support of Great Britain and Canada, within the framework of the Manhattan Project, completed preparatory work to create the first working models of nuclear weapons.
After three and a half years of direct US involvement in World War II, about 200,000 Americans were killed, about half of them in the war against Japan. In April-June 1945, during the operation to capture the Japanese island of Okinawa, more than 12 thousand American soldiers were killed, 39 thousand were injured (Japanese losses ranged from 93 to 110 thousand soldiers and over 100 thousand civilians). It was expected that the invasion of Japan itself would lead to losses many times greater than those of Okinawan.
Model of the bomb "Kid" (eng. Little boy), dropped on Hiroshima
May 1945: Target selection
During its second meeting at Los Alamos (May 10-11, 1945), the Targeting Committee recommended as targets for the use of atomic weapons Kyoto (the largest industrial center), Hiroshima (the center of army warehouses and a military port), Yokohama (the center of military industry), Kokuru (the largest military arsenal) and Niigata (military port and engineering center). The committee rejected the idea of using these weapons against a purely military target, as there was a chance of overshooting a small area not surrounded by a vast urban area.
When choosing a goal, great importance was attached to psychological factors, such as:
achieving maximum psychological effect against Japan,
the first use of the weapon must be significant enough for international recognition of its importance. The Committee pointed out that the choice of Kyoto was supported by the fact that its population had a higher level of education and thus were better able to appreciate the value of weapons. Hiroshima, on the other hand, was of such a size and location that, given the focusing effect of the surrounding hills, the force of the explosion could be increased.
US Secretary of War Henry Stimson struck Kyoto off the list due to the city's cultural significance. According to Professor Edwin O. Reischauer, Stimson "knew and appreciated Kyoto from his honeymoon there decades ago."
Hiroshima and Nagasaki on the map of Japan
On July 16, the world's first successful test of an atomic weapon was carried out at a test site in New Mexico. The power of the explosion was about 21 kilotons of TNT.
On July 24, during the Potsdam Conference, US President Harry Truman informed Stalin that the United States had a new weapon of unprecedented destructive power. Truman did not specify that he was referring specifically to atomic weapons. According to Truman's memoirs, Stalin showed little interest, remarking only that he was glad and hoped that the US could use him effectively against the Japanese. Churchill, who carefully observed Stalin's reaction, remained of the opinion that Stalin did not understand the true meaning of Truman's words and did not pay attention to him. At the same time, according to Zhukov's memoirs, Stalin perfectly understood everything, but did not show it and, in a conversation with Molotov after the meeting, noted that "It will be necessary to talk with Kurchatov about speeding up our work." After the declassification of the operation of the American intelligence services "Venona", it became known that Soviet agents had long been reporting on the development of nuclear weapons. According to some reports, agent Theodor Hall, a few days before the Potsdam conference, even announced the planned date for the first nuclear test. This may explain why Stalin took Truman's message calmly. Hall had been working for Soviet intelligence since 1944.
On July 25, Truman approved the order, beginning August 3, to bomb one of the following targets: Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, or Nagasaki, as soon as the weather allowed, and in the future, the following cities, as bombs arrived.
On July 26, the governments of the United States, Britain, and China signed the Potsdam Declaration, which set out the demand for Japan's unconditional surrender. The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the declaration.
The next day, Japanese newspapers reported that the declaration, which had been broadcast over the radio and scattered in leaflets from airplanes, had been rejected. The Japanese government has not expressed a desire to accept the ultimatum. On July 28, Prime Minister Kantaro Suzuki stated at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was nothing more than the old arguments of the Cairo Declaration in a new wrapper, and demanded that the government ignore it.
Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet response to the evasive diplomatic moves of the Japanese, did not change the decision of the government. On July 31, in a conversation with Koichi Kido, he made it clear that the imperial power must be protected at all costs.
Preparing for the bombing
During May-June 1945, the American 509th Combined Aviation Group arrived on Tinian Island. The group's base area on the island was a few miles from the rest of the units and was carefully guarded.
On July 28, the Chief of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, George Marshall, signed the order for the combat use of nuclear weapons. The order, drafted by Major General Leslie Groves, head of the Manhattan Project, called for a nuclear attack "on any day after August 3rd, as soon as the weather permits." On July 29, US Strategic Air Command General Karl Spaats arrived on Tinian, delivering Marshall's order to the island.
On July 28 and August 2, components of the Fat Man atomic bomb were brought to Tinian by aircraft.
Bombing of Hiroshima on August 6, 1945 Hiroshima during World War II
Hiroshima was located on a flat area, slightly above sea level at the mouth of the Ota River, on 6 islands connected by 81 bridges. The population of the city before the war was over 340 thousand people, which made Hiroshima the seventh largest city in Japan. The city was the headquarters of the Fifth Division and the Second Main Army of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata, who commanded the defense of all of Southern Japan. Hiroshima was an important supply base for the Japanese army.
In Hiroshima (as well as in Nagasaki), most buildings were one- and two-story wooden buildings with tiled roofs. Factories were located on the outskirts of the city. Outdated fire equipment and insufficient training of personnel created a high fire hazard even in peacetime.
The population of Hiroshima peaked at 380,000 during the course of the war, but before the bombing, the population gradually decreased due to systematic evacuations ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was about 245 thousand people.
Bombardment
The main target of the first American nuclear bombing was Hiroshima (Kokura and Nagasaki were spares). Although Truman's order called for the atomic bombing to begin on August 3, cloud cover over the target prevented this until August 6.
On August 6, at 1:45 am, an American B-29 bomber under the command of the commander of the 509th mixed aviation regiment, Colonel Paul Tibbets, carrying the atomic bomb "Baby" on board, took off from Tinian Island, which was about 6 hours from Hiroshima. Tibbets' aircraft ("Enola Gay") flew as part of a formation that included six other aircraft: a spare aircraft ("Top Secret"), two controllers and three reconnaissance aircraft ("Jebit III", "Full House" and "Street Flash"). Reconnaissance aircraft commanders sent to Nagasaki and Kokura reported significant cloud cover over these cities. The pilot of the third reconnaissance aircraft, Major Iserli, found out that the sky over Hiroshima was clear and sent a signal "Bomb the first target."
Around 7 a.m., a network of Japanese early warning radars detected the approach of several American aircraft heading towards southern Japan. An air raid alert was issued and radio broadcasts stopped in many cities, including Hiroshima. At about 08:00 a radar operator in Hiroshima determined that the number of incoming aircraft was very small—perhaps no more than three—and the air raid alert was called off. In order to save fuel and aircraft, the Japanese did not intercept small groups of American bombers. The standard message was broadcast over the radio that it would be wise to go to the bomb shelters if the B-29s were actually seen, and that it was not a raid that was expected, but just some kind of reconnaissance.
At 08:15 local time, the B-29, being at an altitude of over 9 km, dropped an atomic bomb on the center of Hiroshima.
The first public announcement of the event came from Washington, sixteen hours after the atomic attack on the Japanese city.
The shadow of a man who was sitting on the steps of the stairs in front of the bank entrance at the time of the explosion, 250 meters from the epicenter
explosion effect
Those closest to the epicenter of the explosion died instantly, their bodies turned to coal. Birds flying past burned up in the air, and dry, flammable materials such as paper ignited up to 2 km from the epicenter. Light radiation burned the dark pattern of clothes into the skin and left the silhouettes of human bodies on the walls. People outside the houses described a blinding flash of light, which simultaneously came with a wave of suffocating heat. The blast wave, for all who were near the epicenter, followed almost immediately, often knocking down. Those in the buildings tended to avoid exposure to the light from the explosion, but not the blast—glass shards hit most rooms, and all but the strongest buildings collapsed. One teenager was blasted out of his house across the street as the house collapsed behind him. Within a few minutes, 90% of people who were at a distance of 800 meters or less from the epicenter died.
The blast wave shattered glass at a distance of up to 19 km. For those in the buildings, the typical first reaction was the thought of a direct hit from an aerial bomb.
Numerous small fires that simultaneously broke out in the city soon merged into one large fire tornado, which created a strong wind (speed of 50-60 km/h) directed towards the epicenter. The fiery tornado captured over 11 km² of the city, killing everyone who did not have time to get out within the first few minutes after the explosion.
According to the memoirs of Akiko Takakura, one of the few survivors who were at the time of the explosion at a distance of 300 m from the epicenter,
Three colors characterize for me the day the atomic bomb was dropped on Hiroshima: black, red and brown. Black because the explosion cut off the sunlight and plunged the world into darkness. Red was the color of blood flowing from wounded and broken people. It was also the color of the fires that burned everything in the city. Brown was the color of burnt, peeling skin exposed to light from the explosion.
A few days after the explosion, among the survivors, doctors began to notice the first symptoms of exposure. Soon, the number of deaths among survivors began to rise again as patients who appeared to be recovering began to suffer from this strange new disease. Deaths from radiation sickness peaked 3-4 weeks after the explosion and began to decline only after 7-8 weeks. Japanese doctors considered vomiting and diarrhea characteristic of radiation sickness to be symptoms of dysentery. The long-term health effects associated with exposure, such as an increased risk of cancer, haunted the survivors for the rest of their lives, as did the psychological shock of the explosion.
The first person in the world whose cause of death was officially indicated as a disease caused by the consequences of a nuclear explosion (radiation poisoning) was the actress Midori Naka, who survived the Hiroshima explosion, but died on August 24, 1945. Journalist Robert Jung believes that it was Midori's disease and its popularity among ordinary people allowed people to know the truth about the emerging "new disease". Until the death of Midori, no one attached importance to the mysterious deaths of people who survived the moment of the explosion and died under circumstances unknown to science at the time. Jung believes that Midori's death was the impetus for accelerated research in nuclear physics and medicine, which soon managed to save the lives of many people from radiation exposure.
Japanese awareness of the consequences of the attack
The Tokyo operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station stopped broadcasting the signal. He tried to re-establish the broadcast using a different phone line, but that also failed. About twenty minutes later, the Tokyo Rail Telegraph Control Center realized that the main telegraph line had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From a halt 16 km from Hiroshima, unofficial and confusing reports of a terrible explosion came. All these messages were forwarded to the headquarters of the Japanese General Staff.
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Hiroshima Command and Control Center. The complete silence from there baffled the General Staff, since they knew that there was no major enemy raid in Hiroshima and there was no significant explosives depot. The young staff officer was instructed to immediately fly to Hiroshima, land, assess the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information. The headquarters basically believed that nothing serious happened there, and the reports were explained by rumors.
The officer from the headquarters went to the airport, from where he flew to the southwest. After a three-hour flight, while still 160 km from Hiroshima, he and his pilot noticed a large cloud of smoke from the bomb. It was a bright day and the ruins of Hiroshima were burning. Their plane soon reached the city around which they circled in disbelief. From the city there was only a zone of continuous destruction, still burning and covered with a thick cloud of smoke. They landed south of the city, and the officer reported the incident to Tokyo and immediately began organizing rescue efforts.
The first real understanding by the Japanese of what really caused the disaster came from a public announcement from Washington, sixteen hours after the atomic attack on Hiroshima.
Hiroshima after the atomic explosion
Loss and destruction
The number of deaths from the direct impact of the explosion ranged from 70 to 80 thousand people. By the end of 1945, due to the action of radioactive contamination and other post-effects of the explosion, the total number of deaths was from 90 to 166 thousand people. After 5 years, the total death toll, taking into account deaths from cancer and other long-term effects of the explosion, could reach or even exceed 200 thousand people.
According to official Japanese data as of March 31, 2013, there were 201,779 "hibakusha" alive - people affected by the effects of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. This number includes children born to women exposed to radiation from the explosions (predominantly living in Japan at the time of count). Of these, 1%, according to the Japanese government, had serious cancers caused by radiation exposure after the bombings. The number of deaths as of August 31, 2013 is about 450 thousand: 286,818 in Hiroshima and 162,083 in Nagasaki.
Nuclear pollution
The concept of "radioactive contamination" did not yet exist in those years, and therefore this issue was not even raised then. People continued to live and rebuild the destroyed buildings in the same place where they were before. Even the high mortality of the population in subsequent years, as well as illnesses and genetic abnormalities in children born after the bombings, were not initially associated with exposure to radiation. The evacuation of the population from the contaminated areas was not carried out, since no one knew about the very presence of radioactive contamination.
It is rather difficult to give an accurate assessment of the extent of this contamination due to lack of information, however, since technically the first atomic bombs were relatively low-yield and imperfect (the "Kid" bomb, for example, contained 64 kg of uranium, of which only approximately 700 g reacted division), the level of pollution of the area could not be significant, although it posed a serious danger to the population. For comparison: at the time of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, several tons of fission products and transuranium elements, various radioactive isotopes accumulated during the operation of the reactor, were in the reactor core.
Comparative preservation of some buildings
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima were very stable (due to the risk of earthquakes) and their framework did not collapse despite being quite close to the center of destruction in the city (the epicenter of the explosion). Thus stood the brick building of the Hiroshima Chamber of Industry (now commonly known as the "Genbaku Dome", or "Atomic Dome"), designed and built by Czech architect Jan Letzel, which was only 160 meters from the epicenter of the explosion (at the height of the bomb detonation 600 m above the surface). The ruins became the most famous exhibit of the Hiroshima atomic explosion and were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996, over objections raised by the US and Chinese governments.
On August 6, after receiving news of the successful atomic bombing of Hiroshima, US President Truman announced that
We are now ready to destroy, even faster and more completely than before, all Japanese land-based production facilities in any city. We will destroy their docks, their factories and their communications. Let there be no misunderstanding - we will completely destroy Japan's ability to wage war.
It was to prevent the destruction of Japan that an ultimatum was issued on July 26 in Potsdam. Their leadership immediately rejected his terms. If they do not accept our terms now, let them expect a rain of destruction from the air, the likes of which have not yet been seen on this planet.
Upon receiving news of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, the Japanese government met to discuss their response. Beginning in June, the emperor advocated peace negotiations, but the minister of defense, as well as the leadership of the army and navy, believed that Japan should wait to see if attempts at peace negotiations through the Soviet Union would yield better results than unconditional surrender. The military leadership also believed that if they could hold out until the invasion of the Japanese islands began, it would be possible to inflict such losses on the Allied forces that Japan could win peace conditions other than unconditional surrender.
On August 9, the USSR declared war on Japan and Soviet troops launched an invasion of Manchuria. Hopes for the mediation of the USSR in the negotiations collapsed. The top leadership of the Japanese army began preparations for declaring martial law in order to prevent any attempts at peace negotiations.
The second atomic bombing (Kokura) was scheduled for 11 August, but was pushed back 2 days to avoid a five-day period of bad weather that was forecast to begin on 10 August.
Bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945 Nagasaki during World War II
Nagasaki in 1945 was located in two valleys, through which two rivers flowed. The mountain range divided the districts of the city.
The development was chaotic: out of the total city area of 90 km², 12 were built up with residential quarters.
During the Second World War, the city, which was a major seaport, also acquired special significance as an industrial center, in which steel production and the Mitsubishi shipyard, Mitsubishi-Urakami torpedo production were concentrated. Guns, ships and other military equipment were made in the city.
Nagasaki was not subjected to large-scale bombing until the explosion of the atomic bomb, but as early as August 1, 1945, several high-explosive bombs were dropped on the city, damaging shipyards and docks in the southwestern part of the city. Bombs also hit the Mitsubishi steel and gun factories. The August 1 raid resulted in a partial evacuation of the population, especially schoolchildren. However, at the time of the bombing, the city's population was still around 200,000.
Nagasaki before and after the atomic explosion
Bombardment
The main target of the second American nuclear bombing was Kokura, the spare was Nagasaki.
At 2:47 a.m. on August 9, an American B-29 bomber under the command of Major Charles Sweeney, carrying the Fat Man atomic bomb, took off from Tinian Island.
Unlike the first bombardment, the second was fraught with numerous technical problems. Even before takeoff, a fuel pump malfunction was discovered in one of the spare fuel tanks. Despite this, the crew decided to conduct the flight as planned.
At approximately 7:50 am, an air raid alert was issued in Nagasaki, which was canceled at 8:30 am.
At 08:10, after reaching a rendezvous point with other B-29s participating in the sortie, one of them was found missing. For 40 minutes, Sweeney's B-29 circled around the rendezvous point, but did not wait for the missing aircraft to appear. At the same time, reconnaissance aircraft reported that the cloudiness over Kokura and Nagasaki, although present, still allows for bombing under visual control.
At 08:50, B-29, carrying the atomic bomb, headed for Kokura, where it arrived at 09:20. By this time, however, 70% cloud cover was already observed over the city, which did not allow visual bombing. After three unsuccessful visits to the target, at 10:32 B-29 headed for Nagasaki. By this point, due to a fuel pump failure, there was only enough fuel for one pass over Nagasaki.
At 10:53, two B-29s came into the air defense field of view, the Japanese mistook them for reconnaissance and did not announce a new alarm.
At 10:56 B-29 arrived at Nagasaki, which, as it turned out, was also obscured by clouds. Sweeney reluctantly approved a much less accurate radar approach. At the last moment, however, bombardier-gunner Captain Kermit Behan (Eng.) in the gap between the clouds noticed the silhouette of the city stadium, focusing on which, he dropped the atomic bomb.
The explosion occurred at 11:02 local time at an altitude of about 500 meters. The power of the explosion was about 21 kilotons.
explosion effect
Japanese boy whose upper body was not covered during the explosion
A hastily aimed bomb exploded almost midway between the two main targets in Nagasaki, the Mitsubishi steel and gun factories to the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami torpedo factory to the north. If the bomb had been dropped further south, between the business and residential areas, the damage would have been much greater.
In general, although the power of the atomic explosion in Nagasaki was greater than in Hiroshima, the destructive effect of the explosion was less. This was facilitated by a combination of factors - the presence of hills in Nagasaki, as well as the fact that the epicenter of the explosion was over the industrial zone - all this helped to protect some areas of the city from the consequences of the explosion.
From the memoirs of Sumiteru Taniguchi, who was 16 years old at the time of the explosion:
I was knocked to the ground (from my bike) and the ground shook for a while. I clung to her so as not to be carried away by the blast wave. When I looked up, the house I had just passed was destroyed... I also saw the child being blown away by the blast. Large rocks were flying in the air, one hit me and then flew up into the sky again...
When everything seemed to calm down, I tried to get up and found that on my left arm the skin, from the shoulder to the fingertips, was hanging like tattered tatters.
Loss and destruction
The atomic explosion over Nagasaki affected an area of approximately 110 km², of which 22 were on the water surface and 84 were only partially inhabited.
According to a Nagasaki Prefecture report, "humans and animals died almost instantly" up to 1 km from the epicenter. Nearly all houses within a 2 km radius were destroyed, and dry, combustible materials such as paper ignited up to 3 km away from the epicenter. Of the 52,000 buildings in Nagasaki, 14,000 were destroyed and another 5,400 were severely damaged. Only 12% of the buildings remained intact. Although there was no fire tornado in the city, numerous localized fires were observed.
The death toll by the end of 1945 ranged from 60 to 80 thousand people. After 5 years, the total death toll, taking into account those who died from cancer and other long-term effects of the explosion, could reach or even exceed 140 thousand people.
Plans for subsequent atomic bombings of Japan
The US government expected another atomic bomb to be ready for use in mid-August, and three more each in September and October. On August 10, Leslie Groves, military director of the Manhattan Project, sent a memorandum to George Marshall, Chief of Staff of the US Army, in which he wrote that "the next bomb ... should be ready for use after August 17-18." On the same day, Marshall signed a memorandum with the comment that "it should not be used against Japan until the express approval of the President is obtained." At the same time, discussions have already begun in the US Department of Defense on the advisability of postponing the use of bombs until the start of Operation Downfall, the expected invasion of the Japanese islands.
The problem we are facing now is whether, assuming the Japanese do not capitulate, we should continue to drop bombs as they are produced, or accumulate them in order to then drop everything in a short period of time. Not all in one day, but within a fairly short time. This is also related to the question of what goals we are pursuing. In other words, shouldn't we focus on the targets that will help the invasion the most, and not on industry, troop morale, psychology, and so on? Mostly tactical goals, and not some others.
Japanese surrender and subsequent occupation
Up until August 9, the war cabinet continued to insist on 4 terms of surrender. On August 9, news came of the declaration of war by the Soviet Union late in the evening of August 8, and of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki at 11 o'clock in the afternoon. At the meeting of the "big six", held on the night of August 10, the votes on the issue of surrender were divided equally (3 "for", 3 "against"), after which the emperor intervened in the discussion, speaking in favor of surrender. On August 10, 1945, Japan handed over to the Allies an offer of surrender, the only condition of which was that the Emperor be retained as a nominal head of state.
Since the terms of the surrender allowed for the continuation of imperial power in Japan, on August 14, Hirohito recorded his surrender statement, which was circulated by the Japanese media the next day, despite an attempted military coup by opponents of the surrender.
In his announcement, Hirohito mentioned the atomic bombings:
... in addition, the enemy has a terrible new weapon that can take many innocent lives and cause immeasurable material damage. If we continue to fight, it will not only lead to the collapse and annihilation of the Japanese nation, but also to the complete disappearance of human civilization.
In such a situation, how can we save millions of our subjects or justify ourselves before the sacred spirit of our ancestors? For this reason we have ordered the acceptance of the terms of the joint declaration of our adversaries.
Within a year of the end of the bombing, 40,000 American troops were stationed in Hiroshima and 27,000 in Nagasaki.
Commission for the Study of the Consequences of Atomic Explosions
In the spring of 1948, the National Academy of Sciences Commission on the Effects of Atomic Explosions was formed at Truman's direction to study the long-term effects of radiation exposure on survivors of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Among the victims of the bombing, many uninvolved people were found, including prisoners of war, forced conscription of Koreans and Chinese, students from British Malaya, and about 3,200 Japanese Americans.
In 1975, the Commission was dissolved, its functions were transferred to the newly created Institute for the Study of the Effects of Radiation Exposure (English Radiation Effects Research Foundation).
Debate on the expediency of atomic bombings
The role of the atomic bombings in the surrender of Japan and their ethical validity are still the subject of scientific and public discussion. In a 2005 review of historiography on the subject, the American historian Samuel Walker wrote that "the debate about the appropriateness of the bombing will definitely continue." Walker also noted that "the fundamental question that has been debated for more than 40 years is whether these atomic bombings were necessary to achieve victory in the Pacific War on terms acceptable to the United States."
Proponents of the bombings usually claim that they were the cause of Japan's surrender, and therefore prevented significant losses on both sides (both the US and Japan) in the planned invasion of Japan; that the quick end of the war saved many lives elsewhere in Asia (primarily in China); that Japan was waging an all-out war in which the distinctions between the military and the civilian population are blurred; and that the Japanese leadership refused to capitulate, and the bombing helped to shift the balance of opinion within the government towards peace. Opponents of the bombings contend that they were simply an addition to an already ongoing conventional bombing campaign and thus had no military necessity, that they were fundamentally immoral, a war crime, or a manifestation of state terrorism (despite the fact that in 1945 there was no there were international agreements or treaties directly or indirectly prohibiting the use of nuclear weapons as a means of warfare).
A number of researchers express the opinion that the main purpose of the atomic bombings was to influence the USSR before it entered the war with Japan in the Far East and to demonstrate the atomic power of the United States.
Impact on culture
In the 1950s, the story of a Japanese girl from Hiroshima, Sadako Sasaki, who died in 1955 from the effects of radiation (leukemia), became widely known. Already in the hospital, Sadako learned about the legend, according to which a person who folded a thousand paper cranes can make a wish that will surely come true. Wishing to recover, Sadako began to fold cranes from any pieces of paper that fell into her hands. According to the book Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes by Canadian children's writer Eleanor Coer, Sadako only managed to fold 644 cranes before she died in October 1955. Her friends finished the rest of the figurines. According to Sadako's 4,675 Days of Life, Sadako folded a thousand cranes and continued to fold, but later died. Several books have been written based on her story.
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The atomic bombings by the Americans of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, from which a total of 214 thousand people died, were the only cases in history of the use of nuclear weapons.
Let's see what those places look like then and now.
In August 1945, American pilots dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. From the atomic explosion and its consequences in Hiroshima, out of a population of 350,000, 140,000 people died, in Nagasaki - 74,000. The vast majority of the victims of the atomic bombing were civilians.
International analysts believe that the United States is unlikely to apologize to Japan for the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
2. Mushroom from the explosion of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. (Photo by Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum):
3. Hiroshima in October 1945 and the same place on July 28, 2015. (Photo by Shigeo Hayash | Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
4. Hiroshima on August 20, 1945 and the same place on July 28, 2015. (Photo by Masami Oki | Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
5. Hiroshima in October-November 1945 and the same place on July 29, 2015. By the way, this place is located 860 meters from the center of the nuclear bomb explosion. (Photo by US Army | Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
6. Hiroshima in October 1945 and the same place on July 28, 2015. (Photo by Shigeo Hayash | Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
7. Hiroshima in 1945 and the same place on July 29, 2015. (Photo by US Army | Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
8. Nagasaki August 9, 1945 and July 31, 2015. (Photo by Torahiko Ogawa | Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
9. Nagasaki in 1945 and the same place on July 31, 2015. (Photo by Shigeo Hayashi | Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, Issei Kato | Retuers):
10. Nagasaki in 1945 and the same place on July 31, 2015. (Photo by Shigeo Hayashi | Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, Issei Kato | Retuers):
11. Nagasaki Cathedral in 1945 and July 31, 2015. (Photo by Hisashi Ishida | Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, Issei Kato | Reuters):
12. Commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima, August 6, 2015. (Photo by Toru Hanai | Reuters):
13. Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. This is a park located on the territory of the former Nakajima district, completely destroyed as a result of the atomic bombing of the Japanese city of Hiroshima in 1945. On the territory of 12.2 hectares there is the Peace Memorial Museum, many monuments, a ritual bell and a cenotaph. (Photo by Kazuhiro Nogi):
14. Commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the bombing of Hiroshima, August 6, 2015. (Photo by Kimimiasa Mayama):
16. Peace Memorial Park in Nagasaki, built in memory of the atomic bombing of the city on August 9, 1945. (Photo by Toru Hanai | Reuters):
“The United States used atomic weapons against Hiroshima and Nagasaki, not to force Japan to surrender, but to prevent the geopolitical advantage of the Soviet Union after the end of the war in Asia.
The only combat use of nuclear weapons in the world was the bombing of the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. At the same time, it should be noted that the unfortunate cities turned out to be victims in many respects, thanks to the tragic circumstances.
Who will we bomb?
In May 1945, US President Harry Truman was given a list of several Japanese cities that were supposed to be hit by a nuclear attack. Four cities were chosen as the main targets. Kyoto as the main center of Japanese industry. Hiroshima, as the largest military port with ammunition depots. Yokohama was chosen due to the defense factories located on its territory. Niigata became a target because of its military port, and Kokura was on the "hit list" as the country's largest military arsenal. Note that Nagasaki was not originally on this list. In the opinion of the US military, the nuclear bombing was supposed to have not so much a military effect as a psychological one. After it, the Japanese government had to abandon further military struggle.
Kyoto was saved by a miracle
From the very beginning, Kyoto was supposed to be the main target. The choice fell on this city not only because of its huge industrial potential. It was here that the color of the Japanese scientific, technical and cultural intelligentsia was concentrated. If a nuclear attack on this city really took place, Japan would be thrown far back in terms of civilization. However, this is exactly what the Americans needed. The unfortunate Hiroshima was chosen as the second city. The Americans cynically considered that the hills surrounding the city would increase the force of the explosion, significantly increasing the number of victims. The most surprising thing is that Kyoto escaped a terrible fate thanks to the sentimentality of US Secretary of War Henry Stimson. In his youth, a high-ranking military man spent his honeymoon in the city. He not only knew and appreciated the beauty and culture of Kyoto, but also did not want to spoil the bright memories of his youth. Stimson did not hesitate to cross Kyoto off the list of cities proposed for nuclear bombing. Subsequently, General Leslie Groves, who led the US nuclear weapons program, in his book “Now You Can Tell It,” recalled that he insisted on the bombing of Kyoto, but he was persuaded, emphasizing the historical and cultural significance of the city. Groves was very dissatisfied, but nevertheless agreed to replace Kyoto with Nagasaki.
What is wrong with Christians?
At the same time, if we analyze the choice of Hiroshima and Nagasaki as targets for nuclear bombing, then many uncomfortable questions arise. The Americans knew very well that the main religion of Japan is Shinto. The number of Christians in this country is extremely small. At the same time, Hiroshima and Nagasaki were considered Christian cities. It turns out that the US military deliberately chose cities inhabited by Christians for bombing? The first B-29 "Great Artist" aircraft had two purposes: the city of Kokura as the main one, and Nagasaki as a spare. However, when the plane with great difficulty reached the territory of Japan, Kukura was hidden by thick clouds of smoke from the burning Yawata metallurgical plant. They decided to bomb Nagasaki. The bomb fell on the city on August 9, 1945 at 11:02 am. In the blink of an eye, an explosion with a capacity of 21 kilotons destroyed several tens of thousands of people. He was not even saved by the fact that in the vicinity of Nagasaki there was a camp for prisoners of war of the allied armies of the anti-Hitler coalition. Moreover, in the United States, its location was well known. During the bombing of Hiroshima, a nuclear bomb was even dropped over the Urakamitenshudo Church, the largest Christian temple in the country. The explosion killed 160,000 people.
I suggest you watch the harsh footage from the time of the explosions of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The pictures that you will see in the sequel are really not for the faint of heart and show the whole reality that happened during those unpleasant times.
Nagasaki. The photo was taken on August 10, in the area of the Mitsubishi steel plant. This is about 1 kilometer south of the epicenter of the explosion. The elderly woman appears to have lost her bearings and her sight. Also, her appearance also suggests the loss of any sense of reality.
Nagasaki. 10 a.m. August 10. Last sip. People died quickly after receiving mortal wounds
Hiroshima. Still a living person with deep burns all over his body. There were hundreds of them. They lay motionless in the streets and waited for their death.
Hiroshima. One second after death
Hiroshima
Nagasaki. An elderly woman received an average dose of radiation, but enough to kill her in a week.
Nagasaki. An exposed woman with a baby is waiting for a doctor's appointment.
Hiroshima. An attempt to cure the legs of a schoolboy. It will not be possible to save the legs, as well as the life of a schoolboy.
Nagasaki. The child is put on a gauze bandage. Part of the child's tissue was burned. Burns of the bones of the hands of the left hand
Nagasaki. Doctors treat the skull burn of an elderly Japanese man
Nagasaki. 230 meters south of the epicenter.
Hiroshima. Mother and her child.
Exhumation of graves in Hiroshima. When the explosion occurred, there were so many victims that they were buried quickly and in mass graves. Later they decided to re-burial.
Nagasaki - 600 meters south of the epicenter
Nagasaki. Shadow.
Hiroshima. 2.3 km. from the epicenter. The concrete parapet of the bridge collapsed.
Hiroshima - wounds 900 meters from the epicenter
Hiroshima. A 21-year-old soldier was exposed to an explosion at a distance of 1 kilometer. Doctors monitored his condition because they were unfamiliar with the effects of radiation. Starting August 18, they note that their hair has begun to fall out. Gradually other symptoms appeared. His gums are bleeding and his body is covered in purple spots due to hypodermal bleeding. His throat swells, which makes it difficult for him to breathe and swallow. Bleeding from the mouth and ulcers of the body. He eventually collapses and dies on 2 September.
Hiroshima. Leg burns
The epicenter of the explosion in Hiroshima
Hiroshima
Hiroshima. The city center has been wiped off the face of the earth. Only a few buildings survived.
Hiroshima. light shadow...on the ground"
70 years of tragedy
Hiroshima and Nagasaki
70 years ago, on August 6 and 9, 1945, the United States atomic bombed the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The total number of victims of the tragedy is over 450 thousand people, and the survivors still suffer from diseases caused by radiation exposure. According to the latest data, their number is 183,519 people.
Initially, the US had the idea of dropping 9 atomic bombs on rice fields or at sea in order to achieve a psychological effect in support of the landing operations planned on the Japanese islands at the end of September 1945. But in the end, the decision was made to use new weapons against densely populated cities.
Now the cities have been rebuilt, but their inhabitants still bear the burden of that terrible tragedy. The history of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the memories of the survivors are in a special TASS project.
Hiroshima bombing © AP Photo/USAF
Ideal Target
It was no coincidence that Hiroshima was chosen as the target for the first nuclear strike. This city met all the criteria to achieve the maximum number of victims and destruction: a flat location surrounded by hills, low buildings and flammable wooden buildings.
The city was completely wiped off the face of the earth. Surviving eyewitnesses recalled that they first saw a flash of bright light, followed by a wave that burned everything around. In the area of the epicenter of the explosion, everything instantly turned into ashes, and human silhouettes remained on the walls of the surviving houses. Immediately, according to various estimates, from 70 to 100 thousand people died. Tens of thousands more died from the effects of the explosion, bringing the total number of casualties as of August 6, 2014 to 292,325.
Immediately after the bombing, the city did not have enough water not only to extinguish fires, but also to people who were dying of thirst. Therefore, even now the inhabitants of Hiroshima are very careful about water. And during the commemorative ceremony, a special rite "Kensui" (from Japanese - the presentation of water) is performed - it reminds of the fires that engulfed the city and the victims who asked for water. It is believed that even after death, the souls of the dead need water to alleviate suffering.Director of the Hiroshima Peace Museum with his late father's watch and buckle © EPA/EVERETT KENNEDY BROWN
The hands of the clock have stopped
The hands of almost all clocks in Hiroshima stopped at the moment of the explosion at 08:15 in the morning. Some of them are collected in the World Museum as exhibits.
The museum was opened 60 years ago. Its building consists of two buildings designed by the outstanding Japanese architect Kenzo Tange. One of them houses an exposition about the atomic bombing, where visitors can see the personal belongings of the victims, photographs, various material evidence of what happened in Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. Audio and video materials are also shown there.
Not far from the museum is the "Atomic Dome" - the former building of the Exhibition Center of the Hiroshima Chamber of Commerce and Industry, built in 1915 by Czech architect Jan Letzel. This building was miraculously preserved after the atomic bombing, although it stood only 160 meters from the epicenter of the explosion, which is marked by a conventional memorial plaque in an alley near the dome. All the people inside the building died, and its copper dome instantly melted, leaving a bare frame. After the end of World War II, the Japanese authorities decided to keep the building in memory of the victims of the bombing of Hiroshima. Now it is one of the main attractions of the city, reminiscent of the tragic moments of its history.
Statue of Sadako Sasaki at Hiroshima Peace Park © Lisa Norwood/wikipedia.org
paper cranes
The trees near the Atomic Dome are often decorated with colorful paper cranes. They have become an international symbol of peace. People from different countries constantly bring figurines of birds made by their own hands to Hiroshima as a sign of mourning for the terrible events of the past and in tribute to the memory of Sadako Sasaki, a girl who survived the atomic bombing in Hiroshima at the age of 2. At the age of 11, signs of radiation sickness were found in her, and the girl's health began to deteriorate sharply. Once she heard a legend that whoever folds a thousand paper cranes will surely recover from any illness. She continued to stack figurines until her death on October 25, 1955. In 1958, a statue of Sadako holding a crane was erected in the Peace Park.
In 1949, a special law was passed, thanks to which large funds were provided for the restoration of Hiroshima. The Peace Park was built and a fund was established in which materials on the atomic bombing are stored. Industry in the city was able to recover after the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 thanks to the production of weapons for the US Army.
Now Hiroshima is a modern city with a population of approximately 1.2 million people. It is the largest in the Chugoku region.
Zero point of the atomic explosion in Nagasaki. Photo taken in December 1946 © AP Photo
Zero mark
Nagasaki was the second Japanese city after Hiroshima to be bombed by the Americans in August 1945. The initial target of the B-29 bomber under the command of Major Charles Sweeney was the city of Kokura, located in the north of Kyushu. By coincidence, on the morning of August 9, heavy cloud cover was observed over Kokura, in connection with which Sweeney decided to turn the plane to the southwest and head to Nagasaki, which was considered as a backup option. Here, too, the Americans were plagued by bad weather, but the plutonium bomb called "Fat Man" was eventually dropped. It was almost twice as powerful as the one used in Hiroshima, but inaccurate aiming and local terrain somewhat reduced the damage from the explosion. Nevertheless, the consequences of the bombing were catastrophic: at the time of the explosion, at 11.02 local time, 70 thousand inhabitants of Nagasaki were killed, and the city was practically wiped off the face of the Earth.
In subsequent years, the list of victims of the disaster continued to grow at the expense of those who died from radiation sickness. This number increases every year, and the numbers are updated every year on August 9th. According to data released in 2014, the number of victims of the Nagasaki bombing increased to 165,409 people.
Years later, in Nagasaki, as in Hiroshima, a museum of atomic bombings was opened. Last July, his collection was replenished with 26 new photographs, which were taken a year and four months after the US dropped two atomic bombs on Japanese cities. The pictures themselves were recently discovered. On them, in particular, the so-called zero mark is imprinted - the place of the direct explosion of the atomic bomb in Nagasaki. The captions on the back of the photographs show that the photographs were taken in December 1946 by American scientists who were visiting the city at the time to study the consequences of a terrible atomic strike. "The photographs are of particular value, as they clearly demonstrate the full extent of the destruction, and, at the same time, make it clear what work has been done to restore the city almost from scratch," the Nagasaki administration believes.
One of the photos shows a strange arrow-shaped monument set up in the middle of the field, the inscription on which reads: "Zero mark of the atomic explosion." Local experts are at a loss as to who installed the almost 5-meter monument and where it is now. It is noteworthy that it is located exactly in the place where the official monument to the victims of the 1945 atomic bombing now stands.
Hiroshima Peace Museum © AP Photo/Itsuo Inouye
White spots of history
The atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki has become the object of careful study by many historians, but 70 years after the tragedy, there are many blank spots in this story. There is some evidence from individuals who believe that they were born "in the shirt" because, they claim, weeks before the atomic bombing, there was information about a possible lethal strike on these Japanese cities. So, one of these people claims that he studied at a school for children of high-ranking military personnel. According to him, a few weeks before the impact, the entire staff of the educational institution and its students were evacuated from Hiroshima, which saved their lives.
There are also completely conspiracy theories, according to which, on the verge of the end of World War II, Japanese scientists, not without the help of colleagues from Germany, approached the creation of an atomic bomb. A weapon of terrible destructive power allegedly could appear in the imperial army, whose command was going to fight to the end and constantly hurried nuclear scientists. The media claims that records have recently been found containing calculations and descriptions of equipment for enriching uranium with a view to subsequent use in the creation of the Japanese atomic bomb. The scientists received the order to complete the program on August 14, 1945, and apparently were ready to complete it, but did not have time. The American atomic bombings of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the entry into the war of the Soviet Union did not leave Japan a single chance to continue hostilities.
No more war
Survivors of the bombings in Japan are called by the special word "hibakusha" ("person affected by the bombing").
In the first years after the tragedy, many hibakusha hid that they had survived the bombing and received a high proportion of radiation because they were afraid of discrimination. Then they were not provided with material assistance and were denied treatment. It took 12 years before the Japanese government passed a law according to which the treatment of victims of the bombing became free.
Some of the hibakusha devoted their lives to educational work, aimed at ensuring that the terrible tragedy would not happen again.
"About 30 years ago, I accidentally saw my friend on TV, he was among the marchers for the prohibition of nuclear weapons. This prompted me to join this movement. Since then, recalling my experience, I explain that atomic weapons are this is an inhuman weapon. It is completely indiscriminate, unlike conventional weapons. I have devoted my life to explaining the need for a ban on atomic weapons to those who know nothing about atomic bombings, especially young people," Hibakusha Michimasa Hirata wrote on one of the sites, dedicated to preserving the memory of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
Many Hiroshima residents whose families were affected in one way or another by the atomic bombing are trying to help others learn more about what happened on August 6, 1945, and to get the message across about the dangers of nuclear weapons and war. Near the Peace Park and the Atomic Dome memorial, you can meet people who are ready to talk about the tragic events.
"August 6, 1945 is a special day for me, this is my second birthday. When the atomic bomb was dropped on us, I was only 9 years old. I was in my house about two kilometers from the epicenter of the explosion in Hiroshima. A sudden brilliant flash struck over my head. She fundamentally changed Hiroshima ... This scene, which then developed, defies description. It is a living hell on earth, "Mitimasa Hirata shares her memories.
Bombing of Hiroshima © EPA/A PEACE MEMORIAL MUSEUM
"The city was enveloped in huge fiery whirlwinds"
“70 years ago I was three years old. On August 6, my father was at work 1 km from the place where the atomic bomb was dropped,” said one of the hibakusha Hiroshi Shimizu. “At the time of the explosion, he was thrown back by a huge shock wave. immediately felt that numerous pieces of glass were pierced into his face, and his body began to bleed. The building where he worked immediately broke out. Everyone who could run out to the nearby pond. Father spent about three hours there. At this time, the city was enveloped in huge fiery whirlwinds.
He was only able to find us the next day. Two months later he died. By that time, his stomach had completely turned black. Within a radius of one kilometer from the explosion, the radiation level was 7 sieverts. Such a dose is capable of destroying the cells of internal organs.
At the time of the explosion, my mother and I were at home about 1.6 km from the epicenter. Since we were inside, we managed to avoid strong exposure. However, the house was destroyed by the shock wave. Mother managed to break through the roof and get out with me into the street. After that, we evacuated to the south, away from the epicenter. As a result, we managed to avoid the real hell that was going on there, because there was nothing left within a radius of 2 km.
For 10 years after the bombing, my mother and I suffered from various diseases caused by the dose of radiation we received. We had problems with the stomach, constantly bleeding from the nose, and there was also a very poor general state of immunity. All this passed at the age of 12, and after that I had no health problems for a long time. However, after 40 years, illnesses began to haunt me one after another, the functioning of the kidneys and heart deteriorated sharply, the spine began to hurt, signs of diabetes and problems with cataracts appeared.
Only later it became clear that it was not only the dose of radiation that we received during the explosion. We continued to live and eat vegetables grown on contaminated land, drank water from contaminated rivers, and ate contaminated seafood."
UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon (left) and hibakusha Sumiteru Taniguchi in front of photographs of people injured in the bombing. The top photo is Taniguchi himself © EPA/KIMIMASA MAYAMA
"Kill me!"
The photo of one of the most famous figures of the hibakusha movement Sumiteru Taniguchi, taken in January 1946 by an American war photographer, spread all over the world. The image, dubbed "Red Back", shows the terrible burns on Taniguchi's back.
“In 1945, I was 16 years old,” he says. “On August 9, I was delivering mail on a bicycle and was about 1.8 km from the epicenter of the bombing. At the time of the explosion, I saw a flash, and the blast wave threw me off the bike. everything in its path. At first, I had the impression that a bomb had exploded near me. The ground under my feet was shaking, as if there had been a strong earthquake. After I came to my senses, I looked at my hands - literally hanging from them skin. However, at that moment I didn’t even feel pain.”
“I don’t know how, but I managed to get to the ammunition factory, which was located in an underground tunnel. There I met a woman, and she helped me cut off pieces of skin on my hands and bandage me somehow. I remember how after that they immediately announced evacuation, but I could not walk myself. Other people helped me. They carried me to the top of the hill, where they laid me under a tree. After that, I fell asleep for a while. I woke up from machine-gun bursts of American aircraft. From the fires it was as bright as day ", so the pilots could easily follow the movements of people. I lay under a tree for three days. During this time, everyone who was next to me died. I myself thought that I would die, I could not even call for help. But I was lucky - on On the third day, people came and saved me. Blood oozed from the burns on my back, the pain grew rapidly. In this state, I was sent to the hospital, "recalls Taniguchi.
Only in 1947, the Japanese was able to sit down, and in 1949 he was discharged from the hospital. He underwent 10 operations, and the treatment continued until 1960.
“In the first years after the bombing, I could not even move. The pain was unbearable. I often shouted: “Kill me!” The doctors did everything so that I could live. I remember how they repeated every day that I was alive. During the treatment, I learned on myself everything that radiation is capable of, all the terrible consequences of its effects," Taniguchi said.
Children after the bombing of Nagasaki © AP Photo/United Nations, Yosuke Yamahata
"Then there was silence..."
“When the atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945, I was six years old and I lived with my family in a traditional Japanese house,” recalls Yasuaki Yamashita. cicadas. But that day I was playing at home. Mom was nearby preparing dinner, as usual. Suddenly, at exactly 11.02, we were blinded by a light, as if 1000 lightning flashes simultaneously. Mom pushed me to the ground and covered me. We heard the roar of a strong wind and the rustle of the fragments of the house flying at us. Then there was silence ... ".
“Our house was 2.5 km from the epicenter. My sister, she was in the next room, was badly cut by scattered pieces of glass. One of my friends went to play in the mountains that ill-fated day, and a heat wave from a bomb explosion hit him. "He suffered severe burns and died a few days later. My father was sent to help clean up debris in downtown Nagasaki. At that time, we did not yet know about the danger of radiation that caused his death," he writes.
