Peter's education reform 1 years. Monopolies and protectionism

The table "Reforms of Peter 1" briefly outlines the features of the transformational activities of the first emperor of Russia. With its help, one can concisely, concisely and clearly outline the main directions of his steps to change all spheres of life in Russian society in the first quarter of the 18th century. Perhaps this is the best way for middle-level students to learn this difficult and rather voluminous material, which is very important for analyzing and correctly understanding the features of the historical process in our country in the following centuries.

Features of the emperor's activities

One of the most complex, difficult and at the same time interesting topics is the "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, a table on this topic demonstrates all the data necessary for schoolchildren.

In the introductory lesson, it should immediately be noted that the activities of Pyotr Alekseevich affected all sectors of society and determined the further history of the country. This is the uniqueness of the era of his reign. However, he was a very practical man and innovated based on specific needs.

This can be clearly demonstrated with a more detailed coverage of the topic "Reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table on the problem posed clearly shows the wide scope with which the emperor acted. It seemed that he managed to have a hand in everything: he reorganized the army, the authorities made significant changes in the social structure, economic sphere, diplomacy, and, finally, contributed to the spread of Western European culture and way of life among the Russian nobility.

Transformations in the army

At the middle level, it is very important that schoolchildren learn the basic facts of the topic "Peter 1's Reforms". Briefly, a table on this problem helps students to familiarize themselves with the data and systematize the accumulated material. Almost all of his reign, the emperor waged war with Sweden for access to the Baltic Sea. The need for strong and powerful troops arose with particular urgency at the very beginning of his reign. Therefore, the new ruler immediately began to reorganize the army.

One of the most interesting sections in the topic under study is the "Military reforms of Peter 1". Briefly, the table can be depicted as follows.

The Importance of Military Innovation

It can be seen from it that the steps of the emperor were dictated by the specific needs of his contemporary time, however, many of his innovations continued to exist for a very long time. The main goal of the reforms was to create a permanent and regular army. The fact is that earlier there was a so-called local system of recruiting troops: i.e. the landowner appeared at the reviews along with several servants who were also supposed to serve with him.

However, by the beginning of the 18th century, this principle had become obsolete. By this time, serfdom had finally taken shape, and the state began to recruit soldiers from the peasants. Another very important measure was the creation of professional military schools for the training of officers and commanders.

Transformations of power structures

Practice shows that one of the most difficult topics is "Peter 1's political reforms." Briefly, the table on this issue clearly demonstrates how deep the transformational activity of the emperor was in the governing bodies. He completely changed the central and local administration. Instead, which had previously performed advisory functions under the king, he created the Senate on the model of Western European countries. Instead of orders, colleges were created, each of which performed a specific function in management. Their activities were strictly controlled by the Prosecutor General. In addition, a special secret fiscal body was created to control the bureaucracy.

New administrative division

No less complex is the topic and “State reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the cardinal changes that have taken place in the organization of local government. Provinces were created, which were in charge of the affairs of a certain area. The provinces were divided into provinces, and those, in turn, into counties. Such a structure was very convenient for management and met the challenges of the time in question. At the head of the provinces was the governor, and at the head of the provinces and counties - the governor.

Changes in industry and commerce

Of particular difficulty is often the study of the topic “Economic reforms of Peter 1. Briefly, the table on this issue reflects the complexity and ambiguity of the emperor’s activities in relation to merchants and merchants, who, on the one hand, sought to create the most favorable conditions for the development of the country’s economy, but at the same time acted almost feudal methods, which could not contribute to the development of market relations in our country. Peter Alekseevich was not as effective as the transformation in other areas. At the same time, this was the first experience in the development of trade according to the Western European model.

Transformations in the social structure

The topic “Social reforms of Peter 1” seems to be simpler. A brief table on this issue clearly demonstrates the fundamental changes that have occurred in Russian society of the studied time. Unlike his predecessors, the emperor introduced the principle of distinction in the military and state spheres, depending not on tribal affiliation, but on personal merit. His famous "Table of Ranks" introduced a new principle of service. From now on, a person, in order to get a promotion or rank, had to achieve any success.

It was under Peter that the social structure of society was finally formalized. The main support of the autocracy was the nobility, which replaced the tribal aristocracy. The emperor's successors also relied on this estate, which indicates the effectiveness of the measures taken.

The study of this problem can be completed by summarizing the results. What was the significance of the reforms of Peter the Great in the history of Russia? A table, a summary on a given topic, can serve as an effective means of summing up. Regarding social transformations, it should be noted that the measures of the ruler corresponded to the demands of his time, when the principle of parochialism became obsolete, and the country needed new personnel who would have the necessary qualities to fulfill the new tasks that the country faced in connection with the Northern War and Russia's entry into the international arena.

The role of the transformational activity of the emperor

The topic “Basic reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary of which is an important component in the study of the history of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century, should be divided into several lessons so that students have the opportunity to properly consolidate the material. At the final lesson, it is necessary to summarize the material covered and to indicate what role the transformations of the first emperor played in the future fate of Russia.

The measures taken by the ruler brought our country to the European arena and brought it into the ranks of the leading European states. The topic “The main reforms of Peter 1”, a table, a summary clearly shows how the country reached the world level of development, having received access to the sea and becoming one of the main members of the European concert of powers.

Introduction

“This monarch compared our fatherland with others, taught us to recognize that we are people; in a word, whatever you look at in Russia, everything has its beginning, and no matter what is done in the future, they will draw from this source.

I. I. Neplyuev

The personality of Peter I (1672 - 1725) rightfully belongs to the galaxy of outstanding historical figures of world scale. Many studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers differently, sometimes directly opposite, assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms. Already the contemporaries of Peter I were divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continued later. In the XVIII century. M. V. Lomonosov praised Peter, admired his activities. A little later, the historian Karamzin accused Peter of betraying the "truly Russian" principles of life, and called his reforms a "brilliant mistake."

At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was going through a turning point in its history. In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, fabrics, and agricultural implements. She had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which she could develop foreign trade. Therefore, Russia did not have its own military fleet, which would guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns, their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies. There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the nobles serving people. There were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes in the country, who fought both against the nobles and against the boyars, since they were all feudal serfs. Russia attracted the greedy eyes of neighboring states - Sweden, the Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands. It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a navy, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government. To radically break the old way of life, Russia needed an intelligent and talented leader, an outstanding person. This is how Peter I turned out to be. Peter not only comprehended the dictates of the time, but also gave all his outstanding talent, the obsessed stubbornness, the patience inherent in a Russian person and the ability to give the case a state scale to serve this decree. Peter imperiously invaded all spheres of the life of the country and greatly accelerated the development of the principles inherited.

The history of Russia before Peter the Great and after him knew many reforms. The main difference between the Petrine reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times was that the Petrine reforms were comprehensive, covering all aspects of the life of the people, while others introduced innovations that concerned only certain areas of society and the state. We, the people of the late 20th century, do not we can fully appreciate the explosive effect of the Petrine reforms in Russia. People of the past, the 19th century, perceived them sharper, deeper. Here is what a contemporary of A.S. wrote about the significance of Peter. Pushkin, historian M.N. Pogodin in 1841, that is, almost a century and a half after the great reforms of the first quarter of the 18th century: “In the hands of (Peter) the ends of all our threads are connected in one knot. a figure that casts a long shadow over our entire past and even obscures our ancient history, which at the present moment still seems to hold its hand over us, and which, it seems, we will never lose sight of, no matter how far we go. we're into the future."

Created in Russia by Peter, the generation of M.N. Pogodin, and next generations. For example, the last recruitment took place in 1874, that is, 170 years after the first (1705). The Senate lasted from 1711 to December 1917, that is, 206 years; the synodal structure of the Orthodox Church remained unchanged from 1721 to 1918, that is, for 197 years, the poll tax system was abolished only in 1887, that is, 163 years after its introduction in 1724. In other words, in the history of Russia we will find few institutions consciously created by man that would last so long, having such a strong impact on all aspects of social life. Moreover, some principles and stereotypes of political consciousness, developed or finally fixed under Peter, are still alive, sometimes in new verbal clothes they exist as traditional elements of our thinking and social behavior.

1. Historical conditions and prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I

The country was on the eve of great transformations. What were the prerequisites for Peter's reforms?

Russia was a backward country. This backwardness was a serious danger to the independence of the Russian people.

Industry in its structure was serf-owning, and in terms of output it was significantly inferior to the industry of Western European countries.

The Russian army for the most part consisted of a backward noble militia and archers, poorly armed and trained. The complex and clumsy ordering state apparatus, headed by the boyar aristocracy, did not meet the needs of the country. Russia also lagged behind in the field of spiritual culture. Enlightenment hardly penetrated the masses of the people, and even in the ruling circles there were many uneducated and completely illiterate people.

Russia of the 17th century, by the very course of historical development, was faced with the need for radical reforms, since only in this way could it secure a worthy place among the states of the West and East. It should be noted that by this time in the history of our country there had already been significant changes in its development. The first industrial enterprises of the manufactory type arose, handicrafts and crafts grew, trade in agricultural products developed. The social and geographical division of labor - the basis of the established and developing all-Russian market - was constantly growing. The city was separated from the village. Trade and agricultural areas were distinguished. Domestic and foreign trade developed. In the second half of the 17th century, the nature of the state system in Russia began to change, and absolutism began to take shape more and more clearly. Russian culture and sciences were further developed: mathematics and mechanics, physics and chemistry, geography and botany, astronomy and "mining". Cossack explorers discovered a number of new lands in Siberia.

The 17th century was the time when Russia established constant communication with Western Europe, established closer trade and diplomatic ties with it, used its technology and science, perceived its culture and enlightenment. By learning and borrowing, Russia developed independently, taking only what it needed, and only when it was needed. It was a time of accumulation of the forces of the Russian people, which made it possible to carry out the grandiose reforms of Peter the Great prepared by the very course of Russia's historical development.

The reforms of Peter was prepared by the entire previous history of the people, "required by the people." Already before Peter the Great, a fairly cohesive program of transformation had been outlined, which in many respects coincided with Peter's reforms, and in other ways went even further than them. A transformation in general was being prepared, which, in the peaceful course of affairs, could stretch over a number of generations. The reform, as it was carried out by Peter, was his personal affair, an unparalleledly violent affair, and yet involuntary and necessary. The external dangers of the state outstripped the natural growth of the people, who had become stagnant in their development. The renewal of Russia could not be left to the quiet, gradual work of time, not forced by force. The reforms affected literally all aspects of the life of the Russian state and the Russian people. It should be noted that the main driving force behind Peter's reforms was the war.

2. Military reforms

Military reforms occupy a special place among the Petrine reforms. The essence of the military reform was the elimination of the noble militias and the organization of a combat-ready standing army with a uniform structure, weapons, uniforms, discipline, charters.

The tasks of creating a modern, efficient army and navy occupied the young king even before he became a sovereign sovereign. It is possible to count only a few (according to different historians - in different ways) peaceful years during the 36-year reign of Peter. The army and navy have always been the main concern of the emperor. However, military reforms are important not only in themselves, but also because they had a very large, often decisive, impact on other aspects of the life of the state. The course of the military reform itself was determined by the war.

"Playing with soldiers", to which young Peter devoted all his time, from the end of the 1680s. becomes more and more serious. In 1689, Peter built on Lake Pleshcheyevo, near Pereslavl-Zalessky, several small ships under the guidance of Dutch craftsmen. In the spring of 1690, the famous "amusing regiments" - Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky - were created. Peter begins to conduct real military maneuvers, the "capital city of Preshburg" is being built on the Yauza.

The Semyonovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments became the core of the future permanent (regular) army and proved themselves during the Azov campaigns of 1695-1696. Peter I pays great attention to the fleet, the first baptism of fire of which also falls at this time. The treasury did not have the necessary funds, and the construction of the fleet was entrusted to the so-called "kumpans" (companies) - associations of secular and spiritual landowners. With the outbreak of the Northern War, the focus shifts to the Baltic, and with the founding of St. Petersburg, shipbuilding is carried out almost exclusively there. By the end of Peter's reign, Russia became one of the strongest maritime powers in the world, having 48 linear and 788 galley and other ships.

The beginning of the Northern War was the impetus for the final creation of a regular army. Before Peter the Great, the army consisted of two main parts - the noble militia and various semi-regular formations (archers, Cossacks, regiments of a foreign system). The cardinal change was that Peter introduced a new principle of manning the army - periodic convocations of the militia were replaced by systematic recruiting sets. The basis of the recruiting system was based on the estate-serf principle. Recruitment kits were extended to the population that paid taxes and carried state duties. In 1699, the first recruitment was made, since 1705, the sets were legalized by the relevant decree and became annual. From 20 yards they took one person, a single person aged 15 to 20 years (however, during the Northern War, these terms were constantly changing due to a shortage of soldiers and sailors). The Russian village suffered most of all from recruiting sets. The service life of a recruit was practically unlimited. The officers of the Russian army were replenished at the expense of the nobles who studied in the guards noble regiments or in specially organized schools (Pushkar, artillery, navigation, fortification, Naval Academy, etc.). In 1716, the Military Charter was adopted, and in 1720 - the Naval Charter, a large-scale rearmament of the army was carried out. By the end of the Northern War, Peter had a huge strong army - 200 thousand people (not counting 100 thousand Cossacks), which allowed Russia to win a grueling war that stretched for almost a quarter of a century.

The main results of the military reforms of Peter the Great are as follows:

the creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight and defeat its main opponents;

the emergence of a galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);

the creation of a powerful navy;

a gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.

3. Public administration reform

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the transition to absolutism was accelerated by the Northern War and was completed. It was during the reign of Peter the Great that the regular army and the bureaucratic apparatus of state administration were created, and both the actual and legal formalization of absolutism took place.

An absolute monarchy is characterized by the highest degree of centralization, a developed bureaucracy completely dependent on the monarch, and a strong regular army. These signs were also inherent in Russian absolutism.

The army, in addition to its main internal function of suppressing popular unrest and uprisings, also performed other functions. Since the time of Peter the Great, it has been widely used in public administration as a coercive force. The practice of sending military teams to the places to compel the administration to better carry out government orders and instructions has become widespread. But sometimes the central institutions were put in the same position, for example, even the activities of the Senate in the first years of its creation were under the control of guards officers. Officers and soldiers were also involved in the census, collecting taxes and arrears. Along with the army, to suppress its political opponents, absolutism also used punitive bodies specially created for this purpose - the Preobrazhensky order, the Secret Chancellery.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. there is also a second pillar of the absolute monarchy - the bureaucratic apparatus of state administration.

The central authorities inherited from the past (Boyar Duma, orders) are liquidated, a new system of state institutions appears.

The peculiarity of Russian absolutism was that it coincided with the development of serfdom, while in most European countries absolute monarchy took shape in the conditions of the development of capitalist relations and the abolition of serfdom.

The old form of government: the tsar with the Boyar Duma - orders - local administration in the districts, did not meet the new tasks either in providing military needs with material resources or in collecting monetary taxes from the population. Orders often duplicated each other's functions, creating confusion in management and slowness in decision-making. The uyezds varied in size, from dwarf uyezds to giant uyezds, which made it impossible to use their administration effectively to levy taxes. The Boyar Duma, with its traditions of unhurried discussion of affairs, representation of the noble nobility, not always competent in state affairs, also did not meet the requirements of Peter.

The establishment of an absolute monarchy in Russia was accompanied by a wide expansion of the state, its intrusion into all spheres of public, corporate and private life. Peter I pursued a policy of further enslavement of the peasants, which took the most severe forms at the end of the 18th century. Finally, the strengthening of the role of the state was manifested in a detailed, thorough regulation of the rights and obligations of individual estates and social groups. Along with this, there was a legal consolidation of the ruling class, from different feudal strata, the estate of the nobility was formed.

The state, which was formed at the beginning of the 18th century, is called a police state, not only because it was during this period that a professional police was created, but also because the state sought to interfere in all aspects of life, regulating them.

The transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg also contributed to administrative changes. The king wanted to have at hand the necessary control levers, which he often created anew, guided by momentary needs. As in all his other undertakings, during the reform of state power, Peter did not take into account Russian traditions and widely transferred to Russian soil the structures and methods of management known to him from Western European voyages. Lacking a clear plan for administrative reforms, the tsar probably still represented the desired image of the state apparatus. This is a strictly centralized and bureaucratic apparatus, clearly and quickly executing the decrees of the sovereign, within its competence, showing a reasonable initiative. This is something very similar to an army, where each officer, executing the general order of the commander in chief, independently solves his private and specific tasks. As we will see, the Petrine state machine was far from such an ideal, which was seen only as a trend, although clearly expressed.

In the first quarter of the XVIII century. a whole range of reforms was carried out related to the restructuring of central and local authorities and administration, areas of culture and life, and a radical reorganization of the armed forces is taking place. Almost all of these changes took place during the reign of Peter I and were of great progressive significance.

Consider the reforms of the highest authorities and administration that took place in the first quarter of the 18th century, which are usually divided into three stages:

Stage I - 1699 - 1710 - partial transformations;

Stage II - 1710 - 1719 - the liquidation of the former central authorities and administration, the creation of the Senate, the emergence of a new capital;

Stage III - 1719 - 1725 - the formation of new bodies of sectoral administration, the implementation of the second regional reform, the reform of church administration and financial and tax.

3.1. Central government reform

The last mention of the last meeting of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. The Near Office, which arose in 1699 (an institution that exercised administrative and financial control in the state), acquired paramount importance. The real power was held by the Council of Ministers, which sat in the building of the Near Chancellery - the council of heads of the most important departments under the tsar, which managed orders and offices, provided the army and navy with everything necessary, was in charge of finances and construction (after the formation of the Senate, the Near Chancellery (1719) and the Council of Ministers (1711) cease its existence).

The next step in the reform of the central authorities was the creation of the Senate. The formal reason was the departure of Peter to the war with Turkey. On February 22, 1711, Peter personally wrote a decree on the composition of the Senate, which began with the phrase: "Determined to be for Our absences the Governing Senate to govern." The content of this phrase has given rise to historians still arguing about what kind of institution the Senate seemed to Peter: temporary or permanent. On March 2, 1711, the tsar issued several decrees: on the competence of the Senate and justice, on the organization of state revenues, trade and other branches of the state economy. The Senate was instructed:

"To have a court that is not hypocritical, and to punish unjust judges with the deprivation of honor and all property, then let it be followed by the tell-tales";

"Look throughout the state of spending, and leave unnecessary, and especially vain";

"Money, how possible, to collect, because money is the artery of war."

The members of the Senate were appointed by the king. Initially, it consisted of only nine people who decided matters collectively. The staffing of the Senate was based not on the principle of nobility, but on competence, length of service and closeness to the tsar.

From 1718 to 1722 The Senate became an assembly of presidents of the colleges. In 1722 it was reformed by three decrees of the emperor. The composition has been changed, including both the presidents of the colleges and senators, alien to the colleges. The Decree "On the Position of the Senate" gave the Senate the right to issue its own decrees.

The range of issues that were in his charge was quite wide: issues of justice, treasury expenses and taxes, trade, control over the administration of various levels. Immediately, the newly created institution received an office with numerous departments - "tables" where clerks worked. The reform of 1722 turned the Senate into the highest body of central government, which stood above the entire state apparatus.

The originality of the era of Peter's reforms consisted in strengthening the organs and means of state control. And to oversee the activities of the administration under the Senate, the position of chief fiscal was established, to which the provincial fiscals should be subordinate (1711). Insufficient reliability of the fiscal system led, in turn, to the emergence in 1715 under the Senate of the post of auditor general, or overseer of decrees. The main task of the auditor is "so that everything is done." In 1720, stronger pressure was placed on the Senate: it was ordered to watch that "everything was done decently, and there was no vain talk, shouting and other things." When this did not help, after a year of duty and the Attorney General and
the chief secretary was assigned to the military: one of the army headquarters officers was on duty in the Senate every month to monitor order, and "whoever from the senators scolded or acted impolitely, the officer on duty arrested him and took him to the fortress, letting the sovereign know, of course."

Finally, in 1722, these functions were assigned to a specially appointed prosecutor general, who "had to watch firmly that the Senate, in his rank, act righteously and without hypocrisy," have supervision over prosecutors and fiscals, and in general be "the sovereign's eye" and "solicitor in business state".

Thus, the reformer tsar was forced to constantly expand the special system of organized distrust and denunciation he had created, supplementing the existing control bodies with new ones.

However, the creation of the Senate could not complete the management reforms, since there was no intermediate link between the Senate and the provinces, many orders continued to operate. In 1717 - 1722. to replace 44 orders of the end of the 17th century. colleges came. Unlike orders, the collegiate system (1717-1719) provided for the systematic division of the administration into a certain number of departments, which in itself created a higher level of centralization.

The Senate appointed presidents and vice presidents, determined states and procedures. In addition to the leaders, the boards included four advisers, four assessors (assessors), a secretary, an actuary, a registrar, a translator and clerks. Special decrees were ordered from 1720 to begin the proceedings in a new order.

In 1721, the Estate Board was created, replacing the Local Order, which was in charge of the noble land ownership. On the rights of colleges were the Chief Magistrate, who ruled the city estate, and the Holy Governing Synod. His appearance testified to the elimination of the autonomy of the church.

In 1699, in order to improve the flow of direct taxes to the treasury, the Burmister Chamber, or Town Hall, was established. By 1708, it had become the central treasury, replacing the Great Treasury Order. It included twelve old financial orders. In 1722, the Manufactory College was separated from the unified Berg Manufactory College, which, in addition to the functions of managing industry, was entrusted with the tasks of economic policy and financing. The Berg Collegium retained the functions of mining and coinage.

Unlike orders that acted on the basis of custom and precedent, collegiums had to be guided by clear legal norms and job descriptions. The most general legislative act in this area was the General Regulations (1720), which was a charter for the activities of state collegiums, offices and offices and determined the composition of their members, competence, functions, and procedures. The subsequent development of the principle of bureaucratic, bureaucratic length of service was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" (1722). The new law divided the service into civil and military. It defined 14 classes, or ranks, of officials. Anyone who received the rank of 8th class became a hereditary nobleman. The ranks from the 14th to the 9th also gave the nobility, but only personal.

The adoption of the "Table of Ranks" testified that the bureaucratic principle in the formation of the state apparatus undoubtedly defeated the aristocratic principle. Professional qualities, personal devotion and length of service become decisive for promotion. A sign of bureaucracy as a management system is the inclusion of each official in a clear hierarchical power structure (vertically) and his guidance in his activities by strict and precise prescriptions of the law, regulations, instructions. The positive features of the new bureaucratic apparatus were professionalism, specialization, normativity, while the negative features were its complexity, high cost, self-employment, and inflexibility.

3.2. Local government reform

At the beginning of his reign, Peter I tried to use the former system of local government, gradually introducing elected elements of government instead of zemstvo ones. So, the decree of March 10, 1702 prescribed participation in the administration with the main traditional administrators (voivodes) of elected representatives of the nobility. In 1705, this order became mandatory and universal, which was supposed to strengthen control over the old administration.

December 18, 1708 was issued a decree "On the establishment of the provinces and the painting of cities to them." It was a reform that completely changed the system of local government. The main goal of this reform was to provide the army with everything necessary: with the regiments of the army, distributed among the provinces, a direct connection was established between the provinces through a specially created institute of krieg commissars. According to this decree, the entire territory of the country was divided into eight provinces:

Moscow included 39 cities,

Ingrian (later St. Petersburg) - 29 cities (two more cities of this province - Yamburg and Koporye were given into the possession of Prince Menshikov),

56 cities were assigned to the Kiev province,

To Smolensk - 17 cities,

To Arkhangelsk (later Arkhangelsk) - 20 cities,

To Kazanskaya - 71 urban and rural settlements,

In addition to 52 cities, 25 cities assigned to ship affairs were assigned to the Azov province

26 cities were assigned to the Siberian province, "and 4 suburbs to Vyatka".

In 1711, a group of cities in the Azov province, assigned to ship affairs in Voronezh, became the Voronezh province. There were 9 provinces. In 1713-1714. The number of provinces increased to 11.

Thus began the reform of the regional administration. In its final form, it was formed only by 1719, on the eve of the second regional reform.

According to the second reform, eleven provinces were divided into 45 provinces, at the head of which were placed governors, vice-governors or voivodes. The provinces were divided into districts - districts. The administration of the provinces reported directly to the colleges. Four collegiums (Cameras, State Office, Justice and Votchinnaya) had their own apparatus in the field of chamberists, commandants and treasurers. In 1713, a collegiate principle was introduced into the regional administration: colleges of landrats were established under the governors (from 8 to 12 people per province), elected by the local nobility.

The regional reform, while responding to the most pressing needs of autocratic power, was at the same time a consequence of the development of a bureaucratic trend, already characteristic of the previous period. It was with the help of strengthening the bureaucratic element in the government that Peter intended to solve all state issues. The reform led not only to the concentration of financial and administrative powers in the hands of several governors - representatives of the central government, but also to the creation of an extensive hierarchical network of bureaucratic institutions with a large staff of officials on the ground. The former "order-county" system was doubled: "order (or office) - province - province - county".

The governor had four direct subordinates:

chief commandant - was responsible for military affairs;

chief commissar - for fees;

Ober-praviantmeister - for grain fees;

landrichter - for court cases.

The province was usually headed by a voivode, in the county the financial and police administration was entrusted to the zemstvo commissars, partly elected by the county nobles, partly appointed from above.

Some of the functions of orders (especially territorial orders) were transferred to the governors, their number was reduced.

The decree on the establishment of provinces completed the first stage of the reform of local government. Provincial administration was carried out by governors and vice-governors, who performed mainly military and financial management functions. However, this division turned out to be too large and did not allow the management of the provinces to be carried out in practice, especially with the communications that existed at that time. Therefore, in each province there were large cities in which the former city administration exercised control.

3.3. City government reform

Around the newly formed industrial enterprises, manufactories, mines, mines and shipyards, new urban-type settlements appeared, in which self-government bodies began to form. Already in 1699, Peter I, wishing to provide the urban estate with complete self-government in the style of the West, ordered the establishment of a burmister chamber. Self-government bodies began to form in the cities: town councils, magistrates. The urban estate began to take shape legally. In 1720, the Chief Magistrate was established in St. Petersburg, who was instructed to "be in charge of all the urban class in Russia."

According to the regulations of the Chief Magistrate in 1721, it began to be divided into regular citizens and "mean" people. Regular citizens, in turn, were divided into two guilds:

The first guild - bankers, merchants, doctors, pharmacists, skippers of merchant ships, painters, icon painters and silversmiths.

The second guild - artisans, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, small traders.

Guilds were controlled by guild meetings and foremen. The lowest stratum of the urban population ("those who are hired, in menial jobs, and the like") chose their elders and tenths, who could report to the magistrate about their needs and ask them for satisfaction.

According to the European model, guild organizations were created, which included masters, apprentices and apprentices, led by foremen. All other townspeople were not included in the guild and were subject to a general check in order to identify fugitive peasants among them and return them to their former places of residence.

The division into guilds turned out to be the purest formality, since the military auditors who carried it out, primarily concerned about increasing the number of poll tax payers, arbitrarily included in the members of the guilds and persons not related to them. The emergence of guilds and guilds meant that the corporate principles were opposed to the feudal principles of economic organization.

3.4. Results of public administration reform

As a result of Peter's reforms, by the end of the first quarter
18th century the following system of authorities and administration was formed.

All the fullness of legislative, executive, and judicial power was concentrated in the hands of Peter, who, after the end of the Northern War, received the title of emperor. In 1711 A new supreme body of executive and judicial power was created - the Senate, which also had significant legislative functions. It was fundamentally different from its predecessor, the Boyar Duma.

Council members were appointed by the emperor. In the exercise of executive power, the Senate issued decrees that had the force of law. In 1722, the Prosecutor General was placed at the head of the Senate, who was entrusted with control over the activities of all government agencies. The Prosecutor General was supposed to perform the functions of "the eye of the state." He exercised this control through prosecutors appointed to all government offices. In the first quarter of the XVIII century. the system of prosecutors was added to the system of fiscals, headed by the chief fiscal. The duties of the fiscals included reporting on all abuses of institutions and officials that violated the "public interest".

The order system that had developed under the Boyar Duma did not correspond in any way to the new conditions and tasks. The orders that arose at different times differed greatly in their nature and functions. Orders and decrees of orders often contradicted each other, creating unimaginable confusion and delaying the resolution of urgent issues for a long time.

Instead of the outdated system of orders in 1717 - 1718. 12 boards were created.

The creation of a system of colleges completed the process of centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. A clear distribution of departmental functions, delimitation of the spheres of state administration and competence, uniform norms of activity, concentration of financial management in a single institution - all this significantly distinguished the new apparatus from the order system.

Foreign lawyers were involved in the development of regulations, and the experience of state institutions in Sweden and Denmark was taken into account.

The subsequent development of the principle of bureaucratic, bureaucratic length of service was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" (1722).

The training of personnel for the new state apparatus began to be carried out in special schools and academies in Russia and abroad. The degree of qualification was determined not only by rank, but also by education and special training.

In 1708 - 1709. restructuring of local authorities and administrations began. The country was divided into 8 provinces, differing in territory and population. At the head of the province was a governor appointed by the tsar, who concentrated executive and judicial power in his hands. Under the governor there was a provincial office. But the situation was complicated by the fact that the governor was subordinate not only to the emperor and the Senate, but also to all colleges, whose orders and decrees often contradicted each other.

The provinces in 1719 were divided into provinces, the number of which was 50. At the head of the province was a governor with an office attached to him. The provinces, in turn, were divided into districts (counties) with a voivode and a county office. Some time during the reign of Peter the county administration was replaced by an elected zemstvo commissar from local nobles or retired officers. Its functions were limited to collecting the poll tax, monitoring the performance of state duties, and detaining fugitive peasants. The zemstvo commissar of the provincial office was subordinate. In 1713, the local nobility was given the choice of 8-12 landrats (advisers from the nobles of the county) to help the governor, and after the introduction of the poll tax, regimental districts were created. The military units stationed in them observed the collection of taxes and suppressed manifestations of discontent and anti-feudal actions.

As a result of administrative reforms in Russia, the formation of an absolute monarchy was completed. The king got the opportunity to unlimitedly and uncontrollably govern the country with the help of officials completely dependent on him. The unlimited power of the monarch found legislative expression in the 20th article of the Military Regulations and the Spiritual Regulations: the power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey.

The external expression of the absolutism established in Russia is the adoption
in 1721 by Peter I the title of emperor and the title "Great".

The most important features of absolutism include the bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus and its centralization. The new state machine as a whole worked much more efficiently than the old one. But it was planted with a "time bomb" - domestic bureaucracy. E.V. Anisimov in the book "The Time of Peter the Great" writes: "The bureaucracy is a necessary element of the structure of the state of the new time. However, in the conditions of the Russian autocracy, when the monarch's will is the only source of law, when the official is not responsible to anyone except his boss , the creation of the bureaucratic machine became a kind of "bureaucratic revolution", during which the perpetual motion machine of the bureaucracy was launched.

The reforms of central and local government created an outwardly orderly hierarchy of institutions from the Senate in the center to the voivodship office in the counties.

4. Reform of the estate device

4.1. Service class

The fight against the Swedes required the establishment of a regular army, and Peter gradually transferred all the nobles and service people to the regular service. The service for all service people became the same, they served without exception, indefinitely and began their service from the lower ranks.

All the former categories of service people were united together, into one estate - the gentry. All the lower ranks (both noble and from the "common people") could equally rise to the highest ranks. The order of such length of service was precisely determined by the "Table of Ranks" (1722). In the "Table" all the ranks were divided into 14 ranks or "ranks" according to their seniority. Anyone who reached the lowest rank 14 could hope for the highest position and take the highest rank. The "Table of Ranks" replaced the principle of generosity with the principle of length of service and serviceability. But Peter made one concession to people from the upper old nobility. He allowed noble youth to enter predominantly in his favorite guards regiments Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky.

Peter demanded that the nobles must learn to read and write and mathematics, and deprived the untrained nobles of the right to marry and receive an officer's rank. Peter limited the landowning rights of the nobles. He stopped giving them estates from the treasury when they entered the service, but provided them with a monetary salary. Noble patrimonies and estates forbade splitting when transferred to sons (the law "On Majorate", 1714). Peter's measures regarding the nobility aggravated the position of this estate, but did not change its attitude towards the state. The nobility both before and now had to pay for the right to land ownership by service. But now the service has become harder, and land ownership more constrained. The nobility grumbled and tried to alleviate their hardships. Peter severely punished attempts to evade service.

4.2. Urban estate (townspeople and city people)

Before Peter, the urban estate was a very small and poor class. Peter wanted to create an economically strong and active urban class in Russia, similar to what he saw in Western Europe. Peter expanded the city self-government. In 1720, the chief magistrate was created, who was supposed to take care of the urban estate. All cities were divided according to the number of inhabitants into classes. Residents of cities were divided into "regular" and "irregular" ("mean") citizens. Regular citizens made up two "guilds": the first included representatives of the capital and the intelligentsia, the second - small merchants and artisans. Craftsmen were divided into "workshops" according to crafts. Irregular people or "mean" were called laborers. The city was governed by a magistrate of burgomasters, elected by all regular citizens. In addition, city affairs were discussed at town meetings or councils of regular citizens. Each city was subordinated to the main magistrate, bypassing any other local authorities.

Despite all the transformations, Russian cities have remained in the same miserable situation as they were before. The reason for this is the far from the commercial and industrial system of Russian life and difficult wars.

4.3. Peasantry

In the first quarter of the century, it became clear that the household principle of taxation did not bring the expected increase in the receipt of taxes.

In order to increase their incomes, the landowners settled several peasant families in one yard. As a result, during the census in 1710, it turned out that the number of households had decreased by 20% since 1678. Therefore, a new principle of taxation was introduced. In 1718 - 1724. a census of the entire taxable male population is carried out, regardless of age and ability to work. All persons included in these lists ("revision tales") had to pay a poll tax. In the event of the death of the recorded person, the tax continued to be paid until the next revision, the family of the deceased or the community in which he was a member. In addition, all tax-paying estates, with the exception of the landlord peasants, paid the state 40 kopecks of quitrent, which was supposed to balance their duties with those of the landlord peasants.

The transition to per capita taxation increased the figure of direct taxes from 1.8 to 4.6 million, accounting for more than half of the budget receipts (8.5 million). The tax was extended to a number of categories of the population that had not paid it before: serfs, "walking people", residents of the same palace, the black-haired peasantry of the North and Siberia, the non-Russian peoples of the Volga region, the Urals, and others. All these categories made up the estate of state peasants, and the poll tax for them it was a feudal rent that they paid to the state.

The introduction of the poll tax increased the power of the landlords over the peasants, since the submission of revision tales and the collection of taxes were entrusted to the landowners.

Finally, in addition to the poll tax, the peasant paid a huge amount of all kinds of taxes and fees, designed to replenish the treasury, which was empty as a result of wars, the creation of a cumbersome and expensive apparatus of power and administration, a regular army and navy, the construction of the capital and other expenses. In addition, the state peasants carried duties: road - for the construction and maintenance of roads, pit - for the transportation of mail, government cargo and officials, etc.

5. Church reform

An important role in the establishment of absolutism was played by the church reform of Peter I. In the second half of the 17th century. the positions of the Russian Orthodox Church were very strong, it retained administrative, financial and judicial autonomy in relation to the royal power. The last patriarchs Joachim (1675-1690) and Adrian (1690-1700) pursued a policy aimed at strengthening these positions.

Peter's church policy, as well as his policy in other areas of public life, was aimed, first of all, at the most efficient use of the church for the needs of the state, and more specifically, at squeezing money from the church for state programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter's journey as part of the Great Embassy, he is also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to his authority.

The turn to the new policy took place after the death of Patriarch Hadrian. Peter orders to conduct an audit for the census of the property of the Patriarchal House. Taking advantage of information about revealed abuses, Peter cancels the election of a new patriarch, at the same time entrusting Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan with the post of "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." In 1701, the Monastic order was formed - a secular institution - to manage the affairs of the church. The church begins to lose its independence from the state, the right to dispose of its property.

Peter, guided by the enlightening idea of the public good, which requires the productive work of all members of society, launches an offensive against monks and monasteries. In 1701, the royal decree limited the number of monks: now one had to apply to the Monastic order for permission to be tonsured. Subsequently, the king had the idea to use the monasteries as shelters for retired soldiers and beggars. In the decree of 1724, the number of monks in the monastery is directly dependent on the number of people they look after.

The existing relationship between the church and the authorities required a new legal formalization. In 1721, Feofan Prokopovich, a prominent figure in the Petrine era, drew up the Spiritual Regulations, which provided for the destruction of the institution of the patriarchate and the formation of a new body - the Spiritual College, which was soon renamed the "Holy Government Synod", officially equalized in rights with the Senate. Stefan Yavorsky became president, Feodosy Yanovsky and Feofan Prokopovich became vice-presidents. The creation of the Synod was the beginning of the absolutist period of Russian history, since now all power, including church power, was concentrated in the hands of Peter. A contemporary reports that when Russian church leaders tried to protest, Peter pointed them to the Spiritual Regulations and said: "Here's a spiritual patriarch for you, and if you don't like him, then here's a damask patriarch (throwing a dagger on the table)."

The adoption of the Spiritual Regulations actually turned the Russian clergy into government officials, especially since a secular person, the chief prosecutor, was appointed to supervise the Synod.

The reform of the church was carried out in parallel with the tax reform, the registration and classification of priests were carried out, and their lower strata were transferred to the head salary. According to the consolidated statements of the Kazan, Nizhny Novgorod and Astrakhan provinces (formed as a result of the division of the Kazan province), only 3044 priests out of 8709 (35%) were exempt from tax. A stormy reaction among the priests was caused by the Resolution of the Synod of May 17, 1722, in which the clergy were charged with the obligation to violate the secrecy of confession if they had the opportunity to communicate any information important to the state.

As a result of the church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and turned into a part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.

6. Economic transformation

During the Petrine era, the Russian economy, and above all industry, made a giant leap. At the same time, the development of the economy in the first quarter of the XVIII century. followed the path outlined by the previous period. In the Muscovite state of the XVI XVII century. there were large industrial enterprises - Cannon Yard, Printing Yard, weapons factories in Tula, a shipyard in Dedinovo. The policy of Peter I in relation to economic life was characterized by a high degree of use of command and protectionist methods.

In agriculture, opportunities for improvement were drawn from the further development of fertile lands, the cultivation of industrial crops that provided raw materials for industry, the development of animal husbandry, the advancement of agriculture to the east and south, as well as the more intensive exploitation of the peasants. The increased needs of the state for raw materials for Russian industry led to the widespread use of crops such as flax and hemp. The decree of 1715 encouraged the cultivation of flax and hemp, as well as tobacco, mulberry trees for silkworms. The decree of 1712 ordered the creation of horse breeding farms in the Kazan, Azov and Kiev provinces, sheep breeding was also encouraged.

In the Petrine era, the country was sharply divided into two zones of feudal economy - the lean North, where the feudal lords transferred their peasants to quitrent, often letting them go to the city and other agricultural areas to earn money, and the fertile South, where the noble landowners sought to expand corvee.

The state duties of the peasants also increased. They built cities (40 thousand peasants worked on the construction of St. Petersburg), manufactories, bridges, roads; annual recruiting was carried out, old fees were increased and new ones were introduced. The main goal of Peter's policy all the time was to obtain the largest possible financial and human resources for state needs.

Two censuses were carried out - in 1710 and 1718. According to the 1718 census, the "soul" of the male sex became the unit of taxation, regardless of age, from which the poll tax was levied in the amount of 70 kopecks per year (from state peasants - 1 ruble 10 kopecks per year). This streamlined the tax policy and sharply raised state revenues (by about 4 times; by the end of Peter's reign, they amounted to 12 million rubles a year).

In industry, there was a sharp reorientation from small peasant and handicraft farms to manufactories. Under Peter, at least 200 new manufactories were founded, he encouraged their creation in every possible way. The policy of the state was also aimed at protecting the young Russian industry from competition from Western Europe by introducing very high customs duties (Customs Charter of 1724)

Russian manufactory, although it had capitalist features, but the use of mainly the labor of peasants - possession, ascribed, quitrent, etc. - made it a serf enterprise. Depending on whose property they were, manufactories were divided into state, merchant and landowner. In 1721, industrialists were granted the right to buy peasants in order to secure them to the enterprise.

State state-owned factories used the labor of state peasants, bonded peasants, recruits and free hired craftsmen. They mainly served heavy industry - metallurgy, shipyards, mines. The merchant manufactories, which produced mainly consumer goods, employed both sessional and quitrent peasants, as well as civilian labor. Landlord enterprises were fully provided by the forces of the serfs of the landowner.

Peter's protectionist policy led to the emergence of manufactories in various industries, often appearing in Russia for the first time. The main ones were those who worked for the army and navy: metallurgical, weapons, shipbuilding, cloth, linen, leather, etc. Entrepreneurial activity was encouraged, favorable conditions were created for people who created new manufactories or rented state ones.

There are manufactories in many industries - glass, gunpowder, paper, canvas, linen, silk weaving, cloth, leather, rope, hat, colorful, sawmill and many others. A huge contribution to the development of the metallurgical industry of the Urals was made by Nikita Demidov, who enjoyed the special favor of the king. The emergence of the foundry industry in Karelia on the basis of the Ural ores, the construction of the Vyshnevolotsk Canal, contributed to the development of metallurgy in new areas and brought Russia to one of the first places in the world in this industry.

By the end of the reign of Peter in Russia there was a developed diversified industry with centers in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and the Urals. The largest enterprises were the Admiralty shipyard, Arsenal, St. Petersburg powder factories, metallurgical plants in the Urals, Khamovny yard in Moscow. There was a strengthening of the all-Russian market, the accumulation of capital thanks to the mercantilist policy of the state. Russia supplied competitive goods to world markets: iron, linen, yuft, potash, furs, caviar.

Thousands of Russians were trained in Europe in various specialties, and, in turn, foreigners - weapons engineers, metallurgists, locksmiths were hired into the Russian service. Thanks to this, Russia was enriched with the most advanced technologies in Europe.

As a result of Peter's policy in the economic field, a powerful industry was created in an extremely short period of time, capable of fully meeting military and state needs and not dependent on imports in anything.

7. Reforms in the field of culture and life

Important changes in the life of the country strongly demanded the training of qualified personnel. The scholastic school, which was in the hands of the church, could not provide this. Secular schools began to open, education began to acquire a secular character. This required the creation of new textbooks to replace the church textbooks.

In 1708, Peter I introduced a new civil script, which replaced the old Cyrillic semi-character. For the printing of secular educational, scientific, political literature and legislative acts, new printing houses were created in Moscow and St. Petersburg.

The development of printing was accompanied by the beginning of an organized book trade, as well as the creation and development of a network of libraries. In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow.

The most important stage in the implementation of the reforms was the visit of Peter as part of the Great Embassy of a number of European countries. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master the marine sciences. The tsar also took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by the Scotsman Forvarson, professor at the University of Aberdeen. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky - the author of "Arithmetic ...". In 1711 an engineering school appeared in Moscow.

The logical outcome of all the activities in the field of the development of science and education was the foundation in 1724 of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg.

Peter sought to overcome as soon as possible the disunity between Russia and Europe that had arisen since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. One of its manifestations was a different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 becomes 1700, and the celebration of the New Year is transferred from September 1 to January 1.

The development of industry and trade was associated with the study and development of the territory and subsoil of the country, which was reflected in the organization of a number of large expeditions.

At this time, major technical innovations and inventions appeared, especially in the development of mining and metallurgy, as well as in the military field.

During this period, a number of important works on history were written, and the Kunstkamera created by Peter laid the foundation for collecting collections of historical and memorial objects and rarities, weapons, materials on the natural sciences, etc. At the same time, they began to collect ancient written sources, make copies of chronicles, letters, decrees and other acts. This was the beginning of the museum business in Russia.

From the first quarter of the 18th century the transition to urban planning and regular planning of cities was carried out. The appearance of the city began to be determined not by religious architecture, but by palaces and mansions, houses of government agencies and aristocracy. In painting, icon painting is replaced by a portrait. By the first quarter of the XVIII century. also include attempts to create a Russian theater, at the same time the first dramatic works were written.

Changes in everyday life affected the mass of the population. The old habitual long-sleeved clothes with long sleeves were forbidden and replaced with new ones. Camisoles, ties and frills, wide-brimmed hats, stockings, shoes, wigs quickly replaced old Russian clothes in the cities. Western European outerwear and dress among women spread the fastest. It was forbidden to wear a beard, which caused discontent, especially among the taxable classes. A special "beard tax" and a mandatory copper sign for its payment were introduced.

From 1718, Peter established assemblies with the obligatory presence of women, which reflected a serious change in their position in society. The establishment of the assemblies marked the beginning of the establishment among the Russian nobility of "rules of good manners" and "noble behavior in society", the use of a foreign, mainly French, language.

It should be noted that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society. The violent nature of some of these reforms instilled disgust for them and led to a sharp rejection of the rest, even the most progressive ones, undertakings. Peter aspired to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and attached great importance to even the smallest details of the process.

The changes in everyday life and culture that took place in the first quarter of the 18th century were of great progressive significance. But they even more emphasized the allocation of the nobility to a privileged estate, turned the use of the benefits and achievements of culture into one of the noble class privileges, and was accompanied by the widespread gallomania, contemptuous attitude towards the Russian language and Russian culture among the nobility.

Conclusion

The main result of the totality of Peter's reforms was the establishment of an absolutist regime in Russia, the crowning achievement of which was the change in 1721 of the title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was going for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of government, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy that had an impact on international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal state structure - a warship, where everything and everything is subject to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to bring this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, the backwardness of Russia was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had great historical significance, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by the feudal lords, using feudal methods, and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of the time of Peter the Great from the very beginning carried conservative features, which, in the course of the further development of the country, became stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter the Great's transformations, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations was preserved, but it could not catch up with those countries that embarked on the capitalist path of development.

The transformative activity of Peter was distinguished by indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and purposefulness, courage in breaking obsolete institutions, laws, foundations and way of life and way of life.

In conclusion, I would like to quote the words of a contemporary of Peter - Nartov: "... and although Peter the Great is no longer with us, his spirit lives in our souls, and we, who had the happiness of being with this monarch, will die faithful to him and our ardent love for the earthly Let us bury God with us. Without fear, we proclaim about our father in order that we learned noble fearlessness and truth from him.

Bibliography

1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. - L .: Lenizdat, 1989.

2. Anisimov E.V., Kamensky A.B. Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century: History. Historian. Document. - M.: MIROS, 1994.

3. Buganov V.I. Peter the Great and his time. - M.: Nauka, 1989.

4. History of public administration in Russia: Textbook for universities / Ed. prof. A.N. Markova. - M.: Law and Law, UNITI, 1997.

5. History of the USSR from ancient times to the end of the XVIII century. / Ed. B.A. Rybakova. - M.: Higher school, 1983.

6. Malkov V.V. A manual on the history of the USSR for applicants to universities. - M.: Higher school, 1985.

7. Pavlenko N.I. Peter the Great. - M.: Thought, 1990.

8. Soloviev S.M. On the history of the new Russia. - M.: Enlightenment, 1993.

9. Solovyov S.M. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. - M.: Pravda, 1989.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

KOMI REPUBLICAN ACADEMY OF STATE SERVICE

AND DEPARTMENT UNDER THE HEAD OF THE KOMI REPUBLIC

Faculty of State and Municipal Administration

Department of Public Administration and Public Service

Test

REFORMS OF PETER I.

RUSSIA IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Executor:

Motorkin Andrey Yurievich,

group 112

Teacher:

Art. teacher I.I. Lastunov

Syktyvkar

Introduction 1

1. Historical conditions and prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I 3

2. Military reforms 4

3. Public administration reform 6

3.1. Central government reform 8

3.2. Local government reform 11

3.3. City government reform 13

3.4. Results of public administration reform 14

4. Reform of the estate structure 16

4.1. Service class 16

4.2. Urban estate (townspeople and city people) 17

4.3. Peasantry 17

5. Church Reform 18

6. Economic transformation 20

7. Reforms in the field of culture and life 22

Conclusion 24

References 26

Seminar lessons.

THEME #1

Russia on the path of modernization inXVII – XIXcenturies

1. Reforms of Peter I: goals, content, results. The price of Peter's reforms.

At the turn of the XVII - XVIII centuries. The transformations that have taken place in Russia have covered almost all aspects of life: the economy, domestic and foreign policy, science, everyday life, and the political system. In many ways, these transformations are connected with the activities of Peter I. His merit consisted in the fact that he correctly understood the complexity of the tasks that faced the country, and transgressed to their purposeful implementation.

Basically, the reforms were subordinated not to the interests of individual estates, but to the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and familiarization with Western European civilization. The aim of the reforms was the acquisition by Russia of the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main instrument of reform was deliberately applied violence. In general, the process of reforming the country was associated with an external factor - the need for Russia to access the seas, as well as with an internal one - the process of modernizing the country.

military reform.

The new military system was created according to the Western European model. The main and highest unit in the infantry was the regiment. Artillery finally turned into an independent branch of the armed forces with a clear organization. Engineering troops were created (as part of artillery). To control the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established. A unified system of education was established in the army and navy, military educational institutions (navigation, artillery, engineering schools) were opened. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served for the training of officers.

Severe discipline was established in the troops and navy, to maintain which corporal punishment was widely used. A hierarchy of ranks and ranks has been introduced in the army and navy.

The military reforms of Peter I had a positive impact on the development of Russian military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.

Reforms in the economy Russia covered agriculture, large and small production, craft, trade and financial policy.

Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. However, even here there were attempts to reform (new crops were introduced, new breeds of livestock, etc.)

The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was a special concern of Peter. During the first quarter of the 18th century, about 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by the intensification of feudal exploitation, the widespread use of forced labor in manufactories: the use of serfs, bought peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-eared) peasantry, which was attributed to the plant as a constant source of labor.

The reforms also covered the sphere of small-scale production, contributed to the development of handicrafts and peasant crafts. Handicraft schools were introduced at manufactories. In the cities, a guild device was introduced. All artisans, headed by an elected headman, were scheduled according to their specialty in workshops, where they became masters, apprentices and apprentices.

In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The expansion of trade relations with foreign countries was encouraged in every possible way. Much attention was paid to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time.

financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for waging war, an active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved by expanding indirect and increasing direct taxes:

more and more new sources of income were sought out (bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, up to the tax on beards);

direct taxes were also introduced (recruitment, dragoon, ship and "special" fees);

considerable income was also brought by the minting of coins of lesser weight and the lowering of the silver content in it;

the introduction of a poll tax, which replaced the household tax.

Reorganization of public administration(test task 7)

The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate. A radical church reform was carried out, which eliminated the autonomy of the church and completely subordinated it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Theological College was established to manage the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod. It was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 higher church hierarchs appointed by the tsar. A chief prosecutor (I.V. Boldin) was appointed to supervise the activities of the Synod. All the property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants, were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic order, subordinate to the synod.

Social politics.

In 1714, the “Decree on Single Succession” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equalized in rights with the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two estates of feudal lords into a single class. Since that time, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of estates and estates to one of the sons. The rest of the nobles had to carry out compulsory service in the army, navy or in public authorities.

In 1722 - the publication of the "Table of Ranks", which divided the military, civil and court services (14 ranks).

In 1724, an attempt was made in one day to eradicate begging in Russia. All the sick and crippled were ordered to be rewritten and sent to almshouses built at monasteries, and those who were able to work were returned to their original place.

Reforms in the field of education and culture.

The policy of the state was aimed at educating society, reorganizing the education system. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technical subjects: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. Navigatskaya and Artillery schools, Engineering School, Medical School appeared. Publishing has developed.

The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was established in St. Petersburg.

From January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia (before that, chronology was conducted from the creation of the world according to the Gregorian calendar). As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live in the same time as Europe.

There was a radical break in all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society (barbering, European clothes, wearing uniforms by military and civil officials).

Decree of 1718 on holding assemblies with the obligatory presence of women.

The result of Peter's reformsI.

Peter's reforms marked the design absolute monarchy.

The transformations significantly increased the efficiency of public administration and served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical education and science. Authoritarian rule is being established, the role of the monarch, his influence on all spheres of society and the state are extremely increasing.

The price of Peter's reformsI.

The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population.

In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

The desire to catch up with Europe in economic development, Peter tried to realize with the help of forced "manufactory industrialization", i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of the labor of serfs. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military orders, which freed them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.

Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia by the end of Peter's reign represented a military-police state with a state-owned monopolized feudal economy.

The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious, social ideas that were accepted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. There was a split between the top and the bottom of society.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church at the end of the 17th century was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of zemstvo sobors, which removed the people from political power, and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

The weakening of contacts between the government and the people. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly.

The price of the transformations was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors.

In 1689, Peter the Great established himself on the Russian throne, having received the opportunity to make independent decisions, and not just be listed as king (since 1682). He was remembered by his descendants as a controversial and powerful person who started global transformations in the country. These historical reforms will be discussed in our article.

Conditions for change

Having gained true power, the king immediately began to rule the country. There are several main reasons for this:

he got a state that is quite far behind in development from the European powers;
he understood that such large and poorly developed territories needed constant protection, the establishment of new economic and political ties.

In order to adequately support the army, it is necessary to raise the standard of living of the whole country, change the foundations and strengthen power. This became the main goal and objectives of the reforms of Peter the Great.

Not everyone liked the innovations. Some segments of the population tried to resist the reforms of Peter the Great. The boyars and the higher clergy lost their special status, and a small group of nobles and merchants were afraid to deviate from old customs. But, due to the lack of sufficient support, they could not stop the changes, only slowed down the process.

Rice. 1. The first Russian Emperor Peter the Great.

The essence of transformation

State reforms in Russia during the time of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two stages:

Consequences of the reforms

It would be wrong to downplay the significance of the reorganizations carried out by Peter I. They contributed to the comprehensive development of the Russian state, which made it possible to make it an empire in 1721. But do not forget that not all the results were positive. The transformations led to the following results:

Strengthening power with the help of a new state apparatus (strengthening autocracy);
Construction of the fleet, improvement of the army, access to the Baltic Sea (25 years of military service);
Development of domestic industry (use of the free labor of serfs);
Improvement of conditions for the development of science, education (practically did not concern the common people);
Spread of European culture (oppression of national traditions);
Compensation of a noble title for service merits (additional duties for all segments of the population);
Introduction of new taxes.

Introduction

1. Russia at the end of the 17th century. Prerequisites for the Petrine reforms

1.1The position of Russia at the end of the 17th century

2Internal prerequisites for transformations

3Reason for the need for reform

4The need for access to the seas

2. Reforms of Peter I

2.1 Public administration reforms

2 Administrative and local government reforms

3 Military reforms

4 Social policy

5 Economic reforms

6 Financial and fiscal reforms

7 Church reform

3.Results and significance of Peter's reforms

3.1 General assessment of Peter's reforms

2 The meaning and price of reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

I believe that this topic is very relevant today. Currently, Russia is going through a period of reforming economic and socio-political relations, accompanied by contradictory results and polar opposite assessments in various strata of Russian society. This causes a heightened interest in the reforms in the past, in their origins, content and results. One of the most turbulent and most fruitful reform eras is the era of Peter I. Therefore, there is a desire to delve into the essence, the nature of the processes of a different period of breaking up society, to study in more detail the mechanisms of change in a huge state.

For two and a half centuries, historians, philosophers and writers have been arguing about the significance of the Petrine reforms, but regardless of the point of view of one or another researcher, everyone agrees on one thing - it was one of the most important stages in the history of Russia, thanks to which all of it can be divided into pre-Petrine and post-Petrine eras . In Russian history, it is difficult to find a figure equal to Peter in terms of the scale of interests and the ability to see the main thing in the problem being solved.

In my work, I would like to consider in detail the reasons for the reforms of Peter I, the reforms themselves, and also highlight their significance for the country and society.

1. Russia at the end of the 17th century Prerequisites for Peter's reforms

.1 Russia's position at the end 17th century

In the countries of Western Europe in the XVI-XVII centuries, important historical events took place - the Dutch bourgeois revolution (XVI century) and the English bourgeois revolution (XVII century).

Bourgeois relations were established in Holland and England, and both of these countries were far ahead of other states in their socio-economic and political development. Many European countries were backward compared to Holland and England, but Russia was the most backward.

The reasons for the historical backwardness of Russia were due to the fact that:

1.In the era of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the principalities saved Western Europe from the hordes of Batu, but they themselves were ruined and fell under the yoke of the Golden Horde khans for more than 200 years.

2.The process of overcoming feudal fragmentation due to the vast territory to be united took about three hundred years. Thus, the unification process in the Russian lands was much slower than, for example, in England or France.

.Commercial, industrial, cultural and, to a certain extent, diplomatic relations between Russia and Western countries were hampered due to Russia's lack of convenient sea harbors in the Baltic.

.Russia at the end of the 17th century had not yet fully recovered from the consequences of the Polish-Swedish intervention at the beginning of the century, which devastated a number of regions in the northwest, southwest and center of the country.

.2 Internal prerequisites for change

In the XVII century. As a result of the activities of the first representatives of the Romanov dynasty, the socio-economic and political crisis of the state and society, caused by the events of the Time of Troubles, was overcome. At the end of the 17th century, there was a tendency for the Europeanization of Russia, and the prerequisites for future Peter's reforms were outlined:

The tendency to absolutize the supreme power (the elimination of the activities of the Zemsky Sobors as class-representative bodies), the inclusion of the word "autocrat" in the royal title; registration of national legislation (Sobornoe Code of 1649). Further improvement of the code of laws associated with the adoption of new articles (in 1649-1690, 1535 decrees were adopted to supplement the Code);

Activation of foreign policy and diplomatic activity of the Russian state;

Reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of regiments of a foreign system, changes in the order of recruitment and recruitment into regiments, distribution of military corps by districts;

Reforming and improving the financial and tax systems;

The transition from handicraft production to manufacturing with the use of elements of hired labor and the simplest mechanisms;

The development of domestic and foreign trade (the adoption of the "Statutory Customs Charter" in 1653, the "New Trade Charter" in 1667);

The delimitation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon's church reform; the advent of the Nazis onal-conservative and Westernist currents.

.3 Reasons for reform

reform policy diplomatic

Speaking about the reasons for Peter's reforms, historians usually refer to the need to overcome Russia's lag behind the advanced countries of the West. But, in fact, not a single estate wanted to catch up with anyone, did not feel an internal need to reform the country in a European manner. This desire was present only among a very small group of aristocrats, headed by Peter I himself. The population did not feel the need for transformations, especially such radical ones. Why then did Peter “raise Russia up”?

The origins of Peter's reforms must be sought not in the internal needs of the Russian economy and social strata, but in the foreign policy sphere. The impetus for the reforms was the defeat of the Russian troops near Narva (1700) at the beginning of the Northern War. After him, it became obvious that if Russia wants to act as an equal partner of the major world powers, it must have a European-style army. It could be created only through a large-scale military reform. And this, in turn, required the development of their own industry (to provide troops with weapons, ammunition, uniforms). It is known that manufactories, factories and factories cannot be built without large investments. The government could receive money for them from the population only through fiscal reform. People are needed to serve in the army and work in enterprises. In order to provide the necessary number of "military ranks" and labor force, it was necessary to restructure the social structure of society. All these transformations could only be carried out by a powerful and efficient apparatus of power, which did not exist in pre-Petrine Russia. Such tasks arose before Peter I after the military catastrophe of 1700. It remained either to capitulate or to reform the country in order to win in the future.

Thus, the need for military reform that arose after the defeat near Narva turned out to be the link that, as it were, pulled the entire chain of transformations along with it. All of them were subordinated to a single goal - strengthening the military potential of Russia, turning it into a world power, without whose permission "not a single gun in Europe could fire."

In order to put Russia on a par with the developed European states, it was necessary:

1.To achieve access to the seas for trade and cultural communication with the countries of Europe (in the north - to the coast of the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic; in the south - to the shores of the Azov and Black Seas).

2.Develop national industry faster.

.Create a regular army and navy.

.Reform the state apparatus, which did not meet the new needs.

.Catch up on the lost in the field of culture.

The struggle for the solution of these state tasks unfolded in the 43-year reign of Peter I (1682-1725).

.4 Need for sea access

A distinctive feature of Russia's foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century was its high activity. The almost continuous wars that were waged by Peter I were aimed at solving the main national problem - gaining Russia the right to access the sea. Without solving this problem, it was impossible to overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country and eliminate the political and economic blockade by the Western European states and Turkey. Peter I sought to strengthen the international position of the state, to increase its role in international relations. It was the time of European expansion, the capture of new territories. In the current situation, Russia had to either become a dependent state, or, having overcome the backlog, enter the category of Great Powers. It was precisely for this that Russia needed access to the seas: shipping routes were faster and safer, the Commonwealth in every possible way interfered with the passage of merchants and specialists to Russia. The country was cut off from both the northern and southern seas: Sweden prevented access to the Baltic Sea, Turkey held the Azov and Black Seas. Initially, the foreign policy of the Petrine government had the same direction as in the previous period. It was the movement of Russia to the south, the desire to eliminate the Wild Field, which arose in very ancient times as a result of the onset of the nomadic world. It blocked Russia's road to trade in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, hindered the economic development of the country. Vasily Golitsyn's campaigns against the Crimea and Peter's "Azov" campaigns were a manifestation of this "southern" foreign policy line. The wars with Sweden and Turkey cannot be considered as alternatives - they were subordinated to one goal: to establish large-scale trade between the Baltic and Central Asia.

2. Reforms of Peter I

In the history of the Petrine reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715 (V. I. Rodenkov, A. B. Kamensky).

At the first stage, the reforms were mostly chaotic and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state associated with the conduct of the Northern War. They were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active state intervention in the affairs of the economy (regulation of trade, industry, tax, financial and labor activities). Many reforms were ill-conceived, hasty in nature, which was caused both by failures in the war, and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power.

At the second stage, when hostilities had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. There was a further strengthening of the apparatus of power, manufactories not only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy was somewhat weakened, merchants and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action.

.1 Public Administration Reforms

Initially, Peter tried to make the old order system more efficient. Reitarsky and Inozemsky orders were merged into the Military. The Streltsy order was liquidated, Preobrazhensky was established instead. The collection of money for the Northern War in the early years was carried out by the Town Hall, the Izhora Chancellery, and the Monastic Order. The mining department was in charge of the Mining Order.

However, the competence of the orders was increasingly reduced, and the fullness of political life was concentrated in the Near Office of Peter, formed in 1701. After the foundation of the new capital - St. Petersburg (1703), the term "office" began to be applied to the St. Petersburg branches of the Moscow orders, to which all managerial prerogatives were transferred. As this process developed, the Moscow order system was eliminated.

The reforms also affected other central authorities. Since 1704, the Boyar Duma no longer met. Nobody dispersed it, but Peter simply stopped giving new boyar ranks, and the Duma members physically died out. Since 1701, its role was actually performed by the Council of Ministers, which met in the Near Chancellery.

In 1711 the Senate was established. At first, it existed as a temporary governing body, created during the absence of the sovereign (Peter was on the Prut campaign). But upon the return of the king, the Senate was retained as a government institution that exercised the highest court, dealt with financial and fiscal problems, and recruited the army. The Senate was also in charge of personnel appointments in almost all institutions. In 1722, under him, the prosecutor's office was created - the highest control body that monitored the observance of laws. The special position of fiscals introduced in 1711, professional scammers who controlled the work of state institutions, was closely connected with the prosecutor's office. Above them was the Chief Fiscal, and in 1723 the position of General Fiscal was established, who led the entire network of "sovereign eyes and ears."

In 1718 - 1722. following the model of the Swedish state system (a noteworthy fact: Russia was at war with Sweden and at the same time “borrowed” the concept of some reforms from it), colleges were established. Each collegium was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management: the Foreign Affairs Collegium - foreign relations, the Military Collegium - the ground armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - revenue collection, the Staff Office Collegium - state expenditures, the Audit Collegium - budget control, The Collegium of Justice - with legal proceedings, the Votchinnaya - with noble land ownership, the Manufactory Collegium - with industry, except for the metallurgical one, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium, the Commerce Collegium - with trade. In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate who was in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Survey Office were operating.

The principle of cameralism was put at the basis of the new authorities. Its main components were: a functional organization of management, collegiality in institutions with a precise definition of the duties of each, the introduction of a clear system of clerical work, uniformity of bureaucratic staff and salaries. The structural subdivisions of the collegium were offices, which included offices.

The work of officials was regulated by special rules - regulations. In 1719 - 1724 the General Regulations were drawn up - a law that determined the general principles of the functioning of the state apparatus, which had a very great resemblance to the military charter. For employees, an oath of allegiance to the sovereign was even introduced, similar to the military one. The duties of each person were recorded on a special paper called "position".

Faith in the omnipotence of circulars and instructions was quickly established in the new state institutions, and the cult of bureaucratic orders flourished. It is Peter I who is considered the father of the Russian bureaucracy.

2.2 Administrative and local government reforms

Pre-Petrine Russia was divided into counties. In 1701, Peter took the first step towards administrative reform: a special district was established from Voronezh and the recently conquered Azov. In 1702 - 1703. a similar territorial unit arose in Ingria, annexed during the Northern War. In 1707 - 1710. provincial reform began. The country was divided into large lands called provinces. In 1708, Russia was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kiev, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberia. Each of them was ruled by a governor appointed by the king. The provincial office and the following officials were subordinate to him: chief commandant (in charge of military affairs), chief commissar (collected taxes) and landricht (responsible for legal proceedings).

The main goal of the reform was to streamline the financial and fiscal system to meet the needs of the army. The painting of the regiments was introduced in the provinces. Each regiment had Kriegs commissars who were in charge of raising funds for their units. A special Kriegs-commissioner's office, headed by an ober-stern-kriegs-commissioner, was established under the Senate.

The provinces turned out to be too large for effective administration. At first they were divided into counties, headed by commandants. However, these territorial units were also too cumbersome. Then in 1712 - 1715. The provinces were divided into provinces headed by chief commandants, and the provinces were divided into districts (districts) under the command of zemstvo commissars.

In general, the system of local government and administrative structure was borrowed by Peter from the Swedes. However, he excluded its lower component - the Swedish zemstvo (kirchspiel). The reason for this is simple: the tsar felt disdain for the common people and was sincerely convinced that "there are no smart people from the peasantry in the county."

Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of government was formed for the whole country, in which the monarch, who relied on the nobility, played a decisive role. The number of officials has increased significantly. The cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus has also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 Introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country.

2.3 Military reforms

New types of troops are being established in the army: engineering and garrison units, irregular troops, in the southern regions - the landmilitia (militia of the same palaces). Now the infantry consisted of grenadiers, and the cavalry consisted of dragoon regiments (dragoons were soldiers who fought both on foot and on horseback).

The structure of the army has changed. The tactical unit was now the regiment. Brigades were recruited from regiments, divisions from brigades. Headquarters were established to control the troops. A new system of military ranks was introduced, the highest steps in which were occupied by generals: general of infantry (in infantry), general of cavalry and general feldzeugmeister (in artillery).

A unified system of education was established in the army and navy, military educational institutions (navigation, artillery, engineering schools) were opened. The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served for the training of officers.

The internal life of the army was regulated by special documents - the "Military Charter" (1716) and the "Marine Charter" (1720). Their main idea was the strict centralization of command, military discipline and organization: so that "the commander was beloved and terrible to the soldier." The “Military Article” (1715) determined the military criminal process and the system of criminal penalties.

The most important part of the reforms was the creation by Peter in Russia of a powerful navy. The first warships built in 1696 for the Second Azov campaign in Voronezh, along the river. Don descended into the Sea of Azov. Since 1703, the construction of warships in the Baltic has been going on (the Olonets shipyard was opened on the Svir River). In total, during the years of Peter's reign, more than 1,100 ships were built, including the largest 100-gun battleship "Peter I and II" laid down in 1723.

In general, the military reforms of Peter I had a positive impact on the development of Russian military art, were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and navy in the Northern War.

.4 Social policy

The goal of Peter's reforms was "the composition of the Russian people." The reforms were accompanied by large-scale social breakdown, "shaking up" of all classes, often very painful for society.

Dramatic changes took place among the nobility. Peter destroyed the Duma aristocracy physically - he stopped making new appointments to the Boyar Duma, and Duma ranks died out. Most of the service people "in the fatherland" was turned into the gentry (as the nobility was called under Peter). Some of the service people "according to the fatherland" in the south of the country and almost all the service people "according to the instrument" became state peasants. At the same time, a transitional category of odnodvortsev arose - personally free people, but owning only one yard.

The purpose of all these transformations was to consolidate the nobility into a single estate, bearing state duties (odnodvortsy in 1719 - 1724 were rewritten and subject to poll tax). No wonder some historians even talk about the "enslavement of the nobility" by Peter I. The main task was to force the aristocrats to serve the Fatherland. To do this, it was necessary to deprive the nobility of material independence. In 1714, the "Decree on Single Succession" was issued. Now the local form of land ownership was eliminated, only the patrimonial remained, but the patrimony was henceforth called the estate. Only the eldest son received the right to inherit the land. All the rest turned out to be landless, deprived of their means of subsistence, and had the opportunity to choose only one life path - to enter the civil service.

However, this was not enough, and in the same 1714 a decree was issued that a nobleman could acquire property only after 7 years of military service, or 10 civil, or 15 years of being in the merchant rank. Persons who were not in the public service could never become owners. In the event of a nobleman's refusal to enter the service, his estate was immediately confiscated. The most unusual measure was the ban on the children of the nobility from marrying until they had learned the sciences necessary for service.

The service introduced a new criterion for the nobles: the principle of personal length of service. In the clearest form, it is expressed in the "Table of Ranks" (1722 - 1724). Now the basis of career growth was the rule of gradual rise through the ranks from rank to rank. All ranks were divided into four categories: military, naval, civil and court. Those who reached the 8th grade received hereditary nobility (this corresponded to approximately 10 years of service and the ranks of major, chief fiscal, chief secretary of the collegium.

"Table of Ranks".

ClassesMilitary ranksCivilian ranksCourt ranksMarineLandIAdmiral GeneralGeneralissimo Field MarshalChancellor (Secretary of State) Active Privy Councilor IIAdmiralGeneral of the Artillery General of the Cavalry General of the InfantryActual Privy Councilor Vice-ChancellorOber Chamberlain Ober-Schenk IIIVice AdmiralLieutenant GeneralPrivy Councilor Chamberlain IVRear AdmiralMajor GeneralActual State CouncilorChamberlain VCaptain-CommanderBrigadierState Councilor VICaptain 1st RankColonelCollegiate CouncilorChamber Fourier VIICaptain 2nd RankLieutenant ColonelOutdoor Counselor VIIIFleet Lieutenant Commander Artillery Captain 3rd RankMajor Collegiate Assessor IXArtillery Captain-LieutenantCaptain (in the infantry) Captain (in the cavalry)Titular CounselorChamber Juncker XFleet Lieutenant Artillery Lieutenant Staff Captain Staff Captain Collegiate Secretary XISenate Secretary XIINavy midshipmanLieutenantProvincial SecretaryValet XIIIArtillery constapelLieutenantSenate Registrar XIVEnsign (in the infantry) Cornet (in the cavalry) Collegiate registrar

Theoretically, any personally free person could now rise to become an aristocrat. On the one hand, this made it possible for people from the lower strata to climb the social ladder. On the other hand, the autocratic power of the monarch and the role of state-bureaucratic institutions sharply increased. The nobility turned out to be dependent on the bureaucracy and the arbitrariness of the authorities, who controlled any promotion through the ranks.

At the same time, Peter I made sure that the nobility was, although serving, but - the highest, privileged class. In 1724, a ban was issued on the entry of non-nobles to the clerical service. The highest bureaucratic institutions were staffed exclusively from the nobility, which made it possible for the gentry to remain the ruling class of Russian society.

Simultaneously with the consolidation of the nobility, Peter carried out the consolidation of the peasantry. He eliminated various categories of peasants: in 1714, the division of peasants into local and patrimonial peasants was abolished; in the course of church reforms, there were no church and patriarchal peasants. Now there were serfs (owners), palace and state peasants.

An important measure of social policy was the elimination of the institution of serfdom. Even when recruiting troops for the Second Azov campaign, the serfs who signed up for the regiments were declared free. In 1700 this decree was repeated. Thus, having enlisted as a soldier, the slave could be freed from the owner. During the census of the population of serfs, it was ordered to “write in salary”, i.e. in legal terms, they approached the peasants. This meant the destruction of servility as such. On the one hand, Peter's merit in eliminating slavery in Russia, a legacy of the early Middle Ages, is undeniable. On the other hand, it hit the serf peasantry: the lordly plowing increased sharply. Prior to that, the master's lands were mainly cultivated by arable serfs, but now this duty fell on the peasants, and the size of the corvée approached the limits of a person's physical capabilities.

In relation to the townspeople, the same tough policy was carried out. In addition to a sharp increase in the tax burden, Peter I actually attached the inhabitants of the settlement to the cities. In 1722, a decree was issued on the return to the settlements of all fugitive taxpayers and on the prohibition of unauthorized departure from the settlement. In 1724 - 1725. the country introduces a passport system. Without a passport, a person could not move around Russia.

The only category of townspeople that escaped attachment to the cities was the merchant class, but the merchant class also underwent unification. On the morning of January 16, 1721, all Russian merchants woke up as members of guilds and workshops. The first guild included bankers, industrialists and wealthy merchants, the second - small entrepreneurs and merchants, retailers, artisans.

Under Peter I, the merchants bore the brunt of the fiscal oppression of the state. During the census, officials, in order to increase the number of the taxable population, called "merchants" even those who had nothing to do with them. As a result, a large number of fictitious "merchants" appeared in the census books. And the total amount of taxes levied on the urban community was calculated precisely according to the number of wealthy citizens, which merchants were automatically considered to be. These taxes were distributed among the townspeople "according to strength", i.e. the main part for their impoverished countrymen was made by real merchants and wealthy townspeople. This order hindered the accumulation of capital, hindered the development of capitalism in the cities.

So, under Peter, a new structure of society developed, in which the class principle, regulated by state legislation, is clearly traced.

.5 Economic reforms

Peter was the first in Russian history to create a system of state regulation of the economy. It was carried out through bureaucratic institutions: the Berg Collegium, the Manufactory Collegium, the Collegium of Commerce and the General Magistrate.

A state monopoly was introduced on a number of goods: in 1705 - on salt, which gave the treasury 100% of the profit, and on tobacco (800% of the profit). Also, on the basis of the principle of mercantilism, a monopoly was established on foreign trade in bread and raw materials. By 1719, by the end of the Northern War, most of the monopolies had been abolished, but they played their role - they ensured the mobilization of the state's material resources in wartime. However, private domestic trade was hit hard. The merchant class found itself excluded from the most profitable branches of commercial activity. In addition, fixed prices were introduced for a number of goods supplied by merchants to the treasury, which deprived merchants of the opportunity to receive income from their sale.

Peter widely practiced the forced formation of cargo flows. In 1713 it was forbidden to trade through Arkhangelsk, and goods were sent through St. Petersburg. This almost led to a halt in commercial operations, since St. Petersburg was deprived of the necessary trading infrastructure (exchanges, warehouses, etc.). Then the government softened its ban, but according to the decree of 1721, trade duties for trade through Arkhangelsk became three times higher than for the transport of goods through the Baltic capital.

Petersburg generally played a fatal role in the fate of the Russian merchants: in 1711-1717. the best merchant families of the country were forcibly sent there. This was done for the economic strengthening of the capital. But few of them managed to establish their business in a new place. This led to the fact that the "strong" merchant class in Russia was halved. Some eminent families have disappeared forever.

The centers of trade were Moscow, Astrakhan, Novgorod, as well as large fairs - Makarievskaya on the Volga, Irbitskaya in Siberia, Svinskaya in Ukraine and smaller fairs and fairs at the crossroads of trade roads. The government of Peter paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main mode of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: the Volga-Don, Vyshnevolzhsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.

After 1719, the state somewhat relaxed its mobilization measures and its intervention in economic life. Not only were monopolies abolished, but measures were taken to encourage free enterprise. A special Berg privilege is established for the extractive industry. The practice of transferring manufactories to private individuals is spreading. However, the foundations of state regulation remained. As before, enterprises had to fulfill the huge state order at fixed prices in the first place. This ensured the growth of Russian industry, which was supported by the state (over 200 new manufactories and factories were built during the years of Peter's reign), but at the same time, the Russian industrial economy was initially devoid of competition, focused not on the market, but on state orders. This gave rise to stagnation - why improve quality, expand production, if the authorities will still buy the goods at a guaranteed price?

Therefore, the assessment of the results of the economic policy of Peter I cannot be unambiguous. Yes, Western, bourgeois-type industry was created, which allowed the country to become an equal participant in all political processes in Europe and the world. But the similarity with the West affected only the technological sphere. In social terms, Russian manufactories and factories did not know bourgeois relations. Thus, Peter, to a certain extent, solved the technical problems of the bourgeois revolution without its social components, without creating classes of bourgeois society. This circumstance led to serious distortions in the country's economic development, which took many decades to overcome.

The most striking example of such economic "perversions" is the establishment in 1721 of "possession manufactories" - enterprises where serfs assigned to this manufactory worked instead of hired workers. Peter created an economic monster unknown to the capitalist mode of production. According to all market laws, slaves cannot work in factories and factories instead of hired workers. Such an enterprise is simply not viable. But in Petrine Russia, it successfully existed, using the support of the state.

.6 Financial and fiscal reforms

Under Peter I, these areas were subject to the same tasks: building a strong state, a strong army, expropriation of estates, which caused a sharp increase in duties and taxes. Such a policy solved its task - the mobilization of funds - but it led to an overstrain of the state's forces.

Another goal of the fiscal reforms was to create a material base for maintaining the army in peacetime. At first, the government planned to establish something like labor armies from units returning from the fronts of the Northern War. But this project was not carried out. But a standing duty was introduced. The soldiers settled in the villages in proportions: one infantryman for 47 peasants, one cavalryman for 57 peasants. For the first time in the history of Russia, the country was covered by a network of military garrisons fed by the local population.

However, the most effective way to replenish the treasury was the introduction of a poll tax (1719 - 1724). From 1718 to 1722, a census was conducted (audit). Special officials collected information about potential taxpayers, entered them into special books - "revision tales". The rewritten people were called "revision souls". If before Peter the taxes were paid from the yard (households), now they had to be paid by each "revision soul".

.7 Church reform

The activities of Peter I in this area were distinguished by the same characteristics: the mobilization and expropriation of church resources for the needs of the state. The main task of the authorities was the demolition of the church as an independent social force. The sovereign was especially afraid of an alliance between the anti-Petrine opposition and Orthodox priests. Moreover, there were rumors among the people that the reformer tsar was the Antichrist or his forerunner. In 1701, a ban was even issued to keep paper and ink in the monastery cells in order to stop the writing and distribution of anti-government works.

In 1700 Patriarch Andrian died. Peter did not appoint a new one, but established the position of "locum tenens of the patriarchal throne." It was occupied by the Metropolitan of Ryazan and Murom Stefan Yavorsky. In 1701, it was restored liquidated in the 1670s. The monastic order, which regulated the issues of church land ownership, and the monks were attached to their monasteries. A norm of funds was introduced, relying in the monasteries for the maintenance of the brethren, - for one monk 10 rubles and 10 quarters of bread per year. Everything else was confiscated in favor of the treasury.

The ideology of further church reform was developed by the Pskov Archbishop Feofan Prokopovich. In 1721, he created the Spiritual Regulations, the purpose of which was "to correct the order of the spiritual." The patriarchate in Russia was liquidated. The Spiritual College was established, later renamed the Synod. He was in charge of purely church affairs: the interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church services, censorship of spiritual books, the fight against heresies, the management of educational institutions and the removal of church officials, etc. The synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. The presence of the Synod consisted of 12 higher church hierarchs, appointed by the king, to whom they swore an oath. For the first time in Russian history, a secular bureaucratic institution was placed at the head of a religious organization. Control over the activities of the Synod was carried out by the chief prosecutor, a specially created staff of church fiscals - inquisitors was subordinate to him. In 1721 - 1722. the parish clergy were put on a per capita salary and rewritten - an unprecedented case in world practice for tax duties to be imposed on clergy. States were established for priests. There was a proportion: one priest for 100 - 150 parishioners. The "superfluous" were turned ... into serfs. In general, the clergy as a result of these reforms was reduced by one third.

However, at the same time, Peter I exalted that side of church life that corresponded to the tasks of state building. Going to church was seen as a civic duty. In 1716, a decree was issued on compulsory confession, and in 1722, a decree was issued on violating the secrecy of confession if a person confessed to state crimes. Now the priests were obliged to denounce their parishioners. The clergy widely practiced anathemas and sermons "on occasion" - thus, the church became an instrument of the propaganda machine of the state.

At the end of Peter's reign, a monastic reform was being prepared. It was not carried out because of the death of the emperor, but its direction is indicative. Peter hated the black clergy, arguing that "the monks are parasites." It was planned to ban monastic tonsure for all categories of the population, except for retired soldiers. This showed Peter's utilitarianism: he wanted to turn the convents into giant nursing homes. At the same time, it was supposed to keep a certain number of monks to serve the veterans (one for 2 - 4 invalids). The rest were waiting for the fate of serfs, and the nuns - work in the possession of manufactories.

3. The results and significance of the Petrine reforms

.1 Overall evaluation of the reforms

With regard to the Petrine reforms, beginning with the dispute between the Slavophiles and the Westerners in the 19th century, there are two points of view in the scientific literature. Supporters of the first (S. M. Solovyov, N. G. Ustryalov, N. I. Pavlenko, V. I. Buganov, V. V. Mavrodin and others) point to the undoubted successes of Russia: the country has strengthened its international position, built an industry , army, society, culture of a new, European type. The reforms of Peter I determined the face of Russia for many decades to come.

Scientists who share a different point of view (V. O. Klyuchevsky, E. V. Anisimov and others) ask the question about the price that was paid for these transformations. Indeed, in 1725, the commission of P.I. Yaguzhinsky, which conducted an audit of the results of the reforms, came to the conclusion that they must be immediately stopped and proceed to stabilization. The country is overstressed and overstrained. The population could not withstand the fiscal oppression. At the end of the reign of Peter I, famine began in a number of districts due to unbearable requisitions. The objections of this group of historians are also caused by the methods of implementing the reforms: they were carried out "from above", through strict centralization, mobilization of Russian society and bringing it into the service of the state. According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Peter's decrees "as if written with a whip."

There was no support for reforms in society: not a single social stratum, not a single estate acted as a bearer of reforms and was not interested in them. The reform mechanism was purely statist. This gave rise to serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure, which Russia had to overcome for many years.

3.2 The value and price of Peter's reforms, their impact on the further development of the Russian Empire

The reign of Peter I opened a new period in Russian history. Russia has become a Europeanized state and a member of the European community of nations. Management and jurisprudence, the army and various social strata of the population were reorganized in a Western way. Industry and trade developed rapidly, and great achievements appeared in technical education and science.

Assessing the Petrine reforms and their significance for the further development of the Russian Empire, the following main trends must be taken into account:

The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy, unlike the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, balancing the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.

The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for modernizing the country.

In terms of their scale and swiftness in carrying out the reforms of Peter the Great, they were unparalleled not only in Russian, but at least in European history.

A powerful and contradictory imprint was left on them by the features of the previous development of the country, extreme foreign policy conditions and the personality of the king himself.

Based on some trends emerging in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also brought it to a qualitatively higher level in a minimal historical period of time, turning Russia into a powerful state.

The payment for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations, and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population.

Despite the inconsistency of Peter's personality and his transformations, in Russian history his figure has become a symbol of decisive reformism and selfless, sparing neither himself nor others, service to the Russian state. Among the descendants, Peter I - practically the only one of the kings - rightfully retained the title of Great granted to him during his lifetime.

Changes in the first quarter of the 18th century are so grandiose in their consequences that they give grounds to speak of pre-Petrine and post-Petrine Russia. Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in Russian history. Reforms are inseparable from the personality of Peter I - an outstanding commander and statesman.

Contradictory, explained by the peculiarities of that time and personal qualities, the figure of Peter the Great constantly attracted the attention of the largest writers (M. V. Lomonosov, A. S. Pushkin, A. N. Tolstoy), artists and sculptors (E. Falcone, V. I. Surikov, M. N. Ge, V. A. Serov), theater and film workers (V. M. Petrov, N. K. Cherkasova), composers (A. P. Petrova).

How to evaluate Peter's perestroika? The attitude towards Peter I and his reforms is a kind of touchstone that determines the views of historians, publicists, politicians, scientists and cultural figures. What is it - a historical feat of the people or measures that doomed the country to ruin after the reforms of Peter?

Peter's transformations and their results are extremely contradictory, which is reflected in the works of historians. Most researchers believe that the reforms of Peter I were of outstanding importance in the history of Russia (K. Valishevsky, S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, N. I. Kostomarov, E. P. Karpovich, N. N. Molchanov, N. I. Pavlenko and others). On the one hand, the reign of Peter went down in Russian history as a time of brilliant military victories, it was characterized by rapid economic development. It was a period of a sharp breakthrough towards Europe. According to S. F. Platonov, for this purpose, Peter was ready to sacrifice everything, even himself and his loved ones. Everything that went against the good of the state, he was ready to exterminate and destroy as a statesman.

On the other hand, some historians consider the creation of a “regular state” to be the result of the activities of Peter I. bureaucratic state in its essence, based on surveillance and espionage. Authoritarian rule is becoming established, the role of the monarch, his influence on all spheres of society and the state are extremely increasing (A. N. Mavrodin, G. V. Vernadsky).

Moreover, the researcher Yu. A. Boldyrev, studying the personality of Peter and his reforms, concludes that “Peter's transformations aimed at the Europeanization of Russia did not achieve their goal. The revolutionary nature of Peter turned out to be false, as it was carried out while maintaining the basic principles of the despotic regime, universal enslavement.

The ideal state structure for Peter I was a "regular state", a model similar to a ship, where the captain is the king, his subjects are officers and sailors acting according to the maritime charter. Only such a state, according to Peter, could become an instrument of decisive transformation, the purpose of which is to turn Russia into a great European power. Peter achieved this goal and therefore went down in history as a great reformer. But what at the pricehave these results been achieved?

The repeated increase in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social actions - the revolt of archers in Astrakhan (1705 - 1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region were directed personally against Peter I and even not so much against transformations, but against methods and means of their implementation.

Carrying out the reform of public administration, Peter I was guided by the principles of cameralism, i.e. introduction of bureaucracy. In Russia, a cult of institutions has developed, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.

The desire to catch up with Europe in economic development, Peter I tried to realize with the help of forced "manufactory industrialization", i.e. through the mobilization of public funds and the use of the labor of serfs. The main feature of the development of manufactories was the fulfillment of state, primarily military, orders, which freed them from competition, but deprived them of free economic initiative.

The result of the Petrine reforms was the creation in Russia of the foundations of a state-monopoly industry, feudal and militarized. Instead of a civil society with a market economy emerging in Europe, Russia by the end of Peter's reign represented a military-police state with a state-controlled monopolized feudal economy.

The achievements of the imperial period were accompanied by deep internal conflicts. The main crisis is ripening in the national psychology. The Europeanization of Russia brought with it new political, religious and social ideas that were adopted by the ruling classes of society before they reached the masses. Accordingly, a split arose between the top and bottom of society, between the intellectuals and the people.

The main psychological support of the Russian state - the Orthodox Church - at the end of the 17th century. was shaken in its foundations and gradually lost its significance, from 1700 until the revolution of 1917. The church reform of the beginning of the 18th century. meant for the Russians the loss of a spiritual alternative to the state ideology. While in Europe the church, separating from the state, drew closer to the believers, in Russia it moved away from them, became an obedient instrument of power, which was contrary to Russian traditions, spiritual values, and the whole age-old way of life. It is natural that many of his contemporaries called Peter I the Antichrist Tsar.

There was an aggravation of political and social problems. The abolition of Zemsky Sobors (which removed the people from political power) and the abolition of self-government in 1708 also created political difficulties.

The government acutely felt the weakening of contacts with the people after Peter's reforms. It soon became clear that the majority did not sympathize with the Europeanization program. In carrying out its reforms, the government was forced to act cruelly, as Peter the Great did. And later the concept of prohibitions became familiar. Meanwhile, Western political thought influenced the Europeanized circles of Russian society, which absorbed the ideas of political progress and gradually prepared for the fight against absolutism. Thus, Peter's reforms set in motion political forces that the government later could not control.

In Petra, we can see before us the only example of successful and, on the whole, completed reforms in Russia, which determined its further development for almost two centuries. However, it should be noted that the price of the transformations was prohibitively high: in carrying out them, the tsar did not consider either the sacrifices made on the altar of the fatherland, or national traditions, or the memory of ancestors.

Conclusion

Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, the central role in which belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and the reforms were carried out mainly through the most severe exploitation and coercion.

The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. No matter how one relates to the methods and style of carrying out transformations, one cannot but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history. Many historical studies and works of art are devoted to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes directly opposite ways. Peter's contemporaries were already divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continues to this day.

Some experts say that Peter's reforms led to the conservation of the feudal-serf system, the violation of the rights and freedoms of the individual, which caused further upheavals in the life of the country. Others argue that this is a major step forward in the path of progress, albeit within the feudal system.

It seems that in the specific conditions of that time, Peter's reforms were of a progressive nature. The objective conditions of the country's development gave rise to adequate measures to reform it. Great A.S. Pushkin most sensitively guessed and understood the essence of that time and the role of Peter in our history. For him, on the one hand, Peter is a brilliant commander and politician, on the other, an "impatient landowner", whose decrees are "written with a whip."

The extraordinary personality of the emperor, his lively mind, contributed to the sharp rise of the country, strengthening its position on the world stage. Peter reformed the country proceeding directly from the needs of this time in the history of Russia: to win, you need a strong army and navy - as a result, a large-scale military reform was carried out. To provide the army with weapons, ammunition, uniforms, it is necessary to develop our own industry, etc. Thus, having carried out a series of reforms, sometimes spontaneous, dictated only by a momentary decision of the emperor, Russia strengthened its international position, built industry, received a strong army and navy, a society, and a culture of a new type. And, despite the serious distortions in the economic and social infrastructure that the country had to overcome for many years, brought to completion, Peter's reforms are undoubtedly one of the outstanding periods in the history of our state.

Bibliography

1. Goryainov S.G., Egorov A.A. History of Russia IX-XVIII centuries. Textbook for students of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums and colleges. Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix Publishing House, 1996. - 416 p.

2. Derevianko A.P., Shabelnikova N.A. History of Russia: textbook. allowance. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: TK Velby, Prospekt Publishing House, 2005. - 560 p.

Orlov A.S., Georgiev V.A., Georgieva N.G., Sivokhina T.A. History of Russia from ancient times to the present day. Textbook. Second edition, revised and enlarged. - M. "PBOYUL L.V. Rozhnikov", 200. - 528 p.

Filyushkin A.I. History of Russia from ancient times to 1801: A guide for universities. - M.: Bustard, 2004. - 336 p.: map.

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Features of the emperor's activities

Transformations in the army

The Importance of Military Innovation

Transformations of power structures

New administrative division

Changes in industry and commerce

Transformations in the social structure

The role of the transformational activity of the emperor

3.1. Central government reform

3.3. City government reform

3.4. Results of public administration reform

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

Faculty of State and Municipal Administration

REFORMS OF PETER I.

RUSSIA IN THE FIRST QUARTER OF THE 18TH CENTURY

Motorkin Andrey Yurievich,

Syktyvkar

1. Reforms of Peter I: goals, content, results. The price of Peter's reforms.

Conditions for change

The essence of transformation

Consequences of the reforms

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