The role of living matter in the biosphere In his theory of the biosphere, V. I. Vernadsky focused on the role of living matter. The scientist wrote: "Living organisms are a function of the biosphere and are closely connected materially and energetically with it, they are a huge geological force that determines it." Due to the ability to grow, reproduce and settle, as a result of metabolism and energy conversion, living organisms contribute to the migration of chemical elements in the biosphere.

V. I. Vernadsky compared the mass migrations of animals, such as swarms of locusts, in terms of the scale of the transfer of chemical elements with the movement of an entire mountain range. In wildlife, about 90 chemical elements have been discovered, that is, most of all known today. There are no special elements that are characteristic only for living organisms, therefore, in the entire history of the existence of the biosphere, the atoms of most of the elements that make up its composition have repeatedly passed through the bodies of living organisms.

There is an inextricable link between organic and inorganic matter on the planet, there is a constant circulation of substances and the transformation of energy. Throughout the biological history of the Earth, the activity of organisms determined the composition of the atmosphere (photosynthesis, respiration), the composition and structure of soils (the activity of decomposers), and the content of various substances in the aquatic environment. Metabolic products of some organisms, getting into the environment, were used and processed by other organisms. Thanks to decomposers, plant and animal remains were included in the cycle of substances.

Many organisms are able to selectively absorb and accumulate various chemical elements in the form of organic and inorganic compounds. For example, horsetails accumulate silicon from the environment, sponges and some algae - iodine. As a result of the activity of various bacteria, many deposits of sulfur, iron and manganese ores have been formed.

From the bodies of fossil plants and planktonic organisms, deposits of coal and oil reserves were formed. Skeletons of small planktonic algae and shells of marine protozoa formed into giant strata of limestone rocks.

Microorganisms play a special role in the biosphere. Without them, the circulation of substances and energy could not be carried out and the surface of the planet would be covered with a thick layer of plant remains and animal corpses.

Lichens, fungi and bacteria are actively involved in the destruction of rocks. Their work is supported by plants whose root systems grow into the smallest cracks. This process is completed by water and wind.

In addition to the activities of living organisms, other processes also affect the state of our planet. During volcanic eruptions, a huge amount of various gases, particles of volcanic ash, and streams of molten igneous rocks are ejected into the atmosphere. As a result of tectonic processes, new islands are formed, mountainous regions are changing their appearance, the ocean is advancing on land.

long (geological) lasting for millions of years, is that rocks are destroyed, and weathering products (including water-soluble nutrients) are carried by water flows to the World Ocean, where they form marine strata and only partially return to land with precipitation. Geotectonic changes, the processes of subsidence of the continents and the rise of the seabed, the movement of the seas and oceans for a long time lead to the fact that these strata return to land and the process begins again. small (biotic) (part of a large one), occurs at the ecosystem level and consists in the fact that nutrients, water and carbon accumulate in the substance of plants, are spent on building the body and on the life processes of both these plants themselves and other organisms (usually animals) that eat these plants (consumers). The decay products of organic matter under the action of decomposers and microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, worms) decompose again to mineral components that are available to plants and are involved by them in matter flows.

The water cycle. The water cycle is of particular importance for the existence of the biosphere. A huge mass of water evaporates from the surface of the oceans, which is partially carried by the winds in the form of steam and falls as precipitation over land. Water returns to the ocean through rivers and groundwater. However, the most important participant in the circulation of water is living matter.

In the process of life, plants absorb huge amounts of water from the soil and evaporate into the atmosphere. Thus, a field plot that yields a crop of 2 tons per season consumes about 200 tons of water. In the equatorial regions of the globe, forests, by retaining and evaporating water, significantly soften the climate. The reduction in the area of ​​these forests can lead to climate change and droughts in the surrounding areas.

OXYGEN CYCLE Atmospheric oxygen is of biogenic origin and its circulation in the biosphere is carried out by replenishing reserves in the atmosphere as a result of plant photosynthesis and absorption during respiration of organisms and combustion of fuel in the human economy. In addition, a certain amount of oxygen is formed in the upper atmosphere during the dissociation of water and the destruction of ozone under the action of ultraviolet radiation; part of the oxygen is spent on oxidative processes in the earth's crust, during volcanic eruptions, etc.

Producers in the process of photosynthesis release oxygen into the atmosphere. Atmospheric oxygen is used in the process of respiration. Part of it turns into carbon dioxide, and the rest is passed along the food chains. After the death of organisms, decomposers, using oxygen, decompose organic matter to water and carbon dioxide. Part of atmospheric oxygen is spent on the oxidation of inorganic substances. The natural cycle is complete. Oxygen is also converted to ozone and back under the influence of sunlight. A small part of oxygen leaves the cycle in the form of minerals (coal, oil, gas, etc.). Man makes noticeable changes in the oxygen cycle. Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) reduces the supply of atmospheric oxygen. The use of chlorofluorocarbons thins the ozone layer, which protects all life on Earth from harmful ultraviolet rays.

The carbon cycle. Carbon is a part of all organic substances, so its circulation is completely dependent on the vital activity of organisms. In the process of photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide (C 02) and include carbon in the composition of synthesized organic compounds. In the process of respiration, animals, plants and microorganisms emit carbon dioxide, and carbon, previously part of organic matter, is again returned to the atmosphere.

Carbon dissolved in the seas and oceans in the form of carbonic acid (H 2 C 03) and its ions is used by organisms to form a skeleton consisting of calcium carbonates (sponges, molluscs, intestinal cavities). Moreover, every year a huge amount of carbon is deposited in the form of carbonates on the bottom of the oceans.

On land, about 1% of carbon is withdrawn from the cycle, deposited in the form of peat. Carbon also enters the atmosphere as a result of human activities. Currently, about 5 billion tons of carbon are emitted into the air annually when fossil fuels (gas, oil, coal) are burned, and 1–2 billion tons are emitted from wood processing. Every year, the amount of carbon in the atmosphere increases by about 3 billion tons, which can lead to a violation of the sustainable state of the biosphere.

A huge amount of carbon is contained in sedimentary rocks. Its return to the cycle depends on volcanic activity and geochemical processes.

NITROGEN CYCLE Nitrogen is a necessary component of the most important organic compounds: proteins, nucleic acids, ATP, etc. Its main reserves are concentrated in the atmosphere in the form of molecular nitrogen, which is inaccessible to plants, since they are able to use it only in the form of inorganic compounds. The ways of nitrogen entry into the soil and the aquatic environment are different. So, a small amount of nitrogenous compounds is formed in the atmosphere during thunderstorms. Together with rainwater, they enter the aquatic or soil environment. A small part of nitrogenous compounds comes from volcanic eruptions.

Only some prokaryotic organisms are capable of direct fixation of atmospheric molecular nitrogen: bacteria and cyanobacteria. The most active nitrogen fixers are nodule bacteria that settle in the cells of the roots of leguminous plants. They convert molecular nitrogen into compounds that are assimilated by plants. After the death of plants and the decomposition of nodules, the soil is enriched with organic and mineral forms of nitrogen. Cyanobacteria play a significant role in the enrichment of the aquatic environment with nitrogenous compounds. Nitrogen-containing organic substances of dead plants and animals, as well as urea and uric acid secreted by animals and fungi, are broken down by putrefactive (ammonifying) bacteria to ammonia. The bulk of the resulting ammonia is oxidized by nitrifying bacteria to nitrites and nitrates, after which it is reused by plants. Some of the ammonia goes into the atmosphere and, together with carbon dioxide and other gaseous substances, performs the function of retaining the heat of the planet.

THE SULFUR CYCLE The sulfur cycle in nature is maintained by microorganisms. With their participation, sulfides are oxidized to sulfates, sulfates are absorbed by living organisms, where sulfur is reduced and is part of proteins. With the decay of dead organisms, sulfur returns to the cycle. The sulfur cycle covers water, soil and atmosphere. The main reserves of sulfur are found in the soil and sediments both in a native state and in the form of deposits of sulfide and sulfate minerals. The key link in the cycle is the processes of aerobic oxidation of sulfide to sulfate and anaerobic reduction of sulfate to sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide released from water is oxidized to sulfate ion by atmospheric oxygen. The sulfate ion is the main form of sulfur available to autotrophs. The sulfur cycle is strongly influenced by human activities, primarily through the burning of fossil fuels. Organic energy carriers always contain one or another amount of sulfur, which is released in the form of dioxide, which, like nitrogen oxides, is toxic to living organisms. Sulfur dioxide can be intensively absorbed by the aboveground assimilation apparatus of plants and strongly suppress the process of photosynthesis up to necrosis and complete death of leaves. Sulfur dioxide can react with atmospheric water vapor to form sulfur trioxide and then sulfuric acid.

In nature, the sulfur cycle gradually occurs, similar to the cycle of nitrogen or carbon. Plants consume sulfur because its atoms are part of the protein. Particularly important in the sulfur cycle, apparently, are thionic bacteria, which are widespread in various water bodies, soil, and in collapsing rocks.

PHOSPHORUS CYCLE Phosphorus is one of the most important chemical elements involved in the development of living organisms. It is part of the protoplasm and most animal and vegetable proteins. Phosphorus is vital for the full development of organs and tissues, as well as for ensuring the normal functioning of the brain. The phosphorus cycle in the biosphere consists of several main links: rocks, soil, plants and animal organisms. The source of most phosphorus-containing compounds in nature is the mineral apatite, which contains from 5 to 36% phosphorus oxide. Apatite crystals are found in igneous rocks and in places of their contact with sedimentary ones. Significant reserves of this mineral were found in Brazil and Norway, and the largest deposit is located in the Khibiny (Kola Peninsula). In the process of weathering, which occurs under the influence of atmospheric conditions, soil acids, living organisms, apatites are destroyed and involved in the biochemical cycle of phosphorus, covering bio, hydro and lithosphere.

In any animal organism, physiological processes are constantly taking place associated with the breakdown, synthesis and other chemical transformations of phosphorus-containing compounds. In mammals, this element is found in the proteins of blood, milk, nervous, bone and brain tissues. It is also present in the composition of nucleic acids - compounds involved in the transmission of hereditary information. After the death of animal organisms, the phosphorus cycle closes, the element returns to the lithosphere, dropping out of the biochemical cycle. Under certain conditions (for example, with a sharp change in climatic conditions, with fluctuations in salinity, temperature, acidity of water, etc.), there is a mass death of organisms and the accumulation of their remains on the seabed. As a result, new deposits of phosphorus-containing rocks of sedimentary origin (for example, phosphorites) are formed. Over time, biolithic organogenic rocks become a new source of this element in the biogenic cycle.

ENERGY TRANSFORMATION IN THE BIOSPHERE Most of the energy that comes to Earth is absorbed by the atmosphere; this is mainly the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, extremely dangerous for living organisms. Thus, 30% of the energy incident on the Earth is lost. About 50% of the incident energy is converted into heat and re-radiated into the outer space in the form of infrared thermal radiation, and 20% is spent on the evaporation of water and the formation of clouds. Finally, only 0.02% of the incident energy is absorbed by the biosphere. The energy absorbed by the biosphere is used to perform biological work by living organisms aimed at maintaining their life.

Plants absorb solar energy with the help of chloroplasts, which include the pigment chlorophyll, which is found in leaves and determines the green color of plants. The leaves have a large surface area for absorbing sunlight and openings (stomata) for exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment. Having absorbed the electromagnetic energy of the sun, plants in the process of photosynthesis store it in the form of sugars, the main chemical source of energy. The water necessary for photosynthesis with the salts it contains is supplied from the roots through a “piping” system called xylem, and the resulting sugar (nutrients) is distributed to all parts of the plant using another conducting system called phloem. Xylem and phloem form the plant's circulatory system, which distributes nutrients and energy to plants.

Absorption, conversion and use of energy by animals Animals cannot directly use the energy of solar radiation to carry out their life activities. Since they do not have a photosynthesis system, they obtain energy by eating either plants (herbivores) or other plant-eating animals (carnivores). In the animal body, in the process of digestion of complex food components, it is decomposed into simpler ones, which are absorbed in the intestines, enter the bloodstream and are carried throughout the body. This releases the energy stored in food. Some of this released energy is released as heat, while the rest is stored by the body in the form of chemical energy, which is then used in doing work, such as the heart for pumping blood, the intestines for absorbing nutrients, the muscles that move wings, legs and tails, legs and arms. etc. To create systems with a high level of genetic and nervous organization (ordered systems), it is also necessary to expend energy. To function effectively, an organism must have a program that contains instructions for the operation of all its elements, and this program needs information about the internal state and external environment of the organism. The work done in this case consists in the development of signals with the help of which energy processes are regulated, biostructures are organized, the consumption of energy necessary for a quick reaction of the body to external stimuli is controlled, or the emergence of other signals is stimulated.

Noosphere. The joint activity of living organisms for many years created and subsequently maintained certain conditions necessary for the existence of life, i.e., ensured the homeostasis of the biosphere. V. I. Vernadsky wrote: “There is no chemical force on the earth’s surface that is more constantly acting, and therefore more powerful in its consequences, than living organisms taken as a whole”

Recently, however, a new factor, anthropogenic, has gradually acquired increasing importance in the development of the biosphere. In 1927, French scientists Edouard Leroy and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin introduced the concept of "noosphere". The noosphere is a new state of the biosphere, in which the rational activity of a person becomes a decisive factor in its development. Later, V. I. Vernadsky developed the idea of ​​the noosphere as a sphere of the mind.

Question 1. What is the impact of living organisms on the biosphere?
Living beings contribute to the transfer and circulation of substances in nature. Thanks to the activity of photosynthetics, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere decreased, oxygen appeared and a protective ozone layer formed. The activity of living organisms determines the composition and structure of the soil (processing of organic residues by decomposers), protects it from erosion. To a large extent, animals and plants also determine the content of various substances in the hydrosphere (especially in small water bodies). Some organisms are able to selectively absorb and accumulate certain chemical elements - silicon, calcium, iodine, sulfur, etc. The result of the activity of living beings are deposits of limestone, iron and manganese ores, reserves of oil, coal, gas.

Question 2. Tell us about the water cycle in nature.
Under the influence of solar energy, water evaporates from the surface of reservoirs and is transported by air currents over long distances. Falling on the surface of the land in the form of precipitation, it contributes to the destruction of rocks and makes their constituent minerals available to plants, microorganisms and animals. It erodes the upper soil layer and goes along with the chemical compounds dissolved in it and suspended organic and inorganic particles into the seas and oceans. The circulation of water between the ocean and land is the most important link in maintaining life on Earth.
Plants participate in the water cycle in two ways: they extract it from the soil and evaporate it into the atmosphere; Part of the water in plant cells is broken down during photosynthesis. In this case, hydrogen is fixed in the form of organic compounds, and oxygen enters the atmosphere.
Animals consume water to maintain osmotic and salt balance in the body and release it into the external environment along with metabolic products.

Question 3. What organisms absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?
Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed by photosynthetic organisms, which assimilate it and store it in the form of organic compounds (primarily glucose). Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed by photosynthetic organisms, which assimilate it and store it in the form of organic compounds (primarily glucose). In addition, part of atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the water of the seas and oceans, and then, in the form of carbonic acid ions, can be captured by animals - mollusks, corals, sponges, which use carbonates to build shells and skeletons. The result of their activity may be the formation of sedimentary rocks (limestone, chalk, etc.).

Question 4. Describe the way fixed carbon is returned to the atmosphere.
Carbon enters the biosphere as a result of its fixation in the process of photosynthesis. The amount of carbon bound by plants annually is estimated at 46 billion tons. Part of it enters the body of animals and is released as a result of respiration in the form of CO 2, which again enters the atmosphere. In addition, carbon reserves in the atmosphere are replenished by volcanic activity and human combustion of fossil fuels. Although most of the carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean and deposited as carbonates, CO 2 in the air is slowly but steadily increasing.

Question 5. What factors, in addition to the activities of living organisms, affect the state of our planet?
In addition to the activities of living organisms, abiotic factors influence the state of our planet: the movement of lithospheric plates, volcanic activity, rivers and sea surf, climatic phenomena, droughts, floods and other natural processes. Some of them act very slowly; others are able to almost instantly change the state of a large number of ecosystems (large-scale volcanic eruption; a strong earthquake accompanied by a tsunami; forest fires; the fall of a large meteorite).

Question 6. Who first introduced the term "noosphere" into science?
Noosphere (from the Greek noos - mind) is a concept that denotes the sphere of interaction between nature and man; this is an evolutionary new state of the biosphere, in which the rational activity of man becomes the decisive factor in its development. The term "noosphere" was first introduced into science in 1927 by French scientists Edouard Leroy (1870-1954) and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955).

Abstract on the topic:

Introduction

The biological cycle is a phenomenon of a continuous nature, cyclic, regular, but not uniform in time and space, the redistribution of substances, energy and information within ecological systems of various hierarchical levels of organization - from biogeocenosis to the biosphere. The circulation of substances on the scale of the entire biosphere is called a large circle, and within a specific biogeocenosis - a small circle of biotic exchange.

Academician V.I. Vernadsky was the first to postulate the thesis about the most important role of living organisms in the formation and maintenance of the basic physical and chemical properties of the Earth's shells. In his concept, the biosphere is considered not just as a space occupied by life, but as an integral functional system, at the level of which the inseparable connection of geological and biological processes is realized. The main properties of life that ensure this connection are the high chemical activity of living organisms, their mobility and the ability to self-reproduce and evolve. In maintaining life as a planetary phenomenon, the diversity of its forms, which differ in the set of consumed substances and waste products released into the environment, is of paramount importance. Biological diversity is the basis for the formation of stable biogeochemical cycles of matter and energy in the Earth's biosphere.

Questions about the role of living organisms in the small circulation were considered by such scientists, teachers as Nikolaikin N.I., Shilov I.A., Melekhova O.P. and etc.

1. The role of living organisms in the biological cycle

A specific property of life is the exchange of substances with the environment. Any organism must receive certain substances from the external environment as sources of energy and material for building its own body. Metabolic products that are no longer suitable for further use are brought out. Thus, each organism or a set of identical organisms in the course of its life activity worsens the conditions of its habitat. The possibility of the reverse process - maintaining living conditions or even improving them - is determined by the fact that the biosphere is inhabited by different organisms with different types of metabolism.

In its simplest form, a set of qualitative life forms is represented by producers, consumers and decomposers, whose joint activity ensures the extraction of certain substances from the environment, their transformation at different levels of trophic chains and the mineralization of organic matter to components available for the next inclusion in the cycle (basic elements migrating along the chains of the biological cycle - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, etc.).

Producers are living organisms that are able to synthesize organic matter from inorganic components using external energy sources. (Note that obtaining energy from the outside is a general condition for the life of all organisms; in terms of energy, all biological systems are open) they are also called autotrophs, since they themselves supply themselves with organic matter. In natural communities, producers perform the function of producers of organic matter accumulated in the tissues of these organisms. Organic matter also serves as a source of energy for life processes; external energy is used only for primary synthesis.

All producers, according to the nature of the energy source for the synthesis of organic substances, are divided into photoautotrophs and chemoautotrophs. The former use the energy of solar radiation for synthesis in the part of the spectrum with a wavelength of 380-710 nm. This is mainly green plants, but representatives of some other kingdoms of the organic world are also capable of photosynthesis. Among them, cyanobacteria (blue-green "algae"), which, apparently, were the first photosynthetics in the evolution of life on Earth, are of particular importance. Many bacteria are also capable of photosynthesis, which, however, use a special pigment - bacteriochlorin - and do not emit oxygen during photosynthesis. The main starting materials used for photosynthesis are carbon dioxide and water (the basis for the synthesis of carbohydrates), as well as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and other mineral nutrients.

By creating organic substances based on photosynthesis, photoautotrophs thus bind the used solar energy, as if storing it. The subsequent destruction of chemical bonds leads to the release of such "stored" energy. This applies not only to the use of fossil fuels; The energy “stored” in plant tissues is transferred in the form of food along trophic chains and serves as the basis for energy flows that accompany the biogenic cycle of substances.

Chemoautotrophs use the energy of chemical bonds in the processes of organic matter synthesis. This group includes only prokaryotes: bacteria, archaebacteria and partly blue-green. Chemical energy is released in the processes of oxidation of mineral substances. Exothermic oxidative processes are used by nitrifying bacteria (oxidize ammonia to nitrites and then to nitrates), iron bacteria (oxidation of ferrous iron to oxide), sulfur bacteria (hydrogen sulfide to sulfates). Methane, CO and some other substances are also used as a substrate for oxidation.

With all the variety of specific forms of autotrophic producers, their general biospheric function is one and consists in involving elements of inanimate nature into the composition of organism tissues and thus into the general biological cycle. The total mass of autotrophic producers is more than 95% of the mass of all living organisms in the biosphere.

Consumers. Living beings that are not able to build their body on the basis of the use of inorganic substances, requiring the intake of organic matter from the outside, as part of food, belong to the group of heterotrophic organisms that live off products synthesized by photo- or chemosynthetics. Food extracted in one way or another from the external environment is used by heterotrophs to build their own body and as a source of energy for various forms of life. Thus, heterotrophs use the energy stored by autotrophs in the form of chemical bonds of organic substances synthesized by them. In the flow of substances in the course of the cycle, they occupy the level of consumers obligately associated with autotrophic organisms (consumers of the 1st order) or with other heterotrophs that they feed on (consumers of the 2nd order).

The general significance of consumers in the circulation of substances is peculiar and ambiguous. They are not necessary in the direct cycle process: artificial closed model systems composed of green plants and soil microorganisms, in the presence of moisture and mineral salts, can exist indefinitely due to photosynthesis, destruction of plant residues and involvement of released elements in a new cycle. But this is only possible under stable laboratory conditions. In a natural environment, the probability of the death of such simple systems from many causes increases. The “guarantors” of the stability of the cycle are, first of all, the consumers.

In the process of their own metabolism, heterotrophs decompose the organic substances obtained in the composition of food and, on this basis, build the substances of their own body. The transformation of substances primarily produced by autotrophs in consumer organisms leads to an increase in the diversity of living matter. Diversity is a necessary condition for the stability of any cybernetic system against the background of external and internal disturbances. Living systems - from the organism to the biosphere as a whole - operate according to the cybernetic principle of feedback.

Animals, which make up the bulk of consumer organisms, are characterized by mobility, the ability to actively move in space. In this way, they effectively participate in the migration of living matter, its dispersion over the surface of the planet, which, on the one hand, stimulates the spatial settlement of life, and on the other hand, serves as a kind of “guarantee Mechanism” in case of destruction of life in any place due to various reasons. .

An example of such a “spatial guarantee” is the well-known catastrophe on about. Krakatoa: as a result of the volcanic eruption in 1883, life on the island was completely destroyed, but it recovered within just 50 years - about 1200 species were recorded. The settlement proceeded mainly at the expense of Java, Sumatra and neighboring islands, which were not affected by the eruption, from where, in different ways, plants and animals repopulated the island covered with ash and frozen lava flows. At the same time, films of cyanobacteria appeared first (after 3 years) on volcanic tuff and ash. The process of establishing sustainable communities on the island continues; forest cenoses are still in the early stages of succession and are greatly simplified in structure.

Finally, the role of consumers, primarily animals, is extremely important as regulators of the intensity of matter and energy flows along trophic chains. The ability for active autoregulation of biomass and the rate of its change at the level of ecosystems and populations of individual species is ultimately realized in the form of maintaining the correspondence between the rates of creation and destruction of organic matter in global cycle systems. Not only consumers participate in such a regulatory system, but the latter (especially animals) are distinguished by the most active and rapid reaction to any disturbances in the biomass balance of adjacent trophic levels.

In principle, the system for regulating the flow of matter in the biogenic cycle, based on the complementarity of the ecological categories of living organisms that make up this system, works on the principle of waste-free production. However, ideally, this principle cannot be observed due to the great complexity of the interacting processes and the factors influencing them. The result of the violation of the completeness of the cycle was the deposits of oil, coal, peat, sapropels. All these substances carry the energy originally stored in the process of photosynthesis. Their use by a person is, as it were, the completion of the cycles of the biological cycle “delayed in time”.

Reducers. This ecological category includes heterotrophic organisms, which, using dead organic matter (corpses, feces, plant litter, etc.) as food, decompose it into inorganic components in the process of metabolism.

Partial mineralization of organic substances occurs in all living organisms. So, in the process of breathing, CO2 is released, water, mineral salts, ammonia, etc. are excreted from the body. True decomposers, which complete the cycle of destruction of organic substances, should therefore be considered only those organisms that release into the external environment only inorganic substances that are ready to be involved in a new cycle.

The category of decomposers includes many types of bacteria and fungi. By the nature of their metabolism, they are reducing organisms. Thus, devitrifying bacteria reduce nitrogen to its elemental state, while sulfate-reducing bacteria reduce sulfur to hydrogen sulfide. The end products of decomposition of organic substances are carbon dioxide, water, ammonia, mineral salts. Under anaerobic conditions, decomposition goes further - to hydrogen; hydrocarbons are also formed.

The full cycle of organic matter reduction is more complex and involves a larger number of participants. It consists of a series of successive links, in a series of which different destroying organisms gradually convert organic substances, first into simpler forms, and only after that into inorganic components by the action of bacteria and fungi.

Levels of organization of living matter. The joint activity of producers, consumers and decomposers determines the continuous maintenance of the global biological cycle of substances in the Earth's biosphere. This process is supported by the natural relationships of the spatial-functional parts that make up the biosphere and is provided by a special system of connections that act as a mechanism for homeostasis of the biosphere - maintaining its stable functioning against the background of changing external and internal factors. Therefore, the biosphere can be considered as a global ecological system that ensures the sustainable maintenance of life in its planetary manifestation.

Any biological (including ecological) system is characterized by a specific function, ordered relationships of the parts (subsystems) that make up the system, and regulatory mechanisms based on these interactions that determine the integrity and stability of the system against the background of fluctuating external conditions. From what has been said above, it is clear that the biosphere in its structure and function corresponds to the concept of a biological (ecological) system.

At the level of the biosphere as a whole, a universal functional connection of living matter with inanimate nature is carried out. Its structural and functional components (subsystems), at the level of which specific cycles of the biological cycle are carried out, are biogeocenoses (ecosystems).

2. Small circulation of substances in the biosphere

Biological (biogeochemical) cycle (small cycle of substances in the biosphere) - the cycle of substances, the driving force of which is the activity of living organisms. The biogeochemical cycle of substances takes place within the biosphere. The main energy source of the cycle is solar radiation, which generates photosynthesis. In an ecosystem, organic substances are synthesized by autotrophs from inorganic substances. It is then consumed by heterotrophs. As a result of excretion during life activity or after the death of organisms, organic substances undergo mineralization, i.e. transformation into inorganic substances. These inorganic substances can be reused for the synthesis of organic substances by autotrophs.

In biogeochemical cycles, two parts should be distinguished:

1. a reserve fund is a part of a substance that is not associated with living organisms;

2. exchange fund - a much smaller part of the substance, which is connected by direct exchange between organisms and their immediate environment.

Depending on the location of the reserve fund, biogeochemical cycles can be divided into two types:

1. gas-type cycles with a reserve fund of substances in the atmosphere and hydrosphere (cycles of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen);

2. sedimentary cycles with a reserve fund in the earth's crust (circulations of phosphorus, calcium, iron, etc.).

Cycles of the gas type are perfect, because have a large exchange fund, and therefore ways to rapid self-regulation. Sedimentary cycles are less perfect, they are more inert, because the bulk of the substance is contained in the reserve fund of the earth's crust in a form "inaccessible" to living organisms. Such cycles are easily disturbed by various kinds of influences, and part of the exchanged material leaves the cycle. It can return again to the circulation only as a result of geological processes or by extraction by living matter. However, it is much more difficult to extract the substances necessary for living organisms from the earth's crust than from the atmosphere.

The intensity of the biological cycle is primarily determined by the ambient temperature and the amount of water. So, for example, the biological cycle proceeds more intensively in humid tropical forests than in the tundra. In addition, biological processes in the tundra occur only in the warm season.

Producers, consumers, detritophages and decomposers of the ecosystem, absorbing and releasing various substances, interact with each other clearly and in a coordinated manner. Organic matter and oxygen produced by photosynthetic plants are the most important foodstuffs for food and respiration of consumers. At the same time, carbon dioxide and mineral substances of manure and urine emitted by consumers are biogens, much-needed producers. Therefore, substances in ecosystems make an almost complete cycle, getting first into living organisms, then into the abiotic environment and again returning to the living. Here is one of the basic principles of the functioning of ecosystems: the receipt of resources and the processing of waste occur in the process of the cycle of all elements.

Consider the cycles of the most significant substances and elements for living organisms. The small biogeochemical cycle of biogenic elements includes: carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, etc.

2.1 The carbon cycle

Carbon exists in nature in many forms, including in organic compounds. The inorganic substance underlying the biogenic cycle of this element is carbon dioxide (CO2). In nature, CO2 is part of the atmosphere, and is also dissolved in the hydrosphere. The inclusion of carbon in the composition of organic substances occurs in the process of photosynthesis, as a result of which sugars are formed on the basis of CO2 and H2O. Subsequently, other biosynthetic processes convert these carbons into more complex ones, as well as into proteins, lipids. All these compounds not only form the tissues of photosynthetic organisms, but also serve as a source of organic matter for animals and non-green plants.

In the process of respiration, all organisms oxidize complex organic substances; the end product of this process, CO2, is released into the environment, where it can again be involved in the process of photosynthesis.

Under certain conditions in the soil, the decomposition of accumulated dead residues proceeds at a slow pace - through the formation of humus by saprophages, the mineralization of which by the action of fungi and bacteria can proceed at different, including low, rates. In some cases, the decomposition chain of organic matter is incomplete. In particular, the activity of saprophages can be inhibited by a lack of oxygen or increased acidity. In this case, organic residues accumulate in the form of peat; carbon is not released and the cycle stops. Similar situations arose in past geological epochs, as evidenced by deposits of coal and oil.

In the hydrosphere, the suspension of the carbon cycle is associated with the incorporation of CO2 into CaCO3 in the form of limestone, chalk, and corals. In this case, carbon is excluded from the cycle for entire geological epochs. Only the rise of organogenic rocks above sea level leads to the renewal of the circulation through the leaching of limestone by atmospheric precipitation. And also in a biogenic way - by the action of lichens, plant roots.

Forests are the main reservoir of biologically bound carbon; they contain up to 500 billion tons of this element, which is 2/3 of its reserve in the atmosphere. Human intervention in the carbon cycle leads to an increase in the content of CO2 in the atmosphere and the development of the greenhouse effect.

CO2 cycle rate, i.e. the time it takes for all the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere to pass through living matter is about 300 years.

2.2 The nitrogen cycle

The main source of nitrogen in organic compounds is molecular nitrogen in the composition of the atmosphere. Its transition to compounds accessible to living organisms can be carried out in different ways. Thus, electrical discharges during thunderstorms are synthesized from nitrogen and oxygen in the air, nitric oxide, which, with rainwater, enters the soil in the form of nitrate or nitric acid. There is also photochemical nitrogen fixation.

A more important form of nitrogen assimilation is the activity of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms synthesizing complex proteins. When they die, they enrich the soil with organic nitrogen, which quickly mineralizes. In this way, about 25 kg of nitrogen per 1 ha annually enters the soil.

The most efficient nitrogen fixation is carried out by bacteria that form symbiotic bonds with leguminous plants. The organic nitrogen formed by them diffuses into the rhizosphere and is also included in the ground organs of the host plant. In this way, 150-400 kg of nitrogen is accumulated per year in the ground and underground plant organs per 1 hectare.

There are nitrogen-fixing microorganisms that form symbiosis with other plants. In the aquatic environment and on very moist soil, cyanobacteria directly fix atmospheric nitrogen. In all these cases, nitrogen enters the plants in the form of nitrates. These compounds are transported through roots and pathways to leaves, where they are used for protein synthesis; the latter serve as the basis for the nitrogen nutrition of animals.

Excrements and dead organisms form the basis of the food chains of saprophage organisms that decompose organic compounds with the gradual transformation of organic nitrogen-containing substances into inorganic ones. The final link in this reduction chain is ammonifying organisms that form ammonia, which can then enter the nitrification cycle. In this way the nitrogen cycle can be continued.

At the same time, there is a constant return of nitrogen to the atmosphere by the action of denitrifying bacteria, which decompose nitrates to N2. These bacteria are active in soils rich in nitrogen and carbon. Thanks to their activities, up to 50-60 kg of nitrogen are volatilized annually from 1 ha of soil.

Nitrogen can be excluded from the cycle by accumulating in deep ocean sediments. To a certain extent, this is compensated by the release of molecular N2 in the composition of volcanic gases.

2.3 Phosphorus cycle

Of all the macronutrients (elements needed for all life in large quantities), phosphorus is one of the rarest available reservoirs on the surface of the Earth. In nature, phosphorus is found in large quantities in a number of rocks. In the process of destruction of these rocks, it enters terrestrial ecosystems or is leached by precipitation and eventually ends up in the hydrosphere. In both cases, this element enters the food chain. In most cases, decomposer organisms mineralize organic substances containing phosphorus into inorganic phosphates, which can again be used by plants and thus are again involved in the cycle.

In the ocean, part of the phosphates with dead organic residues enters deep sediments and accumulates there, being excluded from the cycle. The process of the natural cycle of phosphorus in modern conditions is intensified by the use of phosphate fertilizers in agriculture, the source of which are deposits of mineral phosphates. This may be a cause for concern, since phosphorus salts are rapidly leached from such use, and the scale of exploitation of mineral resources is increasing all the time. Currently amounting to about 2 million tons per year.

2.4 Sulfur cycle

The main reserve fund of sulfur is in sediment and soil, but unlike phosphorus, there is a reserve fund in the atmosphere. The main role in the involvement of sulfur in the biogeochemical cycle belongs to microorganisms. Some of them are reducing agents, others are oxidizing agents.

Sulfur occurs in rocks in the form of sulfides, in solutions - in the form of an ion, in the gaseous phase in the form of hydrogen sulfide or sulfur dioxide. In some organisms, sulfur accumulates in its pure form (S) and, when they die, deposits of native sulfur are formed on the bottom of the seas.

In terrestrial ecosystems, sulfur enters plants from the soil mainly in the form of sulfates. In living organisms, sulfur is found in proteins, in the form of ions, etc. After the death of living organisms, part of the sulfur is reduced in the soil by microorganisms to HS, the other part is oxidized to sulfates and is again included in the cycle. The resulting hydrogen sulfide escapes into the atmosphere, oxidizes there and returns to the soil with precipitation.

Human combustion of fossil fuels, as well as emissions from the chemical industry, leads to the accumulation of sulfur dioxide (SO) in the atmosphere, which, reacting with water vapor, falls to the ground in the form of acid rain.

Biogeochemical cycles are largely influenced by humans. Economic activity violates their isolation, they become acyclic.

Conclusion

Complex relationships that support a stable circulation of substances, and with it the existence of life as a global phenomenon of our planet, have been formed over the long history of the Earth.

The joint activity of various living organisms determines the natural circulation of individual elements and chemical compounds, including their introduction into the composition of living cells, the transformation of chemicals in metabolic processes, the release into the environment and the destruction of organic substances, as a result of which mineral substances are released, which are again included in biological cycles. .

Thus, the cycle processes occur in specific ecosystems, but biogeochemical cycles are realized in full only at the level of the biosphere as a whole. And the joint activity of high-quality life forms ensures the extraction of certain substances from the external environment, their transformation at different levels of trophic chains and the mineralization of organic matter to components available for the next inclusion in the cycle (the main elements migrating along the chains of the biological cycle are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen , potassium, calcium, etc.).

Bibliography

1. Kolesnikov S.I. Ecology. - Rostov-on-Don: "Phoenix", 2003.

2. Petrov K.M. General ecology: Interaction between society and nature: Uchebn. allowance. 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg; Chemistry, 1998.

3. Nikolaikin N.I. Ecology.: Proc. for universities / Nikolaykin N.N., Nikolaykina N.E., Melekhina O.P. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional - M .: Bustard, 2003.

4. Khotuntsev Yu.L. Ecology and environmental safety: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook establishments. - M .: Publishing Center "Academy", 2002.

5. Shilov I.A. Ecology: Proc. for biol. and honey. specialist. universities I.A. Shilov. - 4th ed., Rev. - M .: Higher School, 2003.

Question 1. What is the impact of living organisms on the biosphere?

Living beings contribute to the transfer and circulation of substances in nature. Thanks to the activity of photosynthetics, the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere decreased, oxygen appeared and a protective ozone layer formed. The activity of living organisms determines the composition and structure of the soil (processing of organic residues by decomposers), protects it from erosion. To a large extent, animals and plants also determine the content of various substances in the hydrosphere (especially in small water bodies). Some organisms are able to selectively absorb and accumulate certain chemical elements - silicon, calcium, iodine, sulfur, etc. The result of the activity of living beings is the deposits of limestone, iron and manganese ores, oil, coal, gas reserves.

Question 2. Tell us about the water cycle in nature.

The water cycle is of great importance for the existence of the biosphere. Water evaporates primarily from the surface of the oceans. Further, it is partially carried by the winds as water vapor and falls as precipitation over land. Water returns to the ocean through rivers and groundwater.

Living things also participate in the water cycle. Plants absorb large amounts of water from the soil and evaporate it from the surface of their leaves. In equatorial forests, such evaporation of moisture significantly softens the climate. In the northern forests, coniferous trees (especially spruce) that do not evaporate water, and mosses growing under them, can contribute to waterlogging and waterlogging of the soil.

Question 3. What organisms absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere?

Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is absorbed by photosynthetic organisms, which assimilate it and store it in the form of organic compounds (primarily glucose). In addition, part of atmospheric carbon dioxide dissolves in the water of the seas and oceans, and then in the form of carbonic acid ions can be captured by animals - mollusks, corals, sponges, which use carbonates to build shells and skeletons. The result of their activity may be the formation of sedimentary rocks (limestone, chalk, etc.).

Question 4. Describe the way fixed carbon is returned to the atmosphere.

In the process of respiration, animals, plants and microorganisms oxidize organic matter to carbon dioxide and release it into the atmosphere. In addition, human activities contribute to the return of carbon to the atmosphere. Every year, about 5 billion tons of carbon are emitted into the air as a result of burning fossil fuels and up to 2 billion tons from wood processing. The return of carbon to the atmosphere from sedimentary rocks depends on volcanic activity and geochemical processes.

Question 5. What factors, in addition to the activities of living organisms, affect the state of our planet?

In addition to the activities of living organisms, abiotic factors influence the state of our planet: the movement of lithospheric plates, volcanic activity, rivers and sea surf, climatic phenomena, droughts, floods and other natural processes. Some of them act very slowly; others are able to almost instantly change the state of a large number of ecosystems (large-scale volcanic eruption; a strong earthquake accompanied by a tsunami; forest fires; the fall of a large meteorite).

Question 6. Who first introduced the term "noosphere" into science?

Noosphere (from the Greek noos - mind) is a concept that denotes the sphere of interaction between nature and man; this is an evolutionary new state of the biosphere, in which the rational activity of man becomes the decisive factor in its development. The term "noosphere" was first introduced into science in 1927 by French scientists Edouard Lepya (1870-1954) and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955).

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• VYATKA STATE AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY
• Faculty of Agronomy
• TEST
• Content

1. Features of living organisms. The role of living organisms in the formation of the biosphere

1.1 Biochemical principles

1.2 Reflection of the vital activity of living matter on the functioning of the biosphere

1.3 Functions of living matter in the biosphere

2. Environmental pollution, its types, objects and scales. Main sources of environmental pollution

2.1 Types of environmental pollution

2.2 Scale of environmental pollution

2.3 Sources of environmental pollution

3. Plant resources, quantitative and qualitative characteristics. Protection of rare plant species. Protection of forests and natural fodder lands

3.1 Plant resources, quantitative and qualitative characteristics

3.2 Protection of rare plant species

3.3 Protection of forests and natural grasslands

Literature

1. Features of living organisms. The role of living organisms in the formation of the biosphere

The earth's surface does not contain a more powerful, constantly acting, dynamic force than living organisms. According to the doctrine of living matter, a cosmic function is assigned to this shell, which acts as a link between the Earth and outer space. Participating in the process of photosynthesis, exchange and transformation of natural substances, living matter performs unimaginable chemical work.

The concept of living matter was developed by the famous scientist V. I. Vernadsky, who separately considered the biological mass among the totality of other types of organic substances that form the biosphere of the globe. According to the researcher, living organisms make up an insignificant fraction of the biosphere. However, it is their vital activity that most tangibly affects the formation of the surrounding world.

According to the concept of the scientist, the living matter of the biosphere consists of both organic and inorganic substances. The main specific feature of living matter is the presence of a huge energy potential. In terms of the release of free energy in the inorganic environment of the planet, only volcanic lava flows can be compared with living matter. The main difference between inanimate and living matter is the speed of chemical reactions, which in the latter case occur millions of times faster. Based on the teachings of Professor Vernadsky, the presence of living matter in the earth's biosphere can manifest itself in several forms:

biochemical (participation in the exchange of chemicals, the formation of geological shells);

· mechanical (direct impact of biomass on the transformation of the material world).

Biochemical form The "activity" of the planet's biomass is manifested in the continuous exchange of substances between the environment and organisms during the digestion of food, building the body.

Mechanical impact The influence of living matter on the surrounding world lies in the cyclic movement of substances in the course of the life of organisms.

1.1 Biochemical principles

To get a complete picture of the “amount of work” that a living substance performs in the process of life, several scientific provisions, known as biochemical principles, allow:

· the movement of atoms of chemical substances during biogenic migration always tends to achieve the maximum possible manifestations;

· the evolutionary transformation of species is moving in a direction that enhances the migration of atoms of elements;

· the existence of biomass is due to the presence of solar energy;

· the living matter of the planet is enclosed in a continuous cycle of exchange of chemical substances with the space environment.

1.2 Reflection of the vital activity of living matter on the functioning of the biosphere

Life arose in the form of the biosphere due to the ability of the organic mass to reproduce, grow and evolve forms. Initially, the living shell of the planet was a complex of organic substances that form the cycle of elements. In the course of the development and transformation of living organisms, living matter acquired the ability to function not only as a continuous flow of energy, but also to evolve as a complex system. New types of the organic shell of the globe do not just find their roots in previous forms. Their occurrence is due to the course of specific biogenic processes in the natural environment, which, in turn, affects all living matter, the cells of living organisms. Each stage of the evolution of the biosphere is characterized by noticeable changes in its material and energy structure. Thus, new systems of inert and living matter of the planet arise. An increase in the impact of biomass on the change in the inert systems of the planet is noticeable in the study of all epochs without exception. This is due, first of all, to an increase in the accumulation of solar energy, as well as an increase in the intensity and capacity of the biological cycle of elements. A change in the environment always predetermines the emergence of new complex life forms.

1.3 Functions of living matter in the biosphere

For the first time, the functions of biomass were considered by the same Vernadsky when writing the famous work called "Biosphere". Here the scientist identifies nine functions of living matter: oxygen, calcium, gas, oxidizing, reducing, destructive, concentration, reducing, metabolic, respiratory.

The development of modern concepts of the living matter of the biosphere has led to a significant reduction in the number of functions of living matter and their association into new groups.

Energy functions of living matter. If we talk about the energy functions of living matter, then they are put, first of all, on plants that have the ability to photosynthesis and convert solar energy into various organic compounds. Energy flows emanating from the Sun are a real gift of electromagnetic nature for plants. More than 90% of the energy entering the planet's biosphere is absorbed by the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere, and also takes a direct part in the course of chemical processes. The functions of living matter aimed at converting energy by green plants are the main mechanism of living matter. Without the presence of the processes of transmission and accumulation of solar energy, the development of life on the planet would be in question.

Destructive functions of living organisms. The ability to mineralize organic compounds, the chemical decomposition of rocks, dead organic matter, the involvement of minerals in the biomass cycle - all these are destructive functions of living matter in the biosphere. The main driving force of the destructive functions of the biosphere are bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms. Dead organic compounds decompose to the state of inorganic substances (water, ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen sulfide), returning to the original cycle of matter. The destructive effect of organisms on rocks deserves special attention. Due to the circulation of substances, the earth's crust is replenished with mineral components released from the lithosphere. By participating in the decomposition of minerals, living organisms thereby include a whole complex of the most important chemical elements in the cycle of the biosphere.

concentration functions. The selective accumulation of substances in nature, their distribution, the circulation of living matter - all this forms the concentration functions of the biosphere. Microorganisms play a special role among the most active concentrators of chemical elements. The construction of the skeletons of individual representatives of the animal world is due to the use of scattered minerals. Vivid examples of the use of concentrated natural elements are mollusks, diatoms and calcareous algae, corals, radiolarians, flint sponges.

Gas functions. The basis of the gas property of living matter is the distribution of gaseous substances by living organisms. Based on the type of gases being converted, a number of individual gas functions are distinguished:

oxygen-forming - restoration of the oxygen supply of the planet in a free form;

Dioxide - the formation of biogenic carbonic acids as a result of the respiration of representatives of the animal world;

· ozone - formation of ozone, which contributes to the protection of biomass from the destructive effects of solar radiation;

Nitrogen - the creation of free nitrogen during the decomposition of substances of organic origin.

Environment-forming functions. Biomass has the ability to transform the physical and chemical parameters of the environment to create conditions that meet the needs of living organisms. As an example, one can single out a plant environment, the vital activity of which contributes to an increase in air humidity, regulation of surface runoff, and enrichment of the atmosphere with oxygen. To a certain extent, environment-forming functions are the result of all the above-mentioned properties of living matter.

The role of man in the formation of the biosphere. The emergence of man as a separate species was reflected in the emergence of a revolutionary factor in the evolution of the biological mass - the conscious transformation of the surrounding world. Technological and scientific progress is not just a phenomenon of the social life of a human being, but in some way refers to the natural processes of evolution of all living things. From time immemorial, mankind has been transforming the living matter of the biosphere, which was reflected in the increase in the rate of migration of atoms of the chemical environment, the transformation of individual geospheres, the accumulation of energy flows in the biosphere, and the change in the appearance of the Earth. At present, man is considered not just as a species, but also as a force capable of changing the shells of the planet, which in turn is a specific factor in evolution. The natural desire to increase the population of the species has led the human species to the active use of renewable and non-renewable resources of the biosphere, energy sources, substances buried in the shells of the planet. The displacement of individual representatives of the animal world from their natural habitats, the destruction of species for consumer purposes, the technogenic transformation of environmental parameters - all this entails the disappearance of the most important elements of the biosphere.

2. Environmental pollution, its types, objects and scales. Main sources of environmental pollution

Under pollution of the environment is understood as any introduction into this or that ecological system of living or non-living components that are not characteristic of it, physical or structural changes that interrupt or disrupt the processes of circulation and metabolism, energy flows with a decrease in productivity or destruction of this ecosystem.

A detailed definition of this concept is given by the famous French scientist F. Ramad (1981): “Pollution is an unfavorable change in the environment, which is wholly or partly the result of human activity, directly or indirectly changes the distribution of incoming energy, radiation levels, physical and chemical properties of the environment and the conditions for the existence of living beings. These changes can affect a person directly or through agricultural products, through water or other biological products (substances)".

Distinguish between natural pollution caused by natural, often catastrophic, causes, such as a volcanic eruption, and anthropogenic, resulting from human activities.

Anthropogenic pollutants are divided into material (dust, gases, ash, slag, etc.) and physical or energy (thermal energy, electrical and electromagnetic fields, noise, vibration, etc.).

Material pollutants are divided into mechanical, chemical and biological. Mechanical pollutants include dust and aerosols of atmospheric air, solid particles in water and soil.

Chemical (ingredients) pollutants are various gaseous, liquid and solid chemical compounds, and elements that enter the atmosphere, hydrosphere and interact with the environment - acids, alkalis, sulfur dioxide, emulsions and others.

2.1 Types of environmental pollution

Environmental pollution is classified according to a large number of features.

The classification of environmental pollution is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The main types of environmental pollution (according to N. F. Reimers, 1990)

natural pollution arise as a result of natural, catastrophic processes (for example, a powerful volcanic eruption, earthquake, mudflow, etc.) without any human influence on these processes, although human anthropogenic activity sometimes contributes to the emergence of these processes.

Biotic(biogenic) (biogens, i.e., the waste products of a number of microscopic fungi (commonly called molds), are mycotoxins. These agents can have a serious adverse effect on human and animal health) pollution is associated with the spread of certain, usually undesirable, from the point of view vision of people, biogenic substances (excretions, dead bodies, etc.) in the territory (or water area) where they have not been observed before.

Microbiological(microbial) pollution occurs due to the appearance in the environment of an unusually large number of microorganisms associated with their mass reproduction in environments changed in the course of human activities (for example, dangerous infectious diseases such as Asian cholera and abdominal typhoid, dysentery and viral hepatitis).

Anthropogenic pollution are the result of human activities. The intensity of anthropogenic pollution is directly related to the growth of the world's population and, first of all, to the development of large industrial centers.

industrial pollution caused by a single enterprise or their combination, as well as transport.

agricultural pollution caused by the use of pesticides, defoliants and other agents, the application of fertilizers in quantities that are not absorbed by cultivated plants, the dumping of animal waste and other activities related to agricultural production.

military pollution arise as a result of the operation of military industry enterprises, the transportation of military materials and equipment, the testing of weapons, the operation of military installations and the entire complex of military means in the event of hostilities. The negative effects of nuclear weapons testing still exist, and the massive use of these weapons could lead to a "nuclear winter".

According to the mechanism of impact, pollution is divided into:

– mechanical;

– physical (thermal, light, acoustic, electromagnetic);

– chemical;

– radiation;

- biological (biotic, microbiological).

All shells of the Earth are exposed to pollution.

Air pollution- the introduction into the air or the formation in it by chemical substances or organisms of physical agents that adversely affect the living environment or damage material values, as well as the formation of anthropogenic physical fields.

Hydrosphere pollution- the entry of pollutants into the water in quantities and concentrations that can disrupt normal environmental conditions in large water bodies.

Soil pollution- the introduction and emergence in the soil of new, usually uncharacteristic physical, chemical or biological agents that change the course of the soil-forming process (slow it down), sharply reduce productivity, cause the accumulation of pollutants in plants (for example, heavy metals), from which these pollution directly or indirectly (through plant or animal foods) enter the human body.

Currently there is space pollution- general contamination of the near-Earth and near outer space by space objects. The most dangerous is radioactive contamination due to the launch into orbit and the destruction of nuclear reactors, in addition to "space debris", which interferes with the normal functioning of radio engineering and astronomical instruments.

2.2 Scale of environmental pollution

According to the scale of pollution are divided into:

· Local pollution cover small areas, usually around an enterprise, settlement, etc.

· Regional pollution are found within large areas.

· global pollution are found anywhere in the world and far from their source, cover large spaces with a threat to the life of a large number of people and organisms.

2.3 Sources of environmental pollution

It is now generally accepted that industrial production pollutes the air the most. Sources of pollution:

- thermal power plants, which, together with smoke, emit sulfur dioxide and carbon dioxide into the air;

- metallurgical enterprises, especially non-ferrous metallurgy, which emit nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, fluorine, ammonia, phosphorus compounds, particles and compounds of mercury and arsenic into the air; chemical and cement plants.

Harmful gases enter the air as a result of fuel combustion for industrial needs, home heating, transport, combustion and processing of household and industrial waste.

The share of agriculture in environmental pollution is increasing. This is due to two circumstances. The first is an increase in the construction of large livestock complexes in the absence of any treatment of the generated waste and their disposal, and the second is an increase in the use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides, which, together with rain flows and groundwater, enter rivers and lakes, causing serious damage to large river basins, their fish stocks and vegetation. biosphere vegetative forage land

Every year, more than 20 tons of waste falls on one inhabitant of the Earth. The main objects of pollution are atmospheric air, water bodies, including the World Ocean, soils. Every day, thousands and thousands of tons of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur and other harmful substances are emitted into the atmosphere. And only 10% of this amount is absorbed by plants. Sulfur oxide (sulphurous gas) is the main pollutant, the source of which is thermal power plants, boiler houses, and metallurgical plants.

The concentration of sulfur dioxide in nitrogen oxides generates acid rain, which destroys crops, vegetation, and adversely affects the state of fish stocks. Along with sulfur dioxide, carbon dioxide, which is formed as a result of combustion, has a negative impact on the state of the atmosphere. Its sources are thermal power plants, metallurgical plants, transport. For all previous years, the share of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased by 20% and continues to increase by 0.2% per year. If such growth rates are maintained, by the year 2000 the proportion of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere will increase by 30-40%.

In all economically developed countries of the world, road transport occupies a leading place in terms of traffic volume, in most countries it also leads in transport work. The car park of the world is constantly increasing and has exceeded 400 million units. However, with such a significant increase in the scale and growth of the pace of motorization, there are a number of serious problems associated with harmful environmental and social consequences that accompany this process.

The impact of road transport on the environment is accompanied not only by the consumption of natural resources, but also by environmental pollution. From an ecological point of view, environmental pollution is a complex of interferences in ecological systems. If the level of interference exceeds the ability of the organism to adapt, then this leads to its death or oppression. The occurrence of interference in ecological systems can be associated with the introduction of various wastes (ingredient pollution), unproductive energy losses (parametric pollution), irreversible changes in natural ecological systems (environmental pollution).

The objects of ingredient pollution are the atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere, i.e. the most important components that make up the human environment. Man opened the cycle of substances in nature and created artificial linear chains of events.

One of these chains can be easily traced by the example of the use of fuel in road transport. Oil is extracted from the bowels of the earth, processed into fuel, which is burned in engine cylinders. This produces waste (exhaust gases) that pollute the air, water and soil. There are many such circuits in the operation of cars. Among the pollution ingredients there are hundreds of substances and chemical compounds, often very dangerous for living organisms, in solid, liquid and gaseous states. The most massive of them are toxic and non-toxic components of exhaust gases (EG), oil products, dust containing organic and inorganic substances, chlorides, waste from the production and operation of vehicles. At the same time, the harmful effect increases with an increase in the volume of traffic, harmful components constantly accumulate in the environment.

During the combustion of fuel in the engine cylinders, only part of the chemical energy is converted into useful mechanical work. The rest of the energy is wasted. For the best samples of automobile engines, these losses are more than 55%. Part of the energy transmitted from the engine to the drive wheels is spent on overcoming losses in the transmission and resistance to movement. The main share of unused energy is converted into heat, the rest - into other types of parametric pollution.

The development of motorization leads to a significant transformation of natural ecological systems. With the widespread use of cars, an increasing number of people get access to natural complexes that were previously closed to them, the load on which often exceeds their recreational abilities. As a result, habitual connections in ecological systems are disrupted, the number of places suitable for animal habitation is reduced, and the productivity of the system is reduced. The danger and degree of impact of road transport on the environment are different for cities and suburban areas.

AT cities This effect is most pronounced in the following:

– increased fuel consumption by cars;

- the need for significant areas within urban areas;

– atmospheric air pollution by toxic exhaust gas components;

– pollution of urban water bodies; all kinds of parametric pollution.

In suburban areas This:

- the need for large areas for the construction of roads and other structures;

– contamination of the surface layers of the soil; pollution of reservoirs and groundwater;

- violation of the ecological balance in the area of ​​construction and operation of roads.

Both in urban and suburban conditions, society suffers damage associated with the negative socio-economic consequences of developed motorization.

In general, modern cities are characterized by a higher impact of road transport on the environment, and, accordingly, a greater danger to the population.

The unfavorable situation is also aggravated by the fact that environmental pollution by road transport is almost impossible to localize, and the population of the city is exposed to it even in the residential area.

Table 1 - Main environmental pollutants

Types of pollutants	Main sources of pollution	Possible impacton the state of the atmosphereon ecosystems, organisms
Sulfur oxide (IV),sulphur dioxide,SO2	Fuel combustion, metallurgy	Climate change, formation of "acid precipitation", exacerbation of respiratory diseases in humans, damage to plants, corrosion of building materials and some fabrics, increased corrosion of metal structures
weightedparticle,containingheavy metals	Mining, plowing, metallurgy	Climate change, ozone layer conditions, increased concentrations of heavy metals in food chains
Ozone,O3	Photochemical reactions in the atmosphere	Climate change, negative impact on human health
nitrogen oxides,NOx	Fuel combustion, transport, nitrogen-containing mineral fertilizers, aviation	Climate change, the state of the ozone layer, the formation of "acid precipitation". Increasing the concentration of nitrates (nitrites) in food chains, increased corrosion, smog, etc.
Dioxidecarbon (IV),carbon dioxide,CO2	Fuel combustion, transport	Climate change, "greenhouse effect"
Mercury,hg	Development of mercury-containing ores, production of chlorine, soda, a number of pesticides, landfills
Lead,Pb	Transport, metallurgy	Accumulation in organisms along food chains
Cadmium,CD; zinc,Zn;copper,Cuand other heavy metals	Chemical industry, metallurgy	The death of the inhabitants of water bodies due to accumulation along food chains, etc.
Carbon monoxide (II), carbon monoxide,SO	Fuel combustion, transport	Climate change, violation of the thermal balance of the upper atmosphere
Asbestos	Construction Materials	Impact on human health
Oil	petrochemical industry	Violation of heat exchange between the hydrosphere and the atmosphere, the death of aquatic organisms
Polycyclic hydrocarbons(benzopyrene)	Chemical industry, fuel combustion, transportation, smoking	Climate change, ozone layer conditions, negative impact on human health
Phosphates	Chemical industry, production of phosphate fertilizers	Ecological state of rivers, lakes
Pesticides	Chemical industry, pesticide production	Accumulation in organisms along food chains
Fluorochlorine derivatives of hydrocarbons (freons)	Refrigeration industry, aerosol packaging industry	Destruction of the ozone layer of the planet, climate change
Radiation	Natural (mainly radon layer) and artificial sources (medical care, nuclear weapons testing, nuclear power plants)	Malignant neoplasms and genetic changes (mutations)
Dioxins -hypertoxicconnections	Fuel combustion, waste incineration, operation of muffle furnaces, melting of metals, operation of automobile engines on leaded gasoline; phenol-containing effluents from enterprises of the metallurgical, oil refining and chemical industries, disinfection with chlorine of water containing phenols or their precursors - lignins, humic and fulvic acids present in natural waters; wind-blown dust from abandoned toxic waste dumps.	The range of physiological action is extremely wide: they reduce the efficiency of the immune system; cause malignant formations (compound 2, 3, 7, 8-TCDD was assigned the highest class of carcinogenic hazard - group I), affect the endocrine glands, inhibit the activity of the thyroid gland and increase the risk of diabetes; cause skin diseases such as hyperpigmentation, hypertrichosis (excessive hair growth); lead to birth defects, neurological pathologies, disrupt the metabolism in the body, increase the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Dioxins are practically not excreted from the body, but accumulate in adipose tissue. Apparently, the only safe level of dioxins in the environment is their absence.

3. Plant resources, quantitative and qualitative characteristics. Protection of rare plant species. Protection of forests and natural fodder lands

3.1 Plant resources, quantitative and qualitative characteristics

plant resources- these are all plant organisms (higher plants, fungi, mosses, lichens, algae) that grow in territories and water areas and are used or can be used for various needs of society. Among them, forest resources are of particular economic importance.

Forests cover about a third of the world's surface. The total forest area was 2,438 million hectares, of which 1,233 million hectares (50.5%) were tropical forests, and 1,205 million hectares (49.5%) were temperate forests. World timber reserves were estimated at 5412.5 million tons. Of the European countries, the most “forested” is Finland, where forests occupy 70% of its territory. Great Britain is poor in forests - they occupy less than 6% of the country's area. The total area of ​​the forest fund of the Russian Federation in 1991 was 1182.6 million hectares, forested land - 771.1 million hectares, the total stock of wood in forests - 81.6 billion m3. Wood is a universal raw material from which more than 15-20 thousand different products can be made.

Forest resources are wood, technical, medicinal and other forest products that are used to meet the needs of the population and production and are reproduced in the process of forming forest natural complexes. Forest resources also include the beneficial properties of forests (the ability to reduce the negative effects of natural phenomena, protect soil from erosion, prevent environmental pollution and purify it, help regulate water flow, improve the health of the population and its aesthetic education, etc.), which are used to meet public needs.

Forest resources are a set of material benefits of the forest that can be used without damage to the environment with the greatest economic efficiency. All the variety of forest resources, depending on their purpose and features of use, are combined into the following groups:

- raw materials of wood origin - wood, tree greens, bark;

- resources of non-timber origin - mushrooms, berries, fruits, nuts, medicinal resources, fodder and technical resources of non-timber vegetation, etc.;

- resources of animal origin - useful and harmful forest fauna, eggs, honey, horns of wild ungulates, etc.;

- multilateral useful functions of the forest and its positive impact on the natural environment.

Not only forest resources perform various economic functions in society. Herbaceous plant resources play an equally important role. According to their importance for humans, they are divided into the following groups:

- valuable fodder plants;

- medicinal plants;

- technical plants;

- the rest - decorative and other plants

It should be noted that the vegetation of any natural zone has not been subjected to such a catastrophic human impact as the vegetation of the steppes, especially over the past 150-200 years, when the appearance of this landscape zone has changed radically. The main directions of the impact of human economic activity on the steppe herbage are associated with such factors as grazing, the complete destruction of virgin vegetation during plowing, haymaking, the construction of cities, industrial facilities, highways, etc. layer.

3.2 Protection of rare plant species

On the territory of Russia there are many plants with a variety of useful properties. Their use for practical purposes is still far from complete. Suffice it to say that out of 300 thousand species of the world flora of higher plants, only about 2500 species are systematically used by man in economic activity, and periodically up to 20 thousand species. In Russia, about 250 species are used for economic purposes. Many plants have valuable properties and are used in medicine, technology, cooking, floriculture and landscaping.

The world of medicinal plants has not been sufficiently studied. It is currently undergoing intensive exploration. Comprehensive studies carried out by pharmacologists, chemists, botanists and plant growers have made it possible to identify new medicinally valuable plants that can be used in medical practice not only in the form of preparations, but also in the form of individual substances. The nutritional properties of plants have also been little studied. At the end of the 20th century, an intensive search began for new plants that could provide more protein than those already known in plant growing. Such an example is chlorella, which attracts scientists with its greatest photosynthetic ability. It uses up to 20% of solar energy under artificial conditions (flowering plants - 2%), and its yield is 25 times higher than wheat. The study of many plants disappearing from the face of the Earth helps to reveal new pages in history, to better understand the laws of the formation of the plant world. Until our time, ancient forms of plants have been preserved, the importance of which for science can hardly be overestimated. In Russia, there are Eldar pine and other plants of the flora of the Tertiary period. They are rare, and partially endangered species subject to protection, for example, in the Ussuri River basin - magnolia vine, Amur lilac, etc.

Some plants become rare and endangered due to their extermination. An example of this is ginseng, or the "root of life", which has almost disappeared from the forests of the Far East. The protection of rare plants is becoming an important state task. 533 species of plants subject to protection are listed in the Red Book of the Russian Federation. Among them should be mentioned: ginseng, mainland aralia, lotus, water chestnut, lure, lady's slipper, etc.

Conservation of rare and endangered species can be done in different ways:

- the first way is the prohibition of any actions: mowing, breaking off, damage;

- the second way - the protection of rare species in nature reserves, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, declaring natural monuments;

- the third way - the creation of collection sites and reserves in the network of botanical gardens and other scientific institutions.

Plants transferred to collection plots can be maintained in culture for an indefinitely long period and be a necessary reserve for various purposes. Along with rare and endangered plant species, economically valuable plants growing in nature are also subject to protection. In this case, the main thing is their rational use and the fight against poaching forms of unorganized collection.

3.3 Protection of forests and natural grasslands

Plant species do not exist in isolation. They are connected by many threads with other plant, animal components and abiotic factors of natural complexes. Therefore, the protection of vegetation is a complex task, it should be carried out through the protection of the entire natural environment, including plant communities, which include these plant species. All flora and its groupings - phytocenoses are subject to protection.

The main objectives of forest protection are irrational use and restoration. Measures to protect the forests of sparsely forested areas are becoming increasingly important in connection with their water protection, soil protection, sanitary and health-improving role. Particular attention should be paid to the protection of mountain forests, as they perform important water-regulating soil-protective functions. With proper forest management, re-cutting in a particular area should be carried out no earlier than after 80-100 years, when full ripeness is reached. In the 60-80s. 20th century in a number of regions of the European part of Russia, repeated fellings returned much earlier, which led to the loss of their climate-forming and water-regulating significance, and the number of small-leaved forests increased. An important measure for the rational use of forests is the fight against timber losses. Often, significant losses occur during the harvesting of wood. Branches and needles remain in the felling areas, which are a valuable material for the preparation of coniferous flour - vitamin feed for livestock. Waste from logging is promising for obtaining essential oils.

Timely reforestation is the most important condition for the conservation of forest resources. In Russia, about a third of annually cut down forests are restored naturally, the rest require special measures for their renewal. On 50% of the area, only measures to promote natural regeneration are sufficient, while on the rest, sowing and planting trees are necessary. The cleaning of forests from the branches, bark, needles, etc. remaining after cutting down, has a positive effect on the restoration of forests.

Ameliorative measures play an important role in the reproduction of forests: draining waterlogged soils, planting trees, shrubs and grasses that improve the soil. This favorably affects the growth of trees and the quality of wood. Where there is no natural reforestation on clearings, after loosening the soil, seeds or seedlings grown in nurseries are sown. In the same way, forests are restored in burnt areas, glades, planting highly productive varieties of trees. Along with reforestation and increasing the productivity of the forest, along with the correct selection and widespread use of fast-growing species, reasonable drainage of wetlands, timely forest care measures are required. Thinning, clearing, lightening, sanitary cutting, protection from fires, pests and diseases, livestock damage, etc. - all this improves the condition of the forest, increases its productivity. These measures, if properly implemented, contribute to the protection of the forest as a natural complex.

In recent years, the center of logging in Russia has been transferred to Siberia. Reforestation is being carried out, the consequences of ill-considered logging are being eliminated, sanitary cuttings and other forest care work are being carried out. Forest plantations are carried out on free areas and unforested wastelands. They try to use the forest more widely and more comprehensively. Thus, in 1991, the allowable cutting area (forest use norm) in Russia as a whole was more than 550 million m3, including 340 million m3 of coniferous species. In fact, the use of AAC is 46% in terms of total volume and 52% in terms of coniferous species. Forest thinning was carried out on an area of ​​more than 2 million hectares, reforestation - on an area of ​​1.6 million hectares. At the present stage of development of forestry, the achieved volumes of reforestation ensure the preservation and even some increase in forested lands.

Protection of forests from fires is carried out on 65% of the area of ​​the forest fund of the Russian Federation. Pest and disease control was carried out in 1991 on a total area of ​​565,000 ha, including 483,000 ha using biological methods and means.

Literature

1. Akimova T. A., Khaskin V. V. Ecology. - M., 2011.

2. Konstantinov V. M. Ecological bases of nature management. - M., 2010.

3. Oleinik Ya. B. Fundamentals of ecology: textbook. M., 2008.

4. Putilov A. V. Environmental protection. - M., 2008.

5. Stepanovskikh A.S. Ecology. Textbook for high schools. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2001. - 703 p.

6. Khatuntsev Yu. L. Ecology and environmental safety. - M., 2002.

7. Ecoculture. In search of a way out of the ecological crisis. / Ed. N. N. Marfenina. - M.: MNEPU, 1998.

8. Environmental safety of traffic flows. / Under. ed. A. B. Dyakova. - M.: Transport, 1989.

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