Question 1

Lexicology as a science of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Sections of lexicology

Lexicology - from the Greek. leksis, leksicos - word, expression; logos - teaching. This science considers the vocabulary (lexical) composition of the language in different aspects. Lexicology considers the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) from the point of view of what a word is, how and what it expresses, how it changes. Phraseology adjoins lexicology, which is often included in lexicology as a special section.

Lexicology is divided into general, particular, historical and comparative. The first, called in English general lexicology, is a section of general linguistics that studies the vocabulary of any language, that which refers to lexical universals. General lexicology deals with the general laws of the structure of the lexical system, the issues of the functioning and development of the vocabulary of the languages ​​of the world.

Private lexicology studies the vocabulary of a particular language. Private lexicology (special lexicology) deals with the study of issues related to the vocabulary of one, in our case English, language. So, general lexicology can consider, for example, the principles of synonymous or antonymic relations in a language, while particular lexicology will deal with the peculiarities of English synonyms or antonyms.

Both general and particular problems of vocabulary can be analyzed in various aspects. First of all, any phenomenon can be approached from a synchronic or diachronic point of view. The synchronic approach assumes that the characteristics of a word are considered within a certain period or any one historical stage of their development. Such a study of vocabulary is also called descriptive, or descriptive (English, descriptive lexicology). Diachronic, or historical, lexicology (historical lexicology) deals with the study of the historical development of the meanings and structure of words.

Contrastive lexicology is engaged in comparing the lexical phenomena of one language with the facts of another or other languages. The purpose of such studies is to trace the ways of intersection or divergence of lexical phenomena characteristic of the languages ​​chosen for comparison.

Historical lexicology traces changes in the meanings (semantics) of a single word or a whole group of words, and also explores changes in the names of objects of reality (see below for etymology). Comparative lexicology reveals similarities and differences in the division of objective reality by lexical means of different languages. Both individual words and groups of words can be matched.

Main tasks lexicology are:

*) definition of a word as a meaningful unit vocabulary ;

*) a characteristic of the lexico-semantic system, that is, the identification of the internal organization of language units and the analysis of their relationships (the semantic structure of the word, the specifics of distinctive semantic features, the patterns of its relationships with other words, etc.).

The subject of lexicology, as follows from the very name of this science, is the word.

Sections of lexicology:

Onomasiology - studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.

Semasiology - studies the meaning of vocabulary units of a language, types of lexical meanings, semantic structure of a lexeme.

Phraseology - studies phraseological units.

Onomastics is the science of proper names. Here we can distinguish the largest subsections: anthroponymy, which studies proper names, and toponymy, which studies geographical objects.

Etymology - studies the origin of individual words.

Lexicography - deals with the compilation and study of dictionaries. It is also often referred to as applied lexicology.

The concept of the term "modern Russian literary language".

Traditionally, the Russian language has been modern since the time of A. S. Pushkin. It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of the Russian national language and the literary Russian language. The national language is the language of the Russian people, it covers all spheres of speech activity of people. In contrast, literary language is a narrower concept. Literary language is the highest form of language existence, exemplary language. This is a strictly standardized form of the national national language. The literary language is understood as the language processed by masters of the word, scientists, public figures.

Question 2

The word is the basic unit of language. Word signs. Definition of a word. Word types. Word functions

The word is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects and their properties, phenomena, relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features specific to each language. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and free reproducibility in speech.

Given the complexity of the multidimensional structure the words, modern researchers, when characterizing it, use a multidimensional analysis, point to the sum of a variety of linguistic features:

phonetic (or phonemic) formality and the presence of one main stress;

lexico-semantic significance the words, its separateness and impermeability (the impossibility of additional inserts inside the words without changing its value)

idiomatic (otherwise - unpredictability, unmotivated naming or its incomplete motivation);

related to certain parts of speech.

In the modern lexicology of the Russian language, the brief definition proposed by D. N. Shmelev seems to be quite motivated: word- this is a unit of name, characterized by a complete design (phonetic and grammatical) and idiomatic.

There are several types of words. According to the method of nomination, four types of words are distinguished: independent, functional, pronominal, interjections.

According to the phonetic feature, words are distinguished: single-stressed, unstressed, multi-stressed, complex.

According to the morphological feature, words are distinguished: changeable, unchangeable, simple, derivative, complex.

By motivation: unmotivated and motivated.

According to the semantic-grammatical feature, words are grouped into parts of speech.

From the point of view of structural integrity, words are distinguished as integral and segmented.

In the semantic sense, words are single-valued and polysemantic, absolute and relative, requiring an addition and transitive verbs. In a sentence, the word enters into subtle semantic relationships with other words and elements of the composition of the sentence (intonation, word order, syntactic functions).

WORD FUNCTIONS

communicative function

nominative function

aesthetic function

language function

communication function

message function

impact function

IMPACT FUNCTION. Its implementation is a voluntarily function, i.e. expression of the will of the speaker; the function is escresive, i.e. messages to the statement of expressiveness; emotive function, i.e. expression of feelings, emotions.

COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTION. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of communication and communication;

NOMINATIVE FUNCTION. The appointment of the word to serve as the name of the subject;

COMMUNICATION FUNCTION. The main function of the language, one of the sides of the communicative function, which consists in the mutual exchange of statements of members of the language community.

MESSAGE FUNCTION. The other side of the communicative function, which consists in the transfer of some logical content;

AESTHETIC FUNCTION. The purpose of the word is to serve as a means of artistic expression;

FUNCTION OF THE LANGUAGE. The use of potential properties of language means in speech for various purposes.

Question 3

The lexical meaning of the word. Lexical Meaning Structure

Lexical meaning - the correlation of the sound shell of the word with the corresponding objects or phenomena of objective reality. The lexical meaning does not include the entire set of features inherent in any object, phenomenon, action, etc., but only the most significant ones that help to distinguish one object from another. The lexical meaning reveals the signs by which common properties are determined for a number of objects, actions, phenomena, and also establishes differences that distinguish this object, action, phenomenon. For example, the lexical meaning of the word giraffe is defined as follows: “African artiodactyl ruminant with a very long neck and long legs”, that is, those signs that distinguish a giraffe from other animals are listed.

Question 4

Lexical value types

Comparison of various words and their meanings makes it possible to single out several types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language.

According to the method of nomination, direct and figurative meanings of words are distinguished.

*) The direct (or main, main) meaning of a word is a meaning that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. For example, the words table, black, boil have the following basic meanings, respectively:

1. "A piece of furniture in the form of a wide horizontal board on high supports, legs."

2. "Colors of soot, coal."

3. "Bubbling, bubbling, evaporating from strong heat" (about liquids).

These values ​​are stable, although they may change historically. For example, the word table in the Old Russian language meant "throne", "reign", "capital".

The direct meanings of words less than all others depend on the context, on the nature of the connections with other words. Therefore, direct meanings are said to have the greatest paradigmatic conditionality and the least syntagmatic coherence.

*) Portable (indirect) meanings of words arise as a result of the transfer of a name from one phenomenon of reality to another based on the similarity, commonality of their features, functions, etc.

§ 103. The term "vocabulary" (cf. Grsch. lexis- word, expression lexikos- "relating to a word") is usually defined as a set of words of a language, or the vocabulary of a language. At the same time, significant clarifications are sometimes made. Compare, for example, the following statements: "Vocabulary consists of words and set phrases that function in speech like words"; "The category of lexical units includes not only individual words (solid-form units), but also stable phrases (analytical

skie, constituent units), however, main. lexical the word is the unit.

The term "vocabulary" denotes not only the vocabulary of the language as a whole, i.e. the totality of all lexical units of a given language, but also separate parts, or layers, of the vocabulary (cf. the meaning of this term in such expressions as, for example: household vocabulary, book vocabulary, colloquial, poetic, business vocabulary), a set of words used by a writer (cf., for example: vocabulary of Pushkin, Turgenev, Leonov), in any particular work (for example: vocabulary of the novel by L. Leonov "Russian Forest").

The section of linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a language, its vocabulary, is called lexicology. "Lexicology ... is a branch of the science of language that studies vocabulary, i.e. the vocabulary of a language."

§ 104. Lexicology, like other branches of linguistics, has its own object of study and its own tasks.

As can be seen from the above explanation of the concept of vocabulary, object lexicology are words, as well as set phrases, phraseological units, i.e. lexical units of the language in the broad sense of the term.

The vocabulary of a language is studied in lexicology from different angles, from different points of view, in different aspects; this determines tasks this section of linguistics, the most important of which are: 1) the definition of the concept of the word as the main unit of the language; 2) clarification of the relationship between lexical units and units of other levels of the language; 3) defining the boundaries of a word, establishing criteria for its separateness and identity, developing the problem of word variance; 4) establishing systemic links between the lexical units of the language, paradigmatic relations between them, their classification according to various criteria; 5) the semantic characteristics of the word, the definition of such concepts as the lexical meaning of the word, the semantic structure of the word, the structure of the lexical meaning of the word; 6) classification of lexical meanings of words according to various criteria; 7) studying the issues of replenishment and development of the vocabulary of the language.

Depending on the object of study (the vocabulary of one language or different languages) and on the nature of the tasks that are solved in the section of lexicology, general and particular lexicology is distinguished. General Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language as a universal human phenomenon, i.e. examines the issues of vocabulary, its functioning and development, relating to different languages, "establishes general patterns of structure, functioning and development of vocabulary." Private Lexicology "explores the vocabulary of one language."

Depending on the aspect of the study of vocabulary, lexicology is descriptive, or synchronic, and historical, or diachronic. descriptive Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language from the point of view of its functioning at a particular stage in the development of a given language. historical Lexicology deals with the study of the vocabulary of a language (languages) from the point of view of its formation and development. According to the definition of D. N. Shmelev, "the subject of research historical L. (i.e. lexicology. - V.N.) make up the history of words, the formation and development of vocabulary, changes in various groups of words.

Historical lexicology also deals with the study of questions of the genetic relationship of different languages, the commonality of their origin, and the patterns of development of the vocabulary of related languages. Within the framework of historical lexicology, it stands out, respectively, comparative, or comparative historical, lexicology.

One of the tasks of historical lexicology is to explain the origin of the lexical units of the language, primarily words. This is the branch of lexicology called etymology(cf. Greek. etymologia, from etymon- "truth" and logos). In etymology (as a section of historical lexicology), the ancient, original state (structure, form, meaning) of historically derived words with lost motivation is established by comparison with the same-root words of other related languages. As a result of lexicological analysis, it was established, for example, that the noun beef previously motivated by the word beef, used in the meaning of "bull", and contained the root beef- and suffix -in- noun ring motivated by the word colo, denoting a wheel, a circle, and included the root count and diminutive suffix -yts(cf. genitive form rings), necklace motivated by the word chute, denoting the throat, and contained, in addition to the root, the prefix about- and suffix -j-.

The term "etymology" is also used in a broader sense - to refer to a section of lexicology (or a section of linguistics) that studies "the origin and history of individual words and morphemes." This term also denotes the origin of the word; a set of research techniques necessary to clarify the origin of the word, as well as the result of the study of these techniques in the form of a decision or hypothesis about the origin of the analyzed word.

In lexicology, considerable attention is paid to the content side of lexical units, the study of their lexical meanings. According to some linguists, "problems of the meaning of lexical units" are "the most significant" for her. In this regard, a special section (subsection) of lexicology is singled out, called semasiology(from Greek. semasia– "value" and logos). This section studies issues related to the definition of the meaning of a word, issues of unambiguity (monosemy) and polysemy (polysemy), the semantic structure of polysemantic words, the structure of individual lexical meanings of words (single-valued and multi-valued), changes and development of word meanings, desemantization, i.e. . the loss of lexical meaning by the word, the transition of the word into a purely grammatical means.

The term "semasiology" also refers to "a branch of linguistics that studies the meaning (i.e., internal content) of various language units (lexical, grammatical, etc.)", "the science of the meaning of linguistic signs of any level (from morpheme to phrase and sentence)" -.

Within the framework of semasiology, onomasiology(from Greek. support- "name" and logos). This term is called "a branch of semantics that studies names, the use of linguistic means to designate extralinguistic objects", or "a section of semasiology that studies the principles and patterns of "designation" of objects and expression of concepts by lexical and lexical-phraseological means of languages". In a sense, onomasiology is opposed to semasiology. "In contrast to semasiology .., which reflects the direction from the means of expression to the expressed meaning, O. (i.e. onomasiology. - V.N.) is based on the movement from the designated object to the means of its designation, more broadly - from content to form.

There is also a broader understanding of onomasiology: this term also refers to the doctrine of the designation of extralinguistic objects using any language means (not only lexical ones), for example, word-formation, grammatical.

In the vocabulary of the language, a special place is occupied by proper names, or onyms (from the Greek. support, support- "name, title"), which differ significantly from all other words, including common nouns, primarily in a semantic sense. Unlike common nouns, a proper name is an individual name for a certain object or phenomenon, it serves "to distinguish the object named by it from a number of similar ones." The collection of proper names is called onomastics(cf. Greek. onomas-like"the art of naming") or, more rarely, onymy(from Greek. oputa). The term "onomastics" also denotes a branch of lexicology that deals with the study of proper names.

Depending on the category of objects called proper names, in the onomastics section there are: toponymy, in which toponyms are studied, i.e. own names of geographical objects (from the Greek. topos- "place" and entangled), anthroponymy, which studies anthroponyms, i.e. people's own names - surnames, first names, patronymics, pseudonyms, nicknames (cf. Greek. anthropos -"Human"), zoonymy– studies zoonyms, i.e. proper names, nicknames of animals (cf. Greek. zoop -"animal"), astronomy- studies astroimes, i.e. proper names of celestial bodies (cf. Greek. astron- "star"), etc.

Within the framework of toponymy, in turn, the following are distinguished (on the same basis): oikonymy, which is engaged in the study of oikonyms, i.e. own names of settlements (cf. Greek. oikos- house, dwelling hydronymy, in which hydronyms are studied, i.e. own names of water bodies (cf. Greek. hyddr- "water") oronymy, which studies oronyms, i.e. own names of relief features (from the Greek. wholesale- "mountain" cosmonymy– studies cosmonyms, i.e. own names of zones of outer space, constellations (cf. Greek. kosmos-"Universe"), microtoponymy– studies microtoponyms, i.e. individualized names of small geographical objects - forests, fields, tracts, etc. (cf. Greek. mikros- "small"), etc.

As noted above, the lexical units of the language, in addition to words, also include set phrases, or phraseological units. They are studied by the branch of lexicology, which is called phraseology(from Greek. phrase, phraseos- "expression" and logos). This term is also called the totality of phraseological units of a particular language, its phraseological composition.

In the vocabulary of the language, the terminological vocabulary, which forms the terminological system of the given language, or its terminology(from lat. terminus- "border, limit" and Greek. logos). The terminology is usually understood as "a set of terms .. denoting the concepts of any special field of knowledge or activity ...". This term is often also called a section of lexicology or a scientific discipline that studies terms, term systems. Recently, some linguists have used the synonymous term "terminology" to designate this section of lexicology.

Along with the named sections (subsections) of lexicology, sometimes the applied lexicology, which covers mainly four areas: lexicography, translation, linguistic pedagogy and culture of speech. The program of the university course "Introduction to Linguistics" provides for the study lexicography(from Greek. lexikos- "relating to the word" and grapho- "writing"). This term refers to different concepts: 1) a section of linguistics (lexicology), which develops the theory of compiling dictionaries, questions of describing vocabulary in dictionaries; 2) work on compiling dictionaries, including the collection and systematization of lexical material; 3) a set of dictionaries of any language (languages) of one or another type (types).

§ 105. Vocabulary and, accordingly, lexicology are closely connected with other subsystems (levels) of the language and sections of linguistics, primarily with grammar and word formation. All these sections of linguistics have the word as an object of study, although they study it from different sides, in different aspects (this was discussed in detail at the beginning of the chapter (in § 25). All these sections of linguistics operate with the categories of meaning and relationship, although in different subsystems language, these categories manifest themselves in different ways.We can compare, for example, the meanings of words lexical (see below, § 113), derivational (see § 169) and grammatical (see § 179), the meanings of number expressed by grammatical forms of number (singular , plural, dual) and lexical means (words many, few, few and etc.); time values ​​conveyed by tense forms of the verb and adverbs of time ( today, yesterday, tomorrow, long ago, soon and etc.).

In historical terms, the connection between vocabulary and word formation lies, first of all, in the fact that the formation of new words is one of the most important ways of replenishing the vocabulary of a language. At the same time, derivative words as the main units of the word-formation system of a language in the process of the historical development of the latter often turn into non-derivatives (from a synchronic point of view), i.e. cease to be the object of study in the word-formation section. The connection of vocabulary with grammar in this regard is found, in particular, in the fact that the lexical means of the language, individual words (lexemes) or word forms (lexes), in the process of language development often turn into grammatical means, into means of expressing grammatical meanings, losing lexical meanings . This is how, for example, the Russian verbal morpheme (postfix) -sya (-camping), which goes back to the reflexive pronoun camping(this) in the accusative singular, subjunctive indicator of the verb would- goes back to the verb be in the form of one of the past tenses.

Vocabulary is also closely connected with other language levels, for example, with morphemics (this was already discussed above, in § 74).

This article will focus on lexicology. What it studies, what it is, what sections it is divided into and what modes of action it has, we will consider here.

Introduction

Lexicology is a linguistic branch that studies vocabulary. We learned what lexicology studies, and now we will get acquainted with its general and particular parts. The latter is busy studying the lexical composition of a particular language. This science turned its attention to:

• the word and its meaning;
• word relationship system;
• historical facts, through which the vocabulary was formed in the modern sense;
• the existing difference of words according to the functional and stylistic character in various speech spheres.

Object and subject

The word serves as the object that lexicology studies. Another object of study is word formation and morphology. However, if in these branches of science the word is a means by which the grammatical structure and word-formation model, as well as language rules are studied, then in the science of lexicology the word is studied in order to understand the meaning of the word itself and the linguistic vocabulary. It does not study individual linguistic units of oral speech, but, directly, the entire language system.

What does lexicology study in Russian? First of all, she is busy with the consideration of the Russian and Slavic languages, which had an active development in the course of historical events.

The subject of lexicology is

• The word, as part of the language, considered with the help of the theory of the word.
• The structure of the linguistic composition of words.
• Functionality of a lexical unit.
• Possible ways of replenishing the linguistic composition.
• Relationship with an extralinguistic type of activity, for example, with culture.

Main sections

Lexicology is a science that studies vocabulary, its basis. Science is quite extensive and has many sections, including:

• onomasiology - a section on the process of naming objects;
• semasiology - a section that studies the word and phrases, namely their meaning;
• phraseology - studies the vocabulary relationship between each other, and among themselves;
• onomastics - busy with the study of existing names;
• etymology - a section that drew attention to the historical origin of the word, also considers the abundance of vocabulary in general;
• lexicography - focused on the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries;
• stylistics is a section that studies the meaning of sayings and words of a connotative type.

general information

Lexicology is a science that studies the vocabulary of a language, and the number of words in it cannot be counted. One, only seventeen-volume collection of the Dictionary of Modern R.Ya. includes more than 130,000 words, and the Oxford Dictionary contains over 300,000 words.

Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary of a language, which also includes obscure units of speech, such as agnonyms, which refer to words with an incomprehensible meaning.

Speech units that are used frequently are part of the language's active vocabulary. There are frequency dictionaries with which you can determine frequently used words. However, there is the concept of a passive dictionary, which includes language elements that carry information about something, but are used relatively rarely. Such words belong to a limitedly used vocabulary - a dialect, professional or slang word.

Replenishment of the vocabulary

We have learned what lexicology studies, and now we turn our attention to the ways in which the vocabulary is replenished.

The phenomenon of borrowing vocabulary from the languages ​​of other peoples is one of the main such ways. Taken long ago, foreign words are now considered native Russian. However, very often this is not the case, an example of this is the unit of speech - bread, which came into the Russian language from German. Due to borrowing, the original meaning of the word may change.

Another way of enriching lexical components is the formation of a new set of words. Such components of speech are called neologisms.

The further development of the fate of new words can be varied: some lose their novelty and become fixed among other elements of the language, others can be considered new formations created by an individual author (occasionalisms). The expansion of the boundaries of vocabulary also occurs due to the development of a new range of meanings for words that have been known for a long time and well.

Words that have sunk into oblivion

Lexicology studies words, among which obsolete units of the language are also considered. Due to the influence of time on the word, by the way, it goes out of use. This can be observed, for example, with the disappearance of an object or phenomenon that was often used before. These words are called historicisms. The disappearance of such a word also leads to the loss of the realities that it carries in itself, however, sometimes the realities themselves do not disappear, but are renamed and called archaisms.

Vocabulary - as a mobile type system

Vocabulary is like a system capable of promotion. This allows us to determine that words have a variety of relationships with each other for various semantic reasons. Such words include synonyms - speech units that have a difference in form, but are close to each other in meaning.

There are words that are interconnected by the presence of a common cause in the opposite meaning - antonyms. They point to opposite "things". The opposite meaning of one speech unit is called enantiosemy. An example would be the phrases: "listen" in the sense of the phrase "listen carefully", and in the sense of "leave a deaf ear".

The connection of words can be expressed in the form. Almost every language carries words that have an external identity, can have different meanings. An example is the variety of meanings of the word - braid, which can be both an agricultural tool and a braid of hair. These types of words are called homonyms.

Homonyms, in turn, include different types of differences of the same character. If language units coincide in the “form” of sounding only if there are separate reasons, then such words are called homoforms. Words that coincide in spelling but differ in sound led to the creation of the term - homograph. If the pronunciation is the same, but the spelling is different, then this word is called a homophone.

Paronyms include similar words, but having a difference in identity in terms of the characterized parameters of form and meaning. They also perfectly show us the essence of the formal form of communication.

There is a concept of interlingual homonyms and paronyms. Such words have a formal similarity, but in different languages ​​they can have many meanings. They are called "false friends of translators".

Lexical units

Lexicology, as a branch of linguistics, studies the vocabulary components of any language, and knows that they have a huge variety and heterogeneity. There are categories that have been singled out due to the presence in them of special distinctive outlines. In the lexicology of the Russian language, the following set of subspecies is foreseen:

• according to the areas of application, they are divided into: the commonly used type of words and units of vocabulary, which are used in the event of a confluence of special circumstances in science, poetry, vernacular, dialect, etc .;
• by the value of the emotional load, which include units of speech, colored by emotional or neutral "color";
• in accordance with historical development, divided into archaisms and neologisms;
• according to the history of origin and development, divided into internationalism, borrowing, etc.;
• in accordance with the functionality - vocabulary units of active and passive type;

Given the continuous development of languages, what lexicology considers includes insurmountable boundaries of study, constantly expanding and changing.

Lexical problems

In this science there is a concept of some problems, the study of which it is busy. Among them are:

1. Structural issues that decide the form of perception of the word, the structural basis of its elements.
2. A semantic problem occupied with the study of the question of the meaning of a lexical unit.
3. Functional problems of the general system of language, investigating the role of words and speech units in the language itself.

Speaking about the first problem, and the aspect of development, we can summarize that this science is busy establishing specific criteria by which it is possible to determine the differences and the identity of a separate series of words. To avoid this, a lexical unit is compared with a phrase, while a structure for analysis is developed that allows one to establish the invariance of words.

The semantic problem expresses itself as a question of semasiology - a science that studies the relationship between words and specific objects. In lexicology, this is one of the extremely important objects of study. Its study is focused on the meaning of the word, its individual categories and types, which make it possible to create terms: monosymy (uniqueness) and polysymmy (polysemy). Lexicology tries to explore cause-and-effect relationships that lead to losses or the emergence of new meanings for words.

The functional problem tries to study a lexical unit, in the form of an object, which is associated with another similar element and creates a complete language system. In this understanding, the role of the interaction of grammar with vocabulary is considered extremely important. They can both support and limit each other.

findings

We have determined that lexicology studies the vocabulary of the language, its structure, disappearing units of speech, such as historicisms, for example, built an idea of ​​the meaning of words. Considered their types and variations, identified the problems of this science. Thanks to this, we can summarize that its importance cannot be overestimated, since it is extremely important for the general system of the language and tracking trends in its development.

Object and subject of lexicology

Units of the lexico-semantic system

Specificity of the lexico-semantic system

Main problems of lexicology

Sections of lexicology

Literature

_______________________________________________

An object and the subject of lexicology

Lexicology(gr. lexis'word', lexikos'vocabulary', logos‘teaching, science’) is a branch of linguistics that studies vocabulary language (vocabulary) in his state of the art and historical development.

Sections of linguistics that study different tiers of the language system actually have two objects:

unit appropriate level, its nature and properties,

unit system, the relationship between these units.

Objects of lexicology- This

word as a lexical unit (LU),

vocabulary(vocabulary) as a collection of words, organized, structured in a certain way.

The word is an object of different linguistic disciplines. Each of them considers the word from a certain point of view, i.e. with a common object has its own thing:

studied in phonetics sound side the words,

in morphemic - structure the words,

word formation - ways of education words,

in morphology - grammatical forms and grammatical meanings the words,

in syntax - connection methods words and forms of words into phrases and sentences [SRYA, p. 165].

word like grammatical unit is a system of all its forms with their grammatical meanings; word like lexical a unit, or a dictionary unit, is a formally expressed system of all its lexical meanings [Russian Grammar, p. 453].

In lexicology, the word is considered

in the aspect of its subject-conceptual content

and as a unit of the vocabulary of a language.

Word wing , for example, is of interest here

but as title:

the organ of flight in birds, insects, and some mammals;

the carrier plane of an aircraft or other moving apparatus;

rotating blades of a windmill wheel;

tires over the wheel of a carriage, car, etc.;

side extension, outbuilding;

the extreme (right or left) part of the combat formation;

extreme (right or left) grouping of some organization.

b) how unit of the lexical system, which is in a certain relationship with other lexical units, for example, as part of Class names of body parts of a bird along with words tail, beak etc.

opposition grammatical forms of the word(word form) in the same meaning ( wing, wing, wing...) is an insignificant for lexicology. This is the subject of grammar.

On the contrary, the study of the similarity and difference between the semantic variants of the same word in the entire system of their forms ( wing, wing, wing...‘organ of flying’; wing, wing, wing...‘carrying plane’, etc.) is one of the most important tasks of lexicology [SRYA, p. 165].

However, when studying a word in lexicology, it is impossible to completely ignore grammar, since vocabulary and grammar are closely related.

Units of the lexico-semantic system

Word a sound or set of sounds that has value and employee name objects and phenomena of reality [SRYASH, p. 165].

It is fixed in the definition iconic nature words and his function.

The word, unlike the phoneme, is sign:

It also has a material side. sound or spelling(phonographic shell),

and the perfect side meaning.

Main function the words - nominative(lat. nominatio ‘name, name’). Most words called objects, their attributes, quantity, actions, processes and are full-fledged, independent.

Words name not only specific objects, but also concepts about these objects that arise in the minds of the speakers.

With a word correlateall language units:

phonemes and morphemes form the structure of a word

phrases and suggestions are made up of words.

This gives reason to some scholars to say that the word is central unit of language.

Since the word is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon, the term word polysemantic and indefinite: they denote

and words like vocabulary units(linguistic units);

and words like units of speech, text(words in specific meanings and specific grammatical forms).

For example, in a sentence Man is man's friend

three words in specific grammatical forms

and two words as dictionary units: Human and friend[Kodukhov, p. 184].

The word is called unambiguous words, and individual meanings ambiguous words.

To designate these different objects in lexicology, more precise terms are used.

The most general term is lexical item(LE)

Lexical unit is a unit of the lexical level of a language that has bilateral nature,grammatical arrangement and performing nominative function.

Term lexical item is an generic in relation to terms lexeme and lexico-semantic variant:

┌─────────┴─────────┐

lexeme lexico-semantic

lexeme(gr. lé xis ‘word, expression’) is a unit of the lexical level of the language, which is a collection all forms and meanings of one word[≈ LES, p. 257; ERYA, p. 207].

Those. lexeme is bilateral unit 1 :

lexeme= –––––––––––––––––––––––

plan of expression

Term lexeme usually used only in relation to words significant parts of speech.

Lexico-semantic variant(LSV) is one of the lexical meanings of a lexeme, expressed by a phonographic shell.

Otherwise: LSV– a lexeme in one of its meanings. Those. LSV is also bilateral unit. LSV of one lexeme

differ in their lexical meanings (LZ)

and coincide in form (sound and graphic expression).

For example, sleeve –

piece of clothing that covers the arm short sleeves);

offshoot of the main riverbed ( right arm of the Volga);

hose for supplying liquids, bulk or viscous substances, gases ( firehose).

All these values ​​are related semanticderivatives(native speakers are aware of the connection between these meanings), so word identity is not violated.

lexeme is a system of interconnected LSV:

lexeme = LSV 1 + LSV 2 + LSV 3

If the word definitely, it is represented one LSV:

stomp‘noise, sounds from kicks while walking’.

Term "lexical item" also used in relation to lexeme, and in relation to LSV if there is no need to differentiate them.

LE, lexeme and LSV are language units, because represent set of meanings and forms.

AT speeches these abstract units are implemented in specific units, because selected every time one meaning and one the form:

Dress with shortsleeves .

Concrete implementation lexemes or LSV in speech (text) is called:

lex(a) (the term is not very common),

word form- a word in a certain grammatical form (the term came from grammar),

word usage is a relatively new term.

Specificity of the lexico-semantic system

Lexico-Semantic System (LSS) similar in structure with other systems. Its units, like phonemes and morphemes,

belong to certain classes of units,

opposed,

or, conversely, are neutralized,

interact with each other in context, etc.

However, the lexical system significantly different from phonological, morphological and syntactic systems.

1) The main feature of the vocabulary is connection of a word with objects of extralinguistic reality.

The vocabulary reflects the material and spiritual culture, the social practice of the language community. Therefore, in the development and change of vocabulary extralinguistics play an important role(=extralinguistic; lat. extra ‘above’, ‘outside’) factors. The lexical composition most sensitively reacts to various social, cultural, scientific, political and other changes in the life of society. For example, as a result of close contacts with the Turkic peoples, there are many Turkisms in the Russian language. In the era of Peter the Great, numerous borrowings from European languages ​​appeared in the Russian language. After the October Revolution, many words ceased to be used, but, on the other hand, a large number of new names appeared. A large number of new words appeared in connection with the scientific and technological revolution, perestroika, etc. [Maslov, p. 85].

Close connection with objective reality determines all other features lexical system.

2) The number of LSS elements and the variety of their relationships incomparably more than in systems of other units.

LSS includes a number of lexemes that are difficult to count: for example, the "Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" in 17 volumes (Big Academic Dictionary - BAS) has 122,000 words. There is evidence that developed languages ​​(such as Russian,English,German) include about 1 million words(if you count the terms, colloquial, slang and dialect words). At the same time, the number phonemes in different languages ​​on average 20–40, morphemes- hundreds (if we are not talking about roots, but in any case there are fewer roots than words), syntactic constructions- dozens.

3) The number of lexical units cannot be determined exactly.

It is difficult to establish the number of words even in the literary language (LA), the composition of which is constantly changing. LA dictionaries do not include dialectal and many slang words, and it is impossible to mechanically sum up the number of words in different dictionaries. In addition, the establishment of the number of lexical units depends on the solution of the series theoretical problems, for example,

4) Most of the words of the language each of the native speakers does not use or uses very rarely(this is a natural consequence of the fact that there are a huge number of units in LSS). In doing so, we use, for example, all phonemes their language (some more often, others less often). Common literary vocabulary PR includes up to 300 thousand words, and ordinary native speaker uses in everyday speech 1.5 – 3 thousand words. Even in the works of the greatest writers, only a very small part of the vocabulary of the language is used. For example, a dictionary A.S.Pushkin includes 21,197 words, and the dictionary V. I. Dalia(1801–1872) – about 200,000 [SRYASH, p. 163; Barlas et al., p. 119–120].

5) Since the LSS reflects the changes taking place in various areas of life, it represents open class:

on the one hand, always appear new words and meanings

on the other hand, they go to the periphery, and then disappear obsolete words or obsolete meanings of words.

Accordingly, LSS changing relatively quickly in comparison with systems of units of other levels, this is the most "mobile" level of the language.

Sustainability and mobility vocabulary elements are characterized by a certain balance providing vocabulary stability.

These specific features of the vocabulary make impossible study of system relations between all elements of the vocabulary[SRYASH, p. 164, 165, 185; SRY, p. 169].

Main problems of lexicology

Any section of linguistics studies its object in synchronous and diachronic aspects and solves the following problems:

definition basic unit the corresponding level of the language system, its differential features; the relationship of this unit with other units of the language;

detection systemic relations between units;

functioning units;

study of historical changes in the system of units and the rules of their functioning.

Accordingly, main problems of lexicology.

Word definition as an independent unit of language.

Study of semantic structure words (components of lexical meaning and types of meanings of words, etc.).

Revealing consistency vocabulary (paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations between words):

paradigmatics: polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, conversion, semantic field, etc.;

syntagmatics: compatibility of lexical units.

Differentiation (stratification) of vocabulary from different points of view:

native and borrowed vocabulary,

active and passive (outdated and new),

national and limited use (terminological, dialectal, slang);

stylistically neutral and stylistically marked (colloquial, bookish).

Functioning vocabulary:

frequency of vocabulary in speech and texts;

contextual shifts in meanings;

speech synonyms, antonyms, etc.

Ways to replenish vocabulary of the language:

a) use of internal resources:

creating new words

formation of new values,

the formation of stable phrases;

b) an external source - borrowings [LES, p. 260].

Sections lexicology

1. According to the subject of study differ

general and private lexicology,

descriptive (synchronic) and historical lexicology,

comparative Lexicology,

theoretical and applied lexicology.

General lexicology establishes the general laws of the structure, functioning and development of vocabulary: studies those qualities that are inherent in the words and lexical systems of all (many) languages.

Private lexicology explores the vocabulary of one language (two, several languages).

Descriptive (synchronous)lexicology studies the vocabulary of the language at the present stage of development.

Historical lexicology explores the history of words in connection with the history of the objects, concepts, and institutions they designate. Historical lexicology gives

dynamics description vocabulary (or its section) ( diachronic an approach),

or static description slice of the historical state of the language (synchronous approach) [LES, p. 260].

Within historical lexicology stands out etymology(gr. etymologia from etymon'truth' and logos ‘word, teaching’) –

branch of linguistics that studies the origin of words

the origin of the word [LES, p. 596].

Etymology makes clear primary form and meaning of the word, which in the process of the historical development of the language often turn out to be incomprehensible to native speakers [Vendina, p. 113].

Comparative lexicology examines the vocabulary in order to identify

structural and semantic similarities and differences between languages ​​(regardless of their relationship),

general lexicological (more often semantic) regularities.

Applied lexicology opposed to the named theoretical disciplines, because It has practical orientation. It covers 4 areas:

lexicography,

• linguistic pedagogy (teaching a non-native language),

  culture of speech [LES, p. 260].

2. Main aspects learning vocabulary:

sociolinguistic: the properties of the vocabulary of the language are studied, which are due to social factors (for example, borrowing vocabulary is a consequence of trade, military, cultural and other contacts between peoples);

system-semantic: the word is studied from the side of its lexical meaning (LZ); vocabulary is studied from the point of view of systemic relations between its elements, internal patterns that organize this system;

functional;

temporal(synchronous - diachronic).

3. Internal division lexicology - sections of lexicology depending on aspect learning vocabulary.

1) Proper lexicology(= external lexicology) studies lexical units in the aspect of correlation with objects of external reality ( sociolinguistic aspect learning vocabulary).

Within the framework of lexicology proper, one studies

origin lexical units (original and borrowed vocabulary),

them use(active and passive stock),

social differentiation vocabulary (common, dialect, slang vocabulary), etc.

2) Lexical semantics(=internal lexicology; system-semantic aspect learning vocabulary).

Term semantics(gr. sē manticó s ‘denoting’) has the meanings:

a section of linguistics that studies this content [LES, p. 438].

Within the single discipline “semantics”, morphemic semantics, lexical semantics, and syntactic semantics stand out.

Term lexical semantics stands for:

branch of lexicology that studies the meaning of words

signified, the plan of the content of lexical units (synonymous with the term lexicalmeaning).

In the process of verbal communication speaking(writer), encoding the meaning, generates the text, and listening(reader), decodes, perceives the text. In the first case, the question arises: “With what word (or words) can this meaning be expressed?”, And in the second: “What does this word mean?”. Thus, the meanings of lexical units can be explored in two opposite directions:

from signifier to meaning and

from meaning to signifier[SRY, p. 171].

In accordance with this, two sections (aspects) of semantics are distinguished:

semasiology(gr. sē masia ‘meaning, meaning’) is the doctrine of meanings: the meaning is studied in the direction from form to content, and

onomasiology(gr. onoma ‘name’) = nomination theory: the meaning is studied in the direction from content to form.

Semasiology and onomasiology inextricably linked with each other, there is no clear boundary between them. For example, ambiguity studied in semasiological aspect: what meanings this phonographic shell expresses. However, ambiguity arises as a result of the transfer of names (cf .: wing), and the study of nomination methods is onomasiological aspect.

Both aspects of semantics study words

in systemic aspect,

in functional aspect (a new aspect of learning vocabulary).

The opposition between these aspects is based on opposition language - speech 2 .

The functional aspect of the study of lexical units is called pragmatics(gr. pragma genus. P. pragmatos‘deed, action’) (the term began to be actively used in the 60–70s of the 20th century).

AT wide meaning pragmatics– 1) one of the aspects of semiotics; 2) a section of linguistics that studies the functioning of linguistic signs in speech - the relationship between the statement, the speaker and the context (situation) in the aspect of human activity[LES, p. 389; ERYA, p. 360]. Linguistic pragmatics studies language not “in and for itself”, but as a means used by a person to achieve his goals [Maslova, p. 29].

Thing linguistic pragmatics - speech acts. It explores the social and communicative conditions that determine the speech process (who is the speaker; to whom he speaks; what are the relations between these subjects; the goal of the speaker; his emotional state; time and place of speech).

The choice of nomination depends on these external factors:

children say " ancestors» about their parents in the absence of parents;

their two lexical units doctor and doctor only the latter is used in the invocation function;

speakers (writers) choose word mother or mother depending on the attitude and external conditions (for example, filling out a questionnaire).

The area of ​​pragmatics includes the study of indirect meanings expressed by linguistic units. For example, expressions like It's blowing here or I'm cold indirectly mean a request to close the window. Wed:

Polina Andreevna. You were so carried away by the conversation with Irina Nikolaevna... You did not notice the cold. Admit it, you like it...

Doctor Dorn. I am fifty five years old . (Chekhov) [ERYA, p. 361]. Obviously, the doctor's goal in this case is not just to report his age.

As an independent section of lexical semantics, onomastics(gr. onomasticē ‘the art of giving names’) is a branch of lexicology that studies proper names.

Onomastics is divided into subsections in accordance with the categories of objects that have their own names:

anthroponymy, ethnonymy, toponymy, zoonymy, astronomy, etc.

Lexicology closely interacts with phraseology and lexicography.

Phraseology(gr. phraseō s‘expression’) is a branch of linguistics that studies stable word combinations:

slipshod, not salty slurping, where Makar did not graze calves etc.

Phraseology is considered either as branch of lexicology, either as independent discipline.

Lexicography(gr. lexikos ‘relating to a word’, graphō ‘I am writing’) is applied linguistic discipline dealing with theory and the practice of compiling dictionaries, i.e. This:

the science about compiling dictionaries,

activity on compiling dictionaries [LES, p. 258].

Lexicography develops

general typology of dictionaries,

principles of vocabulary selection,

arrangement of words and dictionary entries: selection and classification of word meanings, its dictionary definitions, types of language illustrations, etc. [Vendina, p. 114].

Literature

Alefirenko N. F. Theory of language. Introductory course. Moscow: Academy, 2004. Lexicology. Basic concepts. pp. 191–196.

Barlas L. G., Infantova G. G., Seifulin M. G., Senina N. A. Russian language. Introduction to the science of language Lexicology. Etymology. Phraseology. Lexicography. M.: Flinta: Nauka, 2003. 2. Lexicology. 2.1. subject of lexicology. The concept of vocabulary. pp. 116–123.

Vendina T. I. Introduction to linguistics. Moscow: Higher school, 2001. Chapter 7. Lexicology. pp. 112–114. The word as a subject of lexicology. pp. 114–118.

Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Enlightenment, 1979 (2nd ed. - 1987) S. 145–155

LES - Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary. Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990. Lexicology. pp. 259–261. lexeme. S. 257.

Maslov Yu. S. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Higher. school, 1997 (or other edition). Chapter III. Lexicology. pp. 85–86. The word as a unit of language. pp. 86–90.

Maslova A. Yu. Introduction to pragmalinguistics. M. : Flinta: Nauka, 2007. 147 p.

Reformatsky A. A. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Aspect Press, 1997 (1st ed. - 1967). Chapter II. Lexicology. § 7. The word as a subject of lexicology. pp. 60–74. § 8. Types of words in the language. pp. 74–80. § 25. Lexicography. pp. 151–154.

Russian grammar. T. 1: Phonetics. Phonology. stress. Intonation. Introduction to morphemics. Word formation. Morphology. Moscow: Nauka, 1980.

SRYA - Modern Russian language. / ed. V. A. Beloshapkova. M.: Higher. school, 1989. Lexicology. § 1. Subject and tasks of lexicology. pp. 165–166.

SRYASH - Modern Russian language. Phonetics. Lexicology, Phraseology / ed. P. P. Fur coats. Minsk: Progress, 1998. Lexicology. pp. 162–163. Features of the vocabulary of the language as a subject of study of lexicology. pp. 163–164. The word as a unit of lexicology. pp. 165–166.

Shaikevich A. Ya. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Academy, 2005. § 47. Subject and tasks of lexicology. § 48. Word. pp. 137–138.

ERJ - Russian language. Encyclopedia. M .: Great Russian Encyclopedia - Bustard, 1997. Lexeme. P. 207. Lexicology. pp. 211–213. Lexicography. pp. 209–211. Sememe. S. 451.

1 Less common narrower understanding of the term lexeme - only as plan unitsexpressions, which is a collection of all grammatical forms of a word. In this case, the lexical unit is a unity tokens and semes[ERYA, p. 207]:

sememe= content plan

LU = ––––––––––––––––––––––

lexeme= expression plan

2These two blocks: systemic and functional - stand out in any section of linguistics: phonology: systemic / functional; morphology: systemic / functional; lexicology: system / functional; syntax: system / functional [Lukyanova N. A. Lectures on lexicology].

The concept of vocabulary and lexicology

The term lexicon comes from the Greek lexikos, meaning "pertaining to a word". This term denotes a set of words, or vocabulary, of a particular language. It is also used when talking about the totality of words used by any author (" vocabulary Pushkin", " vocabulary Anna Akhmatova"), about the totality of the words of any individual work, edition ( vocabulary novel "Eugene Onegin" vocabulary newspaper "Moskovsky Komsomolets", etc.). Bearing in mind the corresponding features of the language of works related to one of the functional varieties of speech, this term is also used: "official business vocabulary", "vocabulary scientific style", " vocabulary newspapers", etc.

The science that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology. The tasks of lexicology include the study of problems associated with different sides of the word. One of the most important branches of lexicology is semasiology (or semantics)*, which studies the meaning of a word. After all, words are distinguished from other units of language (for example, sounds or sentences) by the fact that they are direct names of individual phenomena of reality: objects, signs, processes, etc. The meaning of the word also reflects the connections that human thinking establishes between objects, phenomena, when, for example, similar objects in some way receive a common name ( sheet tree - sheet paper). Semasiology also studies the relationships that connect the meanings of different words: it identifies groups of words that are similar in meaning ( talent - ability - talent - gift), and words that are opposite in meaning beautiful - ugly;egoist - altruist etc.). Lexicology pays great attention to the stylistic stratification of the vocabulary of a given language: it establishes the emotional and expressive shades of words and determines what style of speech - official, scientific, etc. belongs to this word. Another task of lexicology is to determine the origin of words. So, highlighting such groups of words as native Russian and borrowed ones, establishing when, for what reasons, borrowed words came into the Russian language, lexicologists draw conclusions about the features of the process of forming the vocabulary of our language. The problems of forming the vocabulary of a language are dealt with by historical lexicology; it describes the vocabulary with which the language is updated, replenished with new units, as well as groups of words that for some reason become obsolete, go out of active speech use, moving to its periphery, and sometimes disappear from the language altogether.

* Greek. semasia - "meaning" and logos - "science, teaching".

These aspects of the study of the word are closely related to each other. For example, if a word has several meanings, then it is possible to talk about which stylistic layer it belongs to and what emotional assessment it expresses, only by determining exactly what meaning the word has in this context. Yes, the word circus in cases where it denotes a spectacular enterprise, as well as an art form (see, for example: " Circus is never old" [title] - Mosk. koms. 1989. Oct. 1), is emotionally neutral and interstyle. And in the expressions common in modern speech "That's it circus!", "Just circus!" This word has a bright emotional coloring and is used in colloquial, relaxed speech.

The stylistic and emotional coloring of a word is often associated with its origin. For example, there are many borrowings from Greek, Latin, and also Western European languages ​​​​(words denoting mostly abstract concepts) - alternative, autocracy, dilemma, compatriot, nuance and under. - refers to the book-written style of speech; many obsolete Old Slavonic words - aspiration, watchman, coming - have an emotional coloring of pathos, solemnity.