Socio-political changes in the Russian lands in the XII-XIII centuries.

Feudal fragmentation is a period of political decentralization of power.

In Europe, royal power becomes elected by feudal lords (the feathers of France, the electors of Germany). The European king, like the Grand Duke in Russia, is only the first among equals. He is not a sovereign with full power, but a suzerain - the supreme lord of large vassals and dukes and counts.

In fact, the fiefs of vassals are a state within a state.

However, the supreme power remains.

in Russia period of feudal fragmentation begin with 12th century. As reasons this phenomenon should be called:

1. Economic reasons:

a) economic independence from Kyiv princes and boyars as a result of the development of feudal estates (boyar villages), cities, individual lands;

b) weak economic ties under the dominance of subsistence farming.

2. Domestic political reason: relative political independence of local feudal lords(i.e., the ability to maintain their squad) as a result of economic independence. Thus, processes similar to the formation of the state were experienced by other lands.

3. foreign policy reason: disappearance of external danger on the part of the Polovtsians, it relieved the princes of the obligation to unite for a joint struggle under the leadership of the Kyiv prince.

The fragmentation of Russia into principalities did not mean the collapse of the Russian land. Saved:

Family, contractual, allied and subordinate relations;

Unified law based on Russian truth;

One Church, headed by the Metropolitan of Kyiv;

A close system of monetary account and measures and weights;

The commonality of culture and the feeling of belonging of all lands to the Russian land.

However, centrifugal forces were stronger during that period. The main content of the political history of the lands was the struggle for power – war between princes (on "ladder" law brothers were pretenders to the throne. book. by seniority, and then his sons and nephews by seniority of the reign of their fathers, they "walked across the tables") and struggle between princes and boyars. In the 2/2 XII century. there were 15 principalities, in the 30s. 13th century ≈ 50, in the XIV century. - 250 principalities.

most developed regions Russia in the period of fragmentation were:

1. North-Eastern Russia(Rostov-Suzdal land). This is the outskirts of the Old Russian state with dense forests, sparse settlements, infertile soils (the exception was the Suzdal, Vladimir and Rostov opolye, which gave a steady harvest).

The colonization of these lands began in the XI-XII centuries. Thousands of farmers came there from South Russia because of the invasion of the Polovtsy, extensive agriculture and overpopulation of the Kiev region. The cities of Yaroslavl, Suzdal, Vladimir arose in North-Eastern Russia.

Here the power of the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh was established - Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157).

A feature of North-Eastern Russia was strong princely power opposed to the boyars. Causes this:

a) the lack of opposition to the prince in the person of the boyars as large land owners due to the recent development of the territory and the presence of a large amount of land directly from the prince;

b) the reliance of princely power on the townspeople and princely servants (moving the capital: Yuri Dolgoruky - from Rostov to Suzdal, Andrei Bogolyubsky - from Suzdal to Vladimir).

The political and economic rise of this land is associated with the sons of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrey Bogolyubsky(1157-1174) (fused cervical vertebrae, brutal murder by boyars) and Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212).

After the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, seven principalities stood out on the territory of North-Eastern Russia, and strife began under his sons. AT 1216 between them took place Lipitskaya battle- the largest battle of the period of feudal fragmentation.

By the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. the place of the Grand Duke of Kyiv was the Grand Duke of Vladimir.

2. Southwestern Russia(Galicia-Volyn land). The principality was located on fertile soil in the Carpathian region and on the banks of the river. Bug.

A feature of the Galicia-Volyn principality was equal power of boyars and princes. This is explained:

a) the long stay of Galich under the rule of Kyiv and, consequently, the strong influence of the noble boyars;

b) the economic independence of the local nobility (boyars) through trade (crossing trade routes), fertile soils;

c) the proximity of Poland and Hungary, where rivals often turned for help.

The principality reached its highest power under Roman of Galicia(1170-1205), who united the Galician and Volyn principalities. In his struggle with the boyars, the prince relied on the service feudal lords and townspeople and managed to limit the rights of large secular and spiritual feudal lords, exterminated part of the boyars.

The most dramatic was the reign Daniel Romanovich Galitsky(1221-1264), who managed to strengthen the princely power, weaken the influence of the boyars and annex the Kyiv lands to the Galicia-Volyn principality. The Principality of Roman of Galicia was one of the largest states in Europe.

3. Northwestern Russia(Novgorod and Pskov land). Novgorod owned land from the Gulf of Finland to the Urals, from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga. The city arose as a federation of tribes of Slavs, Finno-Ugric peoples and Balts. The climate of Novgorod was more severe than in North-Eastern Russia, crops are unstable, which is why the main occupation of the Novgorodians were crafts, crafts and trade(including with Western Europe - Sweden, Denmark, the German Union of Merchants - the Hansa).

The socio-political system of Novgorod differed from other Russian lands. Played the main role in Novgorod veche.

See diagram: Novgorod land XII-XV centuries.

8 Archbishop- elected at the meeting Head of the Novgorod Church Region. Functions:

▪ carried out church court,

▪ controlled foreign policy,

▪ kept treasury,

▪ was in charge state lands,

▪ controlled measures and weights.

9 Posadnik – head of Novgorod, elected at a veche from the boyars. Functions:

▪ judgment,

▪ monitoring the activities of the prince,

▪ implementation international negotiations,

▪ maintenance all lands,

▪ assignment and displacement officials,

▪ command of an army(together with the prince).

10 Tysyatsky- elected at the meeting assistant posadnik. Functions:

▪ management urban population,

▪ commercial court,

▪ command of the people's militia,

▪ collection of taxes.

11 prince- invited to the evening supreme judge(together with the posadnik) and army commander. Functions:

▪ collection of taxes for the maintenance of their own squad,

▪ had no right to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod and own land.

12 Novgorod veche – city ​​assembly of representatives(400-500 people), who resolved issues

▪ war and peace,

▪ calling and exile of the prince.

13 Konchansky vecha – people's meetings of the inhabitants of the ends(districts) of Novgorod: Nerevsky, Lyudin and Zagorodsky (on the Sofia side), Slovenian and Plotnitsky (on the Trade side).

14 street vecha – public meetings of residents of the streets of Novgorod.

Since 1136, the prince was forbidden to interfere in the internal affairs of Novgorod and to have land.

Thus, Novgorod was boyar aristocratic republic.

The period of feudal fragmentation cannot be unambiguously evaluate, because, on the one hand, at this time there is urban growth and cultural flourishing, and, on the other hand, decrease in the country's defense capability than used enemies from the east ( Mongol-Tatars) and from the west ("crusaders").

The Golden Horde stretched from the shores of the Pacific Ocean to the Adriatic and included China, Central Asia, Transcaucasia, and then most of the Russian principalities.

AT 1223 between those who came from the depths of Asia Mongols on the one hand, and the Polovtsy and the Russian troops invited by them, on the other hand, a battle took place on R. Kalka. The battle ended with the complete defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian army.

But the battle on the Kalka did not lead to the unification of the princes in the face of imminent danger. AT 1237-1238. Mongols led by the grandson of Genghis Khan Batu began a campaign against the Russian lands. Northeast Russia was burned and looted. AT 1239-1240. - a new trip to Southern and Southwestern Russia, which ended with the complete subordination of the Russian lands to the Mongols. Russia has become province (ulus) huge empire of the Mongols - the Golden Horde.

The power of the Mongol-Tatar khans was established over Russia - Horde yoke, finalized by the middle of the thirteenth century.

See diagram: Russian lands of the XIV-XV centuries.

15 Grand Duke – senior from the Rurik dynasty, label holder(Khan's permission) for a great reign, tribute collector for the Golden Horde.

16 Specific princes – rulers of specific principalities.

17 Good boyars- the boyars of the Grand Duke, who were in charge of various industries public administration.

18 Coffers- Department of the Grand Duke. Functions:

▪ maintenance archive,

▪ storage printing,

▪ management finance,

▪ control over foreign policy.

19 Volosteli – representatives of the prince in the countryside who exercised power:

▪ administrative,

▪ judicial,

▪ military.

Traveled across Russian lands Basques- Khan's spies, and the Russian princes, the "servants" of the khans, were supposed to:

Receive in the Golden Horde label- the right to reign;

To pay tribute or output(A year, 15 thousand rubles in silver and gold; Rusich gave the 1st skin of a bear, beaver, sable, ferret, black fox, this is the cost of 3 rams or 1/10 of the crop. Those who did not pay tribute became a slave) and emergency khan requests;

An exception was made for the Russian church, for which Orthodox priests and monks publicly prayed for the health of the khans and blessed them.

contemporaries about the Horde: Northwestern Russia opposed the Horde. Strong rich cities, not ruined by the Mongols - Novgorod, Pskov, Polotsk - actively resisted the penetration of the Tatar Baskaks, the census and the collection of tribute.

Southwestern Russia opposed the Horde. Daniil Galitsky, in order to fight against the Khan, entered into an alliance with the head of the Western Christian Church - the Pope, who promised help in exchange for the spread of Catholicism in Russia. But there was no real help from the West.

Rostov and Vladimir princes, who were supported by the church, advocated peace with the Horde. Realizing that Russia did not have the strength and means to fight, Alexander Nevsky (1252-1263), who became the Grand Duke of Vladimir, suppressed popular uprisings against the collection of tribute in the Novgorod land, Rostov, Suzdal, Yaroslavl and repeatedly traveled to the Horde.

The reasons for the defeat Russians were:

1. dispersion of forces due to the feudal fragmentation of Russia,

2. numerical superiority of the enemy and his training,

3. use of Chinese siege equipment(ramming machines, stone throwers, gunpowder, etc.)

Consequences of the Mongol invasion were:

1. reduction in the country's population,

2. destruction of cities(out of 74 cities, 49 were ruined, including 14 - completely, 15 - turned into villages), the decline of the craft,

3. relocation of the center of political life from Kyiv, which lost its significance due to the defeat, to Vladimir,

4. weakening the power of the feudal nobility and the prince due to the death of many combatants and boyars,

5. termination of international trade relations.

The historian L.N. does not agree with this opinion. Gumilyov, who considered Batu’s campaign not a systematic conquest, but only a big raid, since the Mongols did not leave garrisons, did not tax the population with a constant tax, and did not conclude unequal treaties with the princes. Gumilyov considered the crusaders to be a more serious danger to Russia.

Decided to attack Russia, weakened as a result of the invasion of the Mongol-Tatars Western European feudal lords, continuing "onslaught to the East"- the conquest of the eastern lands under the banner of the "crusades". Their goal was spread of Catholicism.

AT 1240- took place Neva battle where is the prince of novgorod Alexander defeated the Swedish feudal lords, who went on a reconnaissance campaign against Russia. For the victory in the battle, Alexander received the nickname Nevsky.

The threat from the West, however, was not eliminated. AT 1242 the Germans attacked North-Western Russia, capturing Pskov and Izoborsk. Alexander Nevsky on ice Lake Peipsi defeated the crusaders. "Onslaught to the East" was stopped.

So, despite the difficult conditions of the Horde yoke, the ruin of the economy, the death of people, Russia, nevertheless, retained its cultural and historical originality.

What did the military reform of Charles Martel change in Frankish society?

Why did the empire of Charlemagne collapse? What is feudalism? one.

"There is no war without fires and blood." In

times of feudal fragmentation (IX-XI centuries), the possession of any large feudal lord became, as it were, a state within a state.

The feudal lord collected taxes from the subject population, judged him, could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them.

A feast at a noble lord. Medieval miniature

Peasants harvest.

Medieval miniature

2 - E. V. Agibalova

The battle of the Franks, led by Roland, with the locals in the Pyrenees. Miniature of the 14th century.

The gentlemen almost constantly fought among themselves: such wars were called internecine. During civil strife burned

Roland's death. Cathedral stained glass. 13th century On the right, a mortally wounded Roland blows his horn, calling for help. Left - he unsuccessfully tries to break the sword on the rock

villages, cattle were stolen, crops were trampled. The most affected by this

peasants. 2.

Seniors and vassals.

Each large feudal lord distributed part of the land with peasants to small feudal lords as a reward for their service, they also gave him an oath of allegiance. He was considered in relation to these feudal lords

(senior), and the feudal lords, who, as it were, "kept" lands from him, became his vassals (subordinates).

Vassals were required to

the order of the seigneur to go on a campaign and bring a detachment of soldiers with him, to participate in the buzz of the seigneur, to help him with advice, to redeem the seigneur from captivity. The lord defended “my vassals from attacks by other feudal lords and rebellious peasants, rewarded them for their service, and was obliged to take care of their orphaned children.

It happened that the vassals opposed their lords, did not follow their orders, or went over to another lord. And then only force could force them to obey. 3.

Feudal staircase. The king was considered the head of all the feudal lords and the first lord of the country: he was the supreme judge in disputes between them and led the army during the war. The king was a senior for the highest nobility (aristocracy) - dukes and gra-

An excerpt from "The Song of Roland"

In the 11th century, the French epic "Song of Roland" was recorded. In it, pI tells about the heroic death of the detachment of Count Roland during the retreat of Charlemagne from Spain and about the revenge of the King of the Franks for the death of his nephew:

The count felt that death overtook him,

Cold sweat trickles down the forehead.

The count says: “Our Lady, help me,

It's time for us, Durandal6, to say goodbye to you,

I don't need you anymore.

With you, we beat many enemies,

With you, we conquered large lands.

There, Charles the gray-beard rules now ... "

He turned his face to Spain,

So that Charles the King could see,

When he is here again with the army,

That the count died, but won the battle.

What qualities of a vassal were valued in the early Middle Ages?

fov. In their possessions there were usually hundreds of villages, they disposed of large detachments of warriors. Below were barons and viscounts - vassals of dukes and earls. Usually they owned two or three dozen villages and could put up a detachment of warriors. The barons were the lords of the knights, who sometimes no longer had their own vassals, but only dependent peasants. Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and a vassal of a larger one. In Germany and France, the rule was: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal."

feudal stairs

king! Dukes and Counts Barons Historians call this organization of feudal lords the feudal ladder. Despite the frequent conflicts between the feudal lords, which even the kings themselves could not always cope with, vassal relations united the lords into a single class in terms of value, place in society (although it consisted of different layers and groups). This was a class of noble (from a good family) people who dominated the common people.

When a war broke out with another state, the king called for the campaign of dukes and counts, and they turned to the barons, who brought detachments of knights with them. This is how the feudal army was created, which is usually called knightly (from the German "ritter" - a rider, an equestrian warrior).

L. The weakness of royal power in France. The power of the last kings of the Carolingian dynasty in France was significantly weakened. Contemporaries gave the kings humiliating nicknames: Charles the Fat, Charles the Simple, Ludovic the Zaika, Ludoik the Lazy.

At the end of the 10th century, the great feudal lords of France elected the rich and influential Count of Paris, Hugo Capet, as king (the nickname is given by the name of his favorite headdress - the hood). From then until the end of the 18th century, the royal throne remained in the hands of the Capetian dynasty or its side branches - the Valois, the Bourbons.

The French kingdom then consisted of 14 large feudal estates. Many feudal lords had more extensive lands than the king himself. Dukes and counts considered the king only the first among equals and did not always obey his orders.

The king owned a domain (domain) in the northeast of the country with the cities of Paris on the Seine River and Orleans on the Loire River. In the rest of the lands towered the castles of recalcitrant vassals. According to a contemporary, the inhabitants of these "hornet nests"

"devoured the country with their robbery".

Having no power over the whole country, the king did not issue general laws, could not collect taxes from its population.

Therefore, the king had neither a permanent strong army, nor paid officials. His military forces consisted of detachments of vassals who received fiefs in his possession, and he ruled with the help of his courtiers.

Otto I. Image from the chronicle of the XII century. 5.

Formation of the Holy Roman Empire. In Germany, the power of the king was at first stronger than in France. A single state was necessary to protect against external enemies.

Attacks by the Hungarians (Magyars) were very frequent. These tribes of nomadic pastoralists moved at the end of the 9th century from the foothills of the Southern Urals to Europe and occupied the plain between the Danube and Tisza rivers. From there, the light cavalry of the Hungarians raided the countries of Western Europe. She broke through the Rhine, reached Paris. But Germany suffered especially: the Hungarians ravaged and captured many of its inhabitants.

In 955, German and Czech troops led by the German king Otto I utterly defeated the Hungarians in a battle in southern Germany. Soon the Hungarian invasions ceased. At the beginning of the 11th century, the kingdom of Hungary was formed, where King Stephen introduced Christianity.

In 962, taking advantage of the fragmentation of Italy, Otto I marched on Rome, and the pope proclaimed him emperor. In addition to Germany, part of Italy fell under the rule of Otto I. So the Roman Empire was restored once again. Later, this political entity began to be called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.

This became possible because Germany and Italy at that time also did not

2* Dust united states. Like France, they consisted of many separate independent duchies, counties, baronies, principalities, etc., each of which had its main city, its sovereign, its own flag and coat of arms. Feudal fragmentation in these countries existed throughout the Middle Ages.

Crown and hold; emperors of the late Roman Empire

The emperor wanted to be considered the head of all the rulers of Europe. But real power was limited. Even the German dukes gradually gained independence from him. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king, in order to be crowned with the imperial crown, had to make a campaign for the Alps and conquer Italy again.

1. Prove that every major feudal lord had such power in his possessions as the ruler of the state. Why was it possible? 2. What was the weakness of royal power in France in the 9th-11th centuries? 3. How was the Holy Roman Empire formed? 4. Explain why the German emperors sought to be crowned in Rome. 5. Calculate how many years there was not a single empire in Europe (how much time elapsed between the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne and the proclamation of Emperor Otto I).

S1. If the king, under feudal fragmentation, was considered only "first among equals", then why was royal power preserved at all? 2. Can one knight be a vassal of several lords? Justify your answer 3.

The laws of Germany in the 11th century say that a lord cannot take away a fief from you without guilt, but only if the vassal violated his duties: leave the lord in battle, attacked the lord or killed his brother. What role did this law play in the organization of medieval society? 4. Were peasants included in the feudal ladder? Why? 5. Pair up with one-kp. See the dialogue between the lord and his vassal, who are discussing the controversial situation about the breaking of the vassal oath. What arguments will both sides bring in p (asserting their innocence? How will the dispute end?

In the history of the early feudal states of Europe in the X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. "There is no land without a lord." The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.

Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and the big lords behaved completely independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation.

It is known that on the territory that collapsed in the middle of the 9th century. Three new states arose in the empire of Charlemagne: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial seigneurial formations.

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from the peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king.

The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror. As a result, the country, moving towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a cohesive state with strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent in this period.

The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out mass confiscation of landed property. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now in different parts of England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of the border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 - in 6-10 counties, 12 - in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of the barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example, in France.

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state consolidation. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over dependent countries, needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other countries of Europe the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for the princes developed. As a result, the imperial power gradually lost its positions and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords.

In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the tenth century. cities (the result of the separation of craft from agriculture), did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and the cities. Therefore, the German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And, finally, Germany has not formed, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of political unification. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

In Byzantium at the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonials, who had an apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service.

The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to the fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European cities. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and marketing of their products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became sovereign masters in the cities.

Increasing tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin Empire and several other states were formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of ​​cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of craft from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mainly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government, became commune cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in the countries of Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France.

The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the countryside in this process undermined the subsistence economy and created conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, seeking to increase their income, began to transfer land to the peasants for hereditary holding, reduced the lord's plowing, encouraged internal colonization, willingly accepted fugitive peasants, populated uncultivated lands with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quite quickly this process took place in England, France, Italy.

The development of social relations in Kievan Rus is probably following the same scenario. The onset of a period of feudal fragmentation fits into the framework of the all-European process. As in Western Europe, tendencies towards political fragmentation in Russia appeared early. Already in the tenth century after the death of Prince Vladimir in 1015, a struggle for power breaks out between his children. However, a single ancient Russian state existed until the death of Prince Mstislav (1132). Since that time, historical science has been counting down the feudal fragmentation in Russia.

What are the reasons for this phenomenon? What contributed to the fact that the unified state of the Rurikovich quickly disintegrated into many large and small principalities? There are many such reasons.

Let's highlight the most important of them.

The main reason is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his warriors as a result of the settlement of warriors on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery was less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century. the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified. And from the first half of the XII century. in Kievan Rus, the votchina becomes the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although the possession of a fiefdom imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to perform military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke was significantly weakened. The incomes of the former feudal combatants no longer depended on the mercy of the prince. They made their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provides for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his fiefdom. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered court. As a result, a state apparatus, a squad, courts, prisons, etc., are formed in independent principalities-patrimonies, and specific princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their own behalf to boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kyiv changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it was in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: Vladimir-Suzdal principality (North-Eastern Rus), Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Rus) and Novgorod land (North-Western Rus). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes and destructive wars took place for a long time, which weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

Foreign conquerors did not fail to take advantage of this circumstance. The uncoordinated actions of the Russian princes, the desire to achieve victory over the enemy at the expense of others, while maintaining their own army, the lack of a unified command led to the first defeat of the Russian army in the battle with the Tatar-Mongols on the Kalka River on May 31, 1223. Serious disagreements between the princes, which did not allow them to act as a united front in the face of the Tatar-Mongol aggression, led to the capture and destruction of Ryazan (1237). In February 1238, the Russian militia on the Sit River was defeated, Vladimir and Suzdal were captured. In October 1239, Chernigov was besieged and taken; in the fall of 1240, Kyiv was captured. Thus, from the beginning of the 40s. 13th century the period of Russian history begins, which is usually called the Tatar-Mongol yoke, which lasted until the second half of the 15th century.

It should be noted that the Tatar-Mongols did not occupy Russian lands during this period, since this territory was of little use for the economic activity of nomadic peoples. But this yoke was very real. Russia found itself in vassal dependence on the Tatar-Mongol khans. Each prince, including the Grand Duke, had to receive permission from the khan to rule the "table", the khan's label. The population of the Russian lands was subject to heavy tribute in favor of the Mongols, there were constant raids of the conquerors, which led to the devastation of the lands and the destruction of the population.

At the same time, a new dangerous enemy appeared on the northwestern borders of Russia - in 1240 the Swedes, and then in 1240-1242. German crusaders. It turned out that the Novgorod land had to defend its independence and its type of development under pressure from both the East and the West. The struggle for the independence of the Novgorod land was led by the young prince Alexander Yaroslavich. His tactics were based on the struggle against the Catholic West and concession to the East (Golden Horde). As a result, the Swedish troops that landed in July 1240 at the mouth of the Neva were defeated by the retinue of the Novgorod prince, who received the honorary nickname "Nevsky" for this victory.

Following the Swedes, German knights attacked the Novgorod land, which at the beginning of the 13th century. settled in the Baltics. In 1240 they captured Izborsk, then Pskov. Alexander Nevsky, who led the fight against the crusaders, managed to liberate Pskov in the winter of 1242, and then on the ice of Lake Peipsi in the famous battle on the ice (April 5, 1242) inflicted a decisive defeat on the German knights. After that, they no longer made serious attempts to seize Russian lands.

Thanks to the efforts of Alexander Nevsky and his descendants in the Novgorod land, despite the dependence on the Golden Horde, the traditions of Western orientation were preserved and features of subjection began to form.

However, in general, by the end of the XIII century. North-Eastern and Southern Russia fell under the influence of the Golden Horde, lost ties with the West and the previously established features of progressive development. It is difficult to overestimate the negative consequences that the Tatar-Mongol yoke had for Russia. Most historians agree that the Tatar-Mongol yoke significantly delayed the socio-economic, political and spiritual development of the Russian state, changed the nature of statehood, giving it the form of relations characteristic of the nomadic peoples of Asia.

It is known that in the fight against the Tatar-Mongols, the princely squads took the first blow. The vast majority of them died. Together with the old nobility, the traditions of vassal-druzhina relations left. Now, with the formation of the new nobility, the relationship of allegiance was established.

Relations between princes and cities changed. Veche (with the exception of the Novgorod land) has lost its significance. The prince in such conditions acted as the only protector and master.

Thus, Russian statehood begins to acquire the features of oriental despotism with its cruelty, arbitrariness, complete disregard for the people and the individual. As a result, a peculiar type of feudalism was formed in Russia, in which the “Asian element” is quite strongly represented. The formation of this peculiar type of feudalism was facilitated by the fact that, as a result of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, Russia developed for 240 years in isolation from Europe.

Ministry of Sports of the Russian Federation FGBOU VPO "Povolzhskaya GAFKSIT"

ESSAY

in history

SUBJECT:Feudal fragmentation in Western

Europe

Completed:

Abdullin Nurzat Almazovich, student 4213z

Accepted:

Shabalina Yulia Vladimirovna

Kazan

1) Feudal fragmentation is a natural process.

2) Feudal fragmentation in Western Europe

a) Feudal fragmentation in England

b) The development of medieval Germany

c) Growth of Byzantine cities

d) a predatory campaign in Italy

e) Reasons for the fragmentation of Western Europe

f) War between feudal lords

g) Feudal staircase

h) Summary

Introduction

With the branching of the ruling dynasty in the early feudal states, the expansion of their territory and the administrative apparatus, whose representatives exercise the power of the monarch over the local population, collecting tribute and troops, the number of contenders for central power increases, peripheral military resources increase, and the control capabilities of the center weaken. The supreme power becomes nominal, and the monarch begins to be elected by large feudal lords from his midst, while the resources of the elected monarch, as a rule, are limited by the resources of his original principality, and he cannot transfer supreme power by inheritance. In this situation, the rule "the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal" works.

The first exceptions are England in the north-west of Europe (the Salisbury oath of 1085, all feudal lords are direct vassals of the king) and Byzantium in its south-east (at about the same time, Emperor Alexei I Komnenos forced the crusaders who seized the lands in the Middle East, recognize vassal dependence on the empire, thereby including these lands in the empire and preserving its unity). In these cases, all the lands of the state are divided into the domain of the monarch and the lands of his vassals, as in the next historical stage, when the supreme power is assigned to one of the princes, it again begins to be inherited and the process of centralization begins (this stage is often called a patrimonial monarchy).

The full development of feudalism became a prerequisite for the end of feudal fragmentation, since the overwhelming majority of the feudal stratum, its ordinary representatives, were objectively interested in having a single spokesman for their interests:

Feudal fragmentation is natural

process

In the history of the early feudal states of Europe in the X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. "There is no land without a lord." The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords. Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and the big lords behaved completely independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation. It is known that on the territory that collapsed in the middle of the 9th century. Three new states arose in the empire of Charlemagne: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the tenth century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial seigneurial formations

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the process

the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of ​​cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves. The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. Ultimately, these circumstances led to the separation of craft from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade. As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mainly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from such dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the X-XIII centuries. went down in history under the name of "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government, became commune cities. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in the countries of Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France. The development of commodity-money relations and the involvement of the countryside in this process undermined the subsistence economy and created conditions for the development of the domestic market. The feudal lords, seeking to increase their income, began to transfer land to the peasants for hereditary holding, reduced the lord's plowing, encouraged internal colonization, willingly accepted fugitive peasants, populated uncultivated lands with them and provided them with personal freedom. The estates of the feudal lords were also drawn into market relations. These circumstances led to a change in the forms of feudal rent, the weakening, and then the complete elimination of personal feudal dependence. Quite quickly this process took place in England, France, Italy. .

Feudal fragmentation in Western Europe

Feudal fragmentation in England

The process of feudal fragmentation in the X-XII centuries. began to develop in England. This was facilitated by the transfer by the royal power to the nobility of the right to collect feudal duties from the peasants and their lands. As a result of this, the feudal lord (secular or ecclesiastical), who received such an award, becomes the full owner of the land occupied by the peasants and their personal master. The private property of the feudal lords grew, they became economically stronger and sought greater independence from the king. The situation changed after England in 1066 was conquered by the Duke of Normandy William the Conqueror. As a result, the country, moving towards feudal fragmentation, turned into a cohesive state with strong monarchical power. This is the only example on the European continent in this period.

The point was that the conquerors deprived many representatives of the former nobility of their possessions, carrying out mass confiscation of landed property. The king became the actual owner of the land, who transferred part of it as fiefs to his warriors and part of the local feudal lords who expressed their readiness to serve him. But these possessions were now in different parts of England. The only exceptions were a few counties, which were located on the outskirts of the country and were intended for the defense of the border areas. The dispersion of feudal estates (130 large vassals had land in 2-5 counties, 29 - in 6-10 counties, 12 - in 10-21 counties), their private return to the king served as an obstacle to the transformation of the barons into independent landowners, as it was, for example in France

Development of medieval Germany

The development of medieval Germany was characterized by a certain originality. Until the 13th century it was one of the most powerful states in Europe. And then the process of internal political fragmentation begins to develop rapidly here, the country breaks up into a number of independent associations, while other Western European countries embarked on the path of state consolidation. The fact is that the German emperors, in order to maintain their power over dependent countries, needed the military assistance of the princes and were forced to make concessions to them. Thus, if in other countries of Europe the royal power deprived the feudal nobility of its political privileges, then in Germany the process of legislative consolidation of the highest state rights for the princes developed. As a result, the imperial power gradually lost its positions and became dependent on large secular and church feudal lords. . In addition, in Germany, despite the rapid development already in the tenth century. cities (the result of the separation of craft from agriculture), did not develop, as was the case in England, France and other countries, an alliance between the royal power and the cities. Therefore, the German cities were unable to play an active role in the political centralization of the country. And, finally, Germany has not formed, like England or France, a single economic center that could become the core of political unification. Each principality lived separately. As the princely power strengthened, the political and economic fragmentation of Germany intensified.

Growth of Byzantine cities

In Byzantium at the beginning of the XII century. the formation of the main institutions of feudal society was completed, a feudal estate was formed, and the bulk of the peasants were already in land or personal dependence. The imperial power, presenting wide privileges to secular and church feudal lords, contributed to their transformation into all-powerful patrimonials, who had an apparatus of judicial and administrative power and armed squads. It was the payment of the emperors to the feudal lords for their support and service. The development of crafts and trade led at the beginning of the XII century. to the fairly rapid growth of Byzantine cities. But unlike Western Europe, they did not belong to individual feudal lords, but were under the rule of the state, which did not seek an alliance with the townspeople. Byzantine cities did not achieve self-government, like Western European cities. The townspeople, subjected to cruel fiscal exploitation, were thus forced to fight not with the feudal lords, but with the state. Strengthening the positions of feudal lords in the cities, establishing their control over trade and marketing of their products, undermined the well-being of merchants and artisans. With the weakening of imperial power, the feudal lords became absolute masters in the cities. . Increasing tax oppression led to frequent uprisings that weakened the state. At the end of the XII century. the empire began to fall apart. This process accelerated after the capture of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders. The empire fell, and the Latin Empire and several other states were formed on its ruins. And although in 1261 the Byzantine state was restored again (it happened after the fall of the Latin Empire), but the former power was no longer there. This continued until the fall of Byzantium under the blows of the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Plundering campaign in Italy

In the X century, the German feudal lords, led by their king, began to make predatory campaigns in Italy. Having captured part of Italy with the city of Rome, the German king declared himself Roman emperor. The new state was later called the "Holy Roman Empire". But it was a very weak state. The large feudal lords of Germany did not submit to the emperor. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king had to make a campaign for the Alps in order to conquer the country again. For several centuries in a row, German feudal lords plundered and ravaged Italy.

The states of Western Europe were not united. Each of them broke up into large fiefs, which were divided into many small ones. In Germany, for example, there were about 200 small states. Some of them were so small that they jokingly said: “The head of the ruler, when he goes to bed, lies on his land, and his legs have to be pulled into the possession of a neighbor.” It was a time of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe

Reasons for the fragmentation of Western Europe

Why were the states of Western Europe fragmented? With subsistence farming, there were not and could not be strong trade ties between individual parts of the country, there were no ties even between individual estates. In each estate, the population lived its own isolated life and had little contact with people from other places. People spent most of their lives in their village. Yes, they had no reason to go anywhere: after all, everything necessary was produced on the spot.

Each fief was almost an independent state. The feudal lord had a detachment of warriors, collected taxes from the population, performed judgment and reprisals on them. He himself could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them. Whoever owned the land had the power.

Large feudal lords - dukes and counts - had little regard for the king. They claimed that the king was only "first among equals", that is, they considered themselves no less noble than the king. Many large feudal lords themselves were not averse to seizing the royal throne.

The dominance of natural economy led to the fragmentation of the states of Western Europe. Royal power in the IX - X centuries. was very weak.

War between feudal lords

In times of fragmentation, the feudal lords continuously fought among themselves. These wars were called internecine wars
.

Why did internecine wars break out? The feudal lords sought to take away each other's land along with the peasants who lived on it. The more serfs the feudal lord had, the stronger and richer he was, since serfs were liable for the use of land.

Wishing to undermine the strength of his enemy, the feudal lord ruined his peasants: he burned villages, drove cattle, trampled crops.

The peasants suffered the most from internecine wars; the feudal lords could sit behind the strong walls of their castles.

feudal stairs

In order to have his own military detachment, each feudal lord distributed part of the land with serfs to smaller feudal lords. In relation to these feudal lords, the owner of the land was a lord (“senior”), and those who received land from him were his vassals, that is, military servants. Taking possession of the feud, the vassal knelt before the lord and took an oath of allegiance to him. As a sign of the transfer, the feudal lord handed over to the vassal a handful of earth and a tree branch.

The king was considered the head of all feudal lords in the country. He was the lord for dukes and counts.

In their possessions there were usually hundreds of villages, they disposed of large detachments of warriors.

A step below stood barons - vassals of dukes and earls. Usually they owned two or three dozen villages and could put up a detachment of warriors.

Barons were lords of petty feudal lords - knights.

Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and a vassal of a larger one. Vassals were to obey only their lords. If they were not vassals of the king, then they were not obliged to follow his orders. This order was fixed by the rule: Vassal of my vassal is not my vassal».

Relations between feudal lords resemble a ladder, on the upper steps of which stand the largest feudal lords, on the lower steps - small ones. These relationships are called feudal stairs

The peasants did not enter the feudal ladder. And seigneurs, vassals were feudal lords. All of them - from the petty knight of the king - lived on the labor of serfs.

The vassal was obliged, by order of his lord, to go on a campaign with him and lead a detachment of soldiers. In addition, he had to help the lord with advice and redeem him from captivity.

The lord defended his vassals from the attacks of other feudal lords and from the rebellious peasants. If the peasants rebelled in the village of the knight, he sent a messenger to the seigneur, and he, with his detachment, hurried to his aid.

When a war broke out with another state, the entire feudal ladder, as it were, began to move. The king called for the campaign of dukes and counts, they turned to the barons, who led the detachments of knights. This is how the feudal army was created. But vassals often did not follow the orders of their lords. In such cases, only force could force them to obey.

During the period of fragmentation, the feudal ladder was the organization of the feudal class. With its help, the feudal lords waged wars and helped each other to keep the peasants in subjection.

Conclusion

Feudal fragmentation is a progressive phenomenon in the development of feudal relations. The collapse of the early feudal empires into independent principalities-kingdoms was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society, whether it concerned Russia in Eastern Europe, France in Western Europe, or the Golden Horde in the East. Feudal fragmentation was progressive because it was the result of the development of feudal relations, the deepening of the social division of labor, which resulted in the rise of agriculture, the flourishing of handicrafts, and the growth of cities. For the development of feudalism, a different scale and structure of the state was needed, adapted to the needs and aspirations of the feudal lords.

Bibliography

Textbook. History of the Middle Ages. V.A. Vedyushkin. M "Enlightenment" 2009

2. History of the Middle Ages. M. Boytsov, R Shukurov. M.

"Miros", 1995

3.R.Yu.Viller Brief textbook of the history of the Middle Ages

1-2 parts M. School - Press, 1993

The states of Western Europe in the Middle Ages were not integral. Each represented several large feudal estates, which, in turn, were divided into smaller ones. For example, in Germany there were about two hundred small states. Most of them were too small, and they were said in jest that the head of the sleeping ruler was on his land, and his outstretched legs were in the possessions of his neighbor. It was an era of feudal fragmentation that captured

This topic will be of great interest not only to students, for whom it is summarized in the textbook “General History. Grade 6, as well as adults, who may have forgotten a little schoolwork.

Definition of the term

Feudalism is a political system that arose in the Middle Ages and operated on the territory of the then European states. Countries under this order of government were divided into areas called fiefs. These lands were distributed by monarchs-suzerains for long-term use to noble subjects - vassals. The owners, in whose administration the territories fell, were obliged to pay tribute to the state treasury every year, and also to send a certain number of knights and other armed warriors to the ruler's army. And for this, the vassals, in turn, not only received all the rights to use the land, but also could manage the labor and destinies of people who were considered their subjects.

The collapse of the empire

After the death of Charlemagne in 814, his successors failed to save the state he created from disintegration. And all the prerequisites and causes of feudal fragmentation began to appear precisely from the very moment when the Frankish nobles, or rather, the counts, who were officials of the empire, began to seize lands. At the same time, they turned the free population living there into their vassals and forced peasants.

The feudal lords owned estates, called seigneuries, which were actually closed farms. All the goods necessary for life were produced on their territories, from food to materials for the construction of castles - well-fortified structures where the owners of these lands themselves lived. It can be said that feudal fragmentation in Europe also arose thanks to such a subsistence economy, which contributes to the complete independence of the nobles.

Over time, the position of the count began to be inherited and was assigned to the largest landowners. They ceased to obey the emperor, and turned medium and small feudal lords into their vassals.

Treaty of Verdun

With the death of Charlemagne, quarrels begin in his family, which lead to real wars. At this time, the largest feudal lords begin to support them. But, finally tired of constant hostilities, in 843 the grandchildren of Charlemagne decided to meet in the city of Verdun, where they signed an agreement according to which the empire was divided into three parts.

In accordance with the agreement, one part of the land passed into the possession of Louis the German. He began to rule over the territory north of the Alps and east of the Rhine. This state was called East Frankish. German dialects were spoken here.

The second part was taken over by Karl, who bore the nickname Bald. These were lands located to the west of the rivers Rhone, Scheldt and Meuse. They became known as the West Frankish Kingdom. Languages ​​were spoken here that later formed the basis of modern French.

The third part of the land, along with the title of emperor, went to the eldest of the brothers - Lothair. He owned the territory located along as well as Italy. But soon the brothers quarreled, and war broke out between them again. Louis and Charles united against Lothair, took away his lands and divided them among themselves. At this time, the title of emperor meant almost nothing.

It was after the division of the former state of Charlemagne in Western Europe that the period of feudal fragmentation began. Subsequently, the possessions of the three brothers turned into countries that exist to this day - these are Italy, Germany and France.

Medieval European states

In addition to the empire of Charlemagne, there was another large European state. In 1066, the Duke of Normandy (a region located in northern France), who subjugated the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, united them and became the king of England. His name was William the Conqueror.

To the east of the German lands, such as the Czech Republic, Poland and Kievan Rus were already formed. And where the nomads who came here dominated, over time, the Kingdom of Hungary appeared. In addition, Sweden, Denmark and Norway emerged in the northern part of Europe. All these states were united for some time.

The collapse of medieval states

So what were the reasons for feudal fragmentation here? The reason for the collapse of the empires of that time was not only the civil strife of the rulers. As you know, the lands that were part of the state of Charlemagne were united by force of arms. Therefore, the reasons for feudal fragmentation also lie in the fact that there was an attempt to gather within the framework of one empire completely different peoples who did not want to live together. For example, the population of the West Frankish kingdom was called French, the East Frankish kingdom was called Germans, and the peoples living in Italy were called Italians. An interesting fact is that the very first documents compiled in the languages ​​​​of the peoples living here appeared precisely during the struggle for power of the grandchildren of Emperor Charlemagne. So, Louis the German signed a treaty, which stated that they vowed to oppose their elder brother Lothair together. These papers were drawn up in French and German.

The power of the nobles

The causes of feudal fragmentation in Europe largely depended on the actions of the counts and dukes, who were a kind of governors in various parts of the country. But over time, when they began to feel almost unlimited power, the feudal lords ceased to obey the main ruler. Now they served only the owners of the lands on whose territory their estates were located. At the same time, they reported directly to the duke or count, and even then only during hostilities, when they went on a campaign at the head of their own troops. When peace came, they were completely independent and ruled their lands and the people who inhabited them as they saw fit.

feudal stairs

In order to create their own army, dukes and earls gave away part of their territories to smaller landowners. Thus, some became seigneurs (chief), while others became their vassals (military servants). Entering into the rights of ownership of the feud, the vassal knelt before his liege and swore allegiance to him. In return, the master gave his subject a branch of a tree and a handful of earth.

The main feudal lord in the state was the king. He was considered a seigneur for counts and dukes. Their possessions included hundreds of villages and a large number of military units. One step below were the barons, who were vassals of counts and dukes. They usually owned no more than three dozen villages and a detachment of warriors. The small feudal lords-knights were subordinate to the barons.

As a result of the resulting hierarchy, a feudal lord with an average income was a lord for a small one, but at the same time he himself was a vassal for a larger noble. Therefore, a rather interesting situation developed. Those nobles who were not vassals of the king were not obliged to obey him and carry out his orders. There was even a special rule. It read: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal."

Relations between the estates resembled a ladder, where on the lower steps were small feudal lords, and on the upper steps were larger ones headed by the king. It was this division that later became known as the feudal ladder. The peasants were not included in it, since all the lords and vassals lived off their labor.

Natural economy

The reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Western Europe also lay in the fact that the inhabitants of not only individual regions, but also villages, practically did not need any connections with other settlements. They could make all the necessary things, food and tools themselves or simply barter from their neighbors. At that time, there was just the heyday of subsistence farming, when trade itself ceased to exist.

Military policy

Feudal fragmentation, the causes and consequences of which had a significant impact on the military power of the royal army itself, could not only strengthen it, but also increase the authority of the central government in the eyes of large landowners. The feudal lords already by the tenth century managed to acquire their own squads. Therefore, the personal army of the king could not fully resist such vassals. In those days, the ruler of the state was only a conditional head of the entire then hierarchical system. In fact, the country was under the rule of nobles - dukes, barons and princes.

Causes of the collapse of European states

So, all the main causes of feudal fragmentation were identified in the process of studying the cultural and socio-economic development of the countries of Western Europe in the Middle Ages. Such a political system led to an upsurge in terms of material well-being, as well as a flourishing in the spiritual direction. Historians have come to the conclusion that feudal fragmentation was a completely natural and objective process. But this applies only to European countries.

Here are the causes of feudal fragmentation common to all states, without exception, briefly formulated in two paragraphs:

● Presence of subsistence farming. On the one hand, it ensured a rather sharp rise in prosperity and trade, as well as the rapid development of land ownership, and on the other hand, the complete absence of any specialization of individual regions and extremely limited economic ties with other lands.

● Settled way of life of the squad. In other words, the transformation of its members into feudal lords, whose privilege was the right to own land. In addition, their power over the peasant class was unlimited. They had the opportunity to judge people and punish them for various offenses. This caused some weakening of the influence of the policy of the central government on certain territories. There were also prerequisites for the successful solution of military tasks by the forces of the local population.

Feudal fragmentation of Russian lands

The processes taking place in Western Europe since the 10th century could not bypass the principality where the Eastern Slavs lived. But it should be noted that the causes of feudal fragmentation in Russia were of a special nature. This can be explained by other socio-economic trends, as well as local customs of succession to the throne.

The division of the state into principalities was due to the great influence enjoyed by the local nobility, called the boyars. In addition, they owned huge land plots and supported the local princes. And instead of submitting to the Kyiv authorities, they agreed among themselves.

Succession of thrones

As in Europe, feudal fragmentation began with the fact that the numerous heirs of the rulers could not share power. If in Western countries the Salic right of succession to the throne was in force, which required the transfer of the throne from father to eldest son, then in Russian lands the Lestviche right was in effect. It provided for the transfer of power from an older brother to a younger one, etc.

Numerous offspring of all the brothers grew up, and each of them wanted to rule. Over time, the situation became more complicated, and the pretenders to the throne constantly and tirelessly weaved intrigues against each other.

The first serious contention was a military conflict between the heirs of Prince Svyatoslav, who died in 972. The winner of it was his son Vladimir, who later baptized Russia. The collapse of the state began after the reign of Prince Mstislav Vladimirovich, who died in 1132. After that, feudal fragmentation continued until the lands began to unite around Moscow.

Reasons for the fragmentation of Russian lands

The process of fragmentation of Kievan Rus covers the period from the XII to the beginning of the XIV century. In this era, the princes waged long and bloody internecine wars for the expansion of land ownership.

Here are the most important reasons for feudal fragmentation, briefly and clearly formulated in four points, acting only in Russia:

● Strengthening internecine struggle due to two trends that existed in the rules of succession to the throne of Kyiv. One of them is Byzantine law, which allows the transfer of power from father to eldest son, the second is Russian custom, according to which the eldest in the family should become the heir.

● Significant weakening of the role of Kyiv as a central authority. This happened because of the raids of the Polovtsians, who made the journey along the Dnieper dangerous, as a result of which the outflow of the population from Kyiv to the northwest began.

● Significant weakening of the threat from the Pechenegs and Varangians, as well as the defeat and establishment of relations with the rulers of the Byzantine Empire.

● Creation of specific system by Yaroslav the Wise. After his death in 1054, the Russian lands were swallowed up by a whole series of internecine wars. The ancient Russian integral state was transformed from a one-man monarchy into a federal one, which began to be headed by several authoritative princes of Yaroslavich at once.

We hope that this article has helped to supplement the knowledge of not only schoolchildren who are now studying the topic “Causes of feudal fragmentation” in the textbook “General History. 6th grade". It will refresh in the memory of university students the events that took place in the Middle Ages. Nevertheless, such a topic as feudal fragmentation, the causes and consequences of which we have described in sufficient detail, you see, is quite interesting.