Great Silk Road stretched for thousands of kilometers, leading caravans through scorching deserts, picturesque oases, and mountain passes. Along the way, cities and entire civilizations arose, flourished and devastated. Many devastating wars, destruction, conflagrations, famine and pestilence saw the ancient cities located along the Silk Road. For centuries, multilingual, oriental bazaars were noisy, for hundreds of years merchants carried precious silks and stones, spices and dyes, gold and silver, exotic birds and animals to sell to Europeans along dusty caravan roads. Based on this, we can say that the Great Silk Road is a grandiose trade route that connected East and West and became the cause of the emergence of many unique cities, historical monuments, customs and even states.

History of the Great Silk Road - Discovery
The founding of the Silk Road dates back to the 2nd century BC, when the Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian visited the countries of Central Asia on a diplomatic mission. Until the II century. BC. the path from Europe to Asia was interrupted at the borders of China, since the mountain systems of Asia - the Tien Shan, Kun-Lun, Karakorum, The Hindu Kush, the Himalayas - hid the ancient Chinese civilization from the rest of the world. Chance helped to open the richest western direction. One of the nomadic tribes allied with China was forced out by another tribe openly hostile to China. The former ally went to the West. The Chinese emperor sent an embassy in pursuit, led by Zhang Qian. Having passed the hardest deserted Takla Makan, the Tien Shan mountains, having survived a ten-year captivity, Zhang Qian found former allies in the oases of Central Asia. Zhang Qian was amazed by what he saw: in the Ferghana Valley alone, he counted more than 70 large and small urban settlements with developed handicrafts and agriculture. The inhabitants of the cities - oases conducted extensive trade with India, the Near and Middle East, the ancient world. Returning to China, Zhang Qian told the emperor about the countries to the west of China, about what they are rich in. He reported on the thoroughbred "winged" horses of Davani, which cannot be compared with small Chinese horses. The emperor immediately wanted to have such horses, since their possession gave huge advantages in the fight against nomads. Soon embassies were sent to Central Asia. Among other gifts, they carried Chinese silk.
Even earlier, there were roads along which trade between the East and the West was already conducted. These were separate segments of the future Great Way. The emergence of trade relations was facilitated by the development in the mountains of Central Asia of deposits of semi-precious stones - lapis lazuli, jade, carnelian, turquoise, valued in the East. So, there was a "lapis lazuli" route, along which this stone was delivered from Central Asia to Iran, Mesopotamia and even to Egypt. Simultaneously with it, a "jade" route was taking shape, connecting the regions of Khotan and Yarkand with the regions of Northern China. In addition, carnelian was exported to the countries of Western Asia from Sogdiana and Bactria, and turquoise from Khorezm. All these routes eventually joined the route of the Great Silk Road. There were three periods in the history of this path when it was almost completely controlled by one state: the Turkic Khaganate in the 6th century, the empire of Genghis Khan in the second quarter of the 13th century, and the empire of Timur in the last third of the 14th century. However, due to the high length of the routes, it was extremely difficult to unite them under a single control.

"Golden Age" of the Silk Road
During the journey from east to west, silk and spices passed through dozens of hands. In this regard, historians are talking about the travel of goods and technologies, and not people. Donkeys and camels were used for transportation. The number of camels in the caravans that plied the Takla-Makan desert varied from 3 to 300. In the 4th-9th centuries, the Sogds in the east and the Rahdonite Jews in the west supported the international trade network. The Sogdian language served as the language of international communication: for example, the sacred texts of Buddhism were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese through Sogdian media. Some light on the internal organization of Sogdian trade is shed by letters left by one of the merchants in a bag in Dunhuang. The intensity of trade relations decreased after the expulsion of the Romans from the Middle East and the beginning of the Arab conquests. During the periodically flaring Byzantine-Iranian wars, the rulers of Persia blocked the caravan routes in order to cause maximum damage to the Byzantine economy. Difficulties with the delivery of goods also arose in the early Arab period, especially after the defeat of the Chinese in the Talas battle, which forced them to leave Central Asia.

Further development
In the period of the 8th-10th centuries, instead of silk, river routes and portages of the East European Plain began to be used, the main "operators" of which were the Khazars and Scandinavian-Varangians. The influx of wealth from the East accelerated the stratification in these lands and led to the formation of state formations, which initially consisted of a chain of trade and military trading posts along the main trade routes. As a result of the Iranian-Byzantine wars of the VI-VII centuries. one of the routes of the Great Silk Road was laid across the territory of the North Caucasus. This was due to an attempt by the Persians to block Byzantine trade relations by imposing high duties on Greek merchants. In this regard, caravans from China and Central Asia went around the power of the Sassanids. They began to go around the Caspian Sea not from the south, but from the north - moving through the Northern Caspian Sea to the North Caucasus. In this regard, two branches of the Great Silk Road appeared in the Caucasus - Misimian and Darin.
After the creation of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, which included almost the entire length of the Silk Road, prerequisites arose for the revival of overland trade along the ancient routes. Such European travelers as Marco Polo, Carpini, Rubruk, with the assistance of the Mongols, freely made their way to East Turkestan and back. The Black Death spread in the same ways in the 14th century. The western section of the route in the XIV-XV centuries was controlled by the Venetians and Genoese, who acquired fortified trading posts along the shores of the Black Sea. By the 15th century, the Silk Road fell into decay due to the resumption of military conflicts in Central Asia (the invasion of the Turkmens, the conquests of Tamerlane), which stimulated the development of maritime trade, which eventually led to the Great geographical discoveries.

Meaning
Silk was the main, but not the only commodity that was transported along the transcontinental route. Horses, highly valued in China, military equipment, gold and silver, semi-precious stones and glassware, leather and wool, carpets and cotton fabrics, exotic fruits - watermelons and peaches, fat-tailed sheep and hunting dogs, leopards and lions were exported from Central Asia. . From China, caravans brought porcelain and metal utensils, lacquerware and cosmetics, tea and rice. In the traveling bags of merchants one could find elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, spices and much more. The Great Silk Road played a big role in the development of economic and cultural ties between the peoples of Western Asia, the Caucasus, Central Asia and China, for example, it served as a conductor for the dissemination of technology and innovation in art, religion, and technology. At the same time, almost all technologies spread from China to the West.

Countries on the Great Silk Road
China - Kyrgyzstan - Kazakhstan - Tajikistan - Uzbekistan - Turkmenistan - Iran - Azerbaijan - Georgia.

Routes of the Great Silk Road
The Great Silk Road has never been a single highway. His system included several branches of roads that passed through different passes in mountain ranges, bypassing deserts. Initially, the Silk Road originated in Chang'an - the ancient capital of China - and went along the northern Tien Shan to Dunhua - a city on the outskirts of the Great Wall of China. Here a single road forked, bordering the Takla-Makan desert from the north and south. The northern one went through Turfan to the valley of the Ili River. The middle one from Chaochan to the southern coast of Issyk-Kul - through Khotan and Yarkand, led to Bactria. Here the Southern Way diverged into two other routes: one led to India, the other to the West and to Merv, where it merged with the Northern Way. Further, it passed through Nisa - the capital of Parthia, Iran, Mesopotamia and further through Baghdad went to Damascus, reached the Mediterranean. And the third, the most difficult, was called the Northern or Steppe Way. Having crossed the Tien Shan, part of the caravans went through the Ferghana Valley and the Tashkent oasis to Samarkand, Bukhara, Khorezm, further to the shores of the Caspian Sea. Part of the caravans from Samarkand kept their way to Bactria and through the Kashkadarya valley went to Termez, from where, having crossed the Amu Darya, they went to the Middle East and India. In addition to the three main routes that make up the Great Silk Road, there were other roads through which all these three routes were connected to each other. The maritime section of the Great Silk Road began in Alexandria and Egypt, went along the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, going to ports on the western coast of India. From here, this road followed to Bactria, to the city of Termez. And then along the Amu Darya River to Khorezm to the Caspian Sea. Then it crossed the territory of Albania, Iberia and Colchis (Georgia) and went to the Black Sea, and then to Rome. An important road ran from the Lower Volga region along the western coast of the Caspian Sea through the Caspian Iron Gates - Derbent, south to ancient Albania and Parthia, connecting the northern and main routes of the Great Silk Road. In the VI-VIII centuries. the main route was Syria - Iran - Central Asia - South Kazakhstan - Talas Valley - Chui Valley - Issyk-Kul Basin - East Turkestan. Not so long ago, the countries participating in the Great Silk Road, including China, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and others, decided to jointly prepare for filing an application with UNESCO for the inclusion of the Great Silk Road in the world heritage list.

Goods of the Great Silk Road
Goods along the Great Silk Road went mainly from east to west. Even in the Middle Ages, the Venetian merchant Marco Polo called these caravan routes silk. And the term "Great Silk Road" was introduced into scientific circulation in 1877 by the German researcher Ferdinand Richthofen in his fundamental work "China". At the initial stage of the development of the Silk Road, the Chinese received highly valued horses from Central Asia, as well as alfalfa seeds and grapes. The ancient world has been cultivating the vine and producing wine since ancient times. For the Chinese, primarily separated from other civilizations, grapes were a novelty. Moreover, the Chinese envoys were extremely surprised that wine could be made not from rice, but from berries so unknown to them. Later, the Chinese mastered several more agricultural crops through caravan trade - beans, onions, cucumbers, carrots, pomegranates, walnuts, figs, etc. From Central Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean, China received a variety of woolen products - carpets, curtains, bedspreads, rugs. They made a great impression on the Chinese, who were unfamiliar with the techniques of processing wool, flax, carpet production and carpet weaving. Parthian tapestry fabrics and carpets were highly valued in ancient China.

Camels, highly valued in China, military equipment, gold and silver, semi-precious stones and glassware were exported from Central Asia. Samarkand glass was especially valued for its high quality. It used to be seen as a luxury item. As well as leather and wool, cotton fabrics, gold-embroidered fabrics, exotic fruits - watermelons, melons and peaches, fat-tailed sheep and hunting dogs, leopards and lions. From China, caravans brought to the West the famous Chinese porcelain dishes - vases, bowls, glasses, dishes, snowy white with elegant drawings. Only in China they owned the secret of making the finest and most resonant porcelain, so it was very expensive in the European markets. Also exported were bronze ornaments and other products made of this metal, bronze mirrors with various ornaments, umbrellas, products from the famous Chinese lacquer, medicines, and perfumes. Chinese paper was also highly valued - one of the remarkable inventions of the Chinese technical genius. The export items were gold, leather and much more. Merchants also brought tea and rice, woolen fabrics and linen, coral, amber, and asbestos. Elephant tusks, rhinoceros horns, tortoise shells, spices, pottery and ironware, glaze and cinnamon, ginger, bronze weapons and mirrors could be found in merchants' travel bags.

Trade culture on the Great Silk Road
Caravan trade along the routes of the Great Silk Road was associated not only with high profits, but also with great risk. That is why the merchants sought to do business not alone, but in whole groups, large caravans, consisting of hundreds and thousands of armed people. But nothing could protect the merchants from the arbitrariness of the rulers and the attacks of nomadic tribes. Fearing for their lives, merchants rarely crossed the Great Silk Road from end to end. More often they changed their goods in some of the intermediate trading cities. But the rulers of the lands received income from customs duties levied in cities along the caravan routes. In order not to lose these incomes, the rulers of Asian countries adopted strict laws that protected merchants. Trade was mainly exchange, money served only as a unit of account. Merchants valued their goods at a certain amount and exchanged it for another product with an equivalent price. Caravans numbered from several tens to several thousand pack animals. Interpreters were often kept by the caravans. The caravan trade required a complex service. Therefore, caravanserais were built along the entire route in cities and villages. They had hujras for merchants and attendants, rooms for horses and camels, mules and donkeys, the necessary fodder and provisions. Sometimes in the caravanserai one could sell or buy goods in bulk, find out commercial news and prices. There were special merchants or even companies that took over the transportation of goods, that is, the organization of transport. A significant role in the development of trade was played by nomadic pastoralists. They undertook to accompany caravans, provide cattle for food and as a vehicle, and entire dynasties specialized in caravan trade.

The Silk Road was a network of trade routes formally established during the Chinese Han Dynasty that linked areas of the ancient world in trade.

Since the "Silk Road" was not a single east-west route, the term "Silk Route" is becoming more popular with historians, although "Silk Road" is the more common and recognized name.

Both terms for this network of roads were coined by the German geographer and traveler Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877 AD, who designated them "Seidenstrasse" (silk road) or "Seidenstrassen" (silk route).

The network was used regularly from 130 BC, when the Khan officially opened trade with the west, until 1453 AD, when it closed the routes.

Persian royal road

The history of the Silk Road dates back to the Han Dynasty, when during the Achaemenid Empire (500 -330 BC) the Persian Royal Road became one of the main arteries of the Silk Road. The Persian royal road ran from Susa, in northern Persia (modern Iran) to the Mediterranean in Asia Minor (modern Turkey), and there were post stations along the way with fresh horses for envoys, so messengers could quickly deliver messages throughout the empire.

Writing about the speed and efficiency of the Persian messengers, he stated that: “There is nothing in the world that travels faster than these Persian couriers. Neither snow, nor rain, nor heat, nor the darkness of the night allow these couriers to complete their assigned routes at maximum speed.”

The Persians carefully maintained the Royal Road and eventually expanded it, many small side roads appeared. These routes eventually crossed the Indian subcontinent through Mesopotamia and into Egypt.

Western contact with China

After Alexander the Great conquered the Persians, he founded the city of Alexandria Eshate in 339 BC. e. in the Ferghana Valley (modern Tajikistan). Leaving his wounded veterans in the city, Alexander moved on. Over time, these Macedonian warriors intermarried with the native population, creating the Greco-Bactrian cultures that flourished under the Seleucid Empire after Alexander's death.

During the reign of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydim I (260-195 BC), the Greco-Bactrians expanded their dominions. According to the Greek historian Strabo (63-24 AD), the Greeks "expanded their empire to the level of Seres." "Seres" was the name by which the Greeks and Romans knew China, meaning "the land from which the silk came." The first contact between China and the West is believed to have taken place around 200 BC.

The Chinese Han Dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD) was regularly persecuted by the nomadic Xiongnu tribes on the northern and western frontiers. In 138 BC. Emperor Wu sent his envoy Zhang Qian west to negotiate with the Yueji people for help in defeating Xiongnu. Zhang Qian's expedition began to come into contact with many different cultures and civilizations in Central Asia, among them those they called "dayuan" or "great Ionians" who were Greco-Bactrians and came from the army of Alexander the Great.

Deiyuan had powerful horses and Zhang Qian reported to Wu that they could be used effectively against the marauding Xiongnu. The consequences of Zhang Qian's journey were not only further contacts between China and the West, but an organized and efficient program of breeding horses across the land to equip the cavalry.

The horse has long been known in China and used in warfare as early as the Han Dynasty (1600 - 1046 BCE), but the Chinese admired the Western horse for its size and speed. With the western horse Deiyuan, the Han dynasty defeated the Xiongnu. This success inspired Emperor Wu to think about what else could be achieved through trade with the West, and the Silk Road was opened in 130 BC.

In the period between 171-138 BC. e. Mithridates I of Parthia advocated the expansion and strengthening of his kingdom in Mesopotamia. The Seleucid king Antiochus VII Sidecs (138-129 BC) opposed this expansion, and also wanting to avenge the death of his brother Demetrius, fought against the Parthian forces of Phrates II, Mithridates' successor. With the defeat of Antiochus, Mesopotamia fell under Parthian domination and, together with it, approached the Silk Road. The Parthians then became the central intermediaries between China and the West.

Goods of the Silk Road

Many different types of goods passed along the Silk Road, the roads stretched from China through India, Asia Minor, throughout Mesopotamia, to Egypt, the African continent, Greece, Rome and Britain.

The northern Mesopotamian region (present-day Iran) became China's closest trade partner as part of the Parthian Empire, initiating important cultural exchanges. Paper, invented by the Chinese during the Han Dynasty, and gunpowder, also a Chinese invention, had a far greater cultural impact than silk.

The rich spices of the East also contributed to the development of fashion, which grew out of the silk industry.

However, by the time of the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus (27 BC - 14 AD), trade between China and the West was firmly established, and silk was the most sought after commodity in Egypt, Greece and, especially , in Rome.

Silk in the Roman Empire

Before becoming Emperor Augustus, Octavian Caesar used the controversial subject of silk clothing to denounce his opponents Mark Antony and Cleopatra VII as immoral. Since they both preferred Chinese silk, which was increasingly associated with promiscuity, Octavian expelled his enemies from the country.

Although Octavian was victorious over Antony and Cleopatra, he was unable to do anything to limit the popularity of silk.

Historian Durant writes: The Romans regarded silk as a plant product, cut from trees, and valued it worth its weight in gold. Most of this silk was sold to the island of Kos, where it was woven into the dresses of the ladies of Rome and other cities.

By the time of the reign of Seneca the Younger (4 BC - 65 AD), conservative Romans saw women in Chinese silk dresses and considered them immoral, while tunics were too feminine for men. However, these criticisms did not stop the silk trade with Rome, and the island of Kos became rich and luxurious through the production of silk clothing.

As Durant writes, “Italy enjoyed an ‘unfavorable’ trade balance—buying more than it sold,” but still exporting expensive goods to China such as “carpets, jewelry, amber, metals, dyes, glass.”

During the time of the emperor Marcus Aurelius (AD 161-180), silk was the most valuable commodity in Rome, and no amount of conservative criticism seemed to slow trade or stop fashion. Even after Aurelius, silk remained popular, albeit expensive.

During the fall in 476 AD. Rome outlived its eastern half, which became known as the Byzantine Empire and which continued the romantic craze for silk. Around 60 AD the west began to realize that silk was not grown on trees in China, but was actually produced by silk worms.

The Chinese purposefully kept the origin of the silk secret, and once it came out, carefully guarded their silk worms and their silk harvesting process. The Byzantine Emperor Justinian (AD 527-556), tired of the constant delays in payments from the Chinese, sent two emissaries disguised as monks to China to steal silk worms and take them west.

The plan was successful and revitalized the Byzantine silk industry. When the Byzantine Empire fell in 1453 AD, the Ottoman Empire closed the Silk Road and severed all ties with the West.

Protecting Silk Roads

Art, religion, philosophy, technology, language, science, architecture and all other elements of civilization were exchanged through the Silk Road along with commercial goods transported by merchants from country to country.

Disease also spread along the route network, as evidenced by the spread of the bubonic plague of 542 AD, which is believed to have arrived in Constantinople via the Silk Road and destroyed the Byzantine Empire.

The closure of the Silk Road forced traders to take to the sea to continue their trade, thus initiating the Age of Discovery (1453-1660 AD) which led to worldwide interaction and the beginning of the globalization of society.

And yet, where was the route of the Great Silk Road? Let's try to draw this line on the map of Eurasia. It is clear that this line will not be alone. The change of eras, the emergence of new states and peoples, wars, scientific research and geographical discoveries led to the emergence of new trade routes and the disappearance of old ones. Thick, thin, and somewhere dotted lines on our map will constantly divide and bifurcate, break off and reappear.

Looking at the maps of the GSR published in various sources one can come to a simple conclusion: the routes, both before and now, were drawn, in general, freely, once - and we crossed the Hindu Kush, two - behind the Pamirs. In fact, some of these routes can be passed, but only in an airplane ...

We draw. We have point A. The generally accepted starting point is the ancient capital of China, Chang'an (modern Xi'an) and the final point B - let's say the ancient city of Tire on the Mediterranean coast. In a straight line - 10,000 km - a quarter of the length of the equator. The shortest path from one point to another is a straight line, but caravans will not pass along such a route, as obstacles arise in their path. Let's mark them on our map - these are mountains, deserts, rivers. The fourth barrier is, let's say, the geopolitical situation. In order to deal with it, one must at least know a little about the history of the development of the states and peoples of the Near and Middle East in the ancient and Middle Ages.

We will not look into the Internet, but we will take material from wonderful sources:

1. The monumental work of B.G. Gafurov "Tajiks"

2. The story of V.A. Obruchev "In the wilds of Central Asia",

3. Book V.I. Sarianidi "Bactria through the mists of time", and the book of the restless explorer of the Pamirs, the scientific secretary of the first Tajik-Pamir expeditions P.N. Luknitsky "Journey through the Pamirs".

The main stages of the medieval history of Central Asia:

1. Bronze Age(II millennium BC - VI century BC) Tribes and nationalities belonging to the Iranian ethnic group live on the territory of Central Asia - Sogdians, Bactrians, Margians, Khorezmians, Parthians, various tribes of Saks, etc. They learned how to smelt iron, the first cities appeared. Agriculture and animal husbandry are becoming the leading branches of the economy. The emergence of Zoroastrianism, the cult of Mithra.

2. Achaemenid state(V-IV centuries BC). Unification within one state of various ancient Eastern countries and peoples. The most important center is Bactria. The caravan road to ancient Iran and Babylon passed through it. The first minted coins appear.

3. 334 BC Greco-Macedonian troops of Alexander the Great invaded Central Asia. Darius III defeated. Babylon, Susa, Persepolis, Pasageda were captured. After capturing the north of modern Afghanistan, the Greeks, through the Hindu Kush passes, moved to India.

4. Seleucid state, the heyday of Greek Bactria. (III-II centuries BC). The capital of Bactria is the city of Baktra (20 km from the modern Mazar-i-Sherif). Greco-Hellenistic culture is intertwined with Buddhist and Zoroastrian monuments. New cities and settlements are being built along the trade route from the Tigris to Baktra (there are about a dozen Alexandrias alone). Coins are minted, on the front side of which is the local king, and on the back - the Greek god. Buddhism penetrated from northern India to Baktra and Sogd along the trade roads through modern Kabul.

6. I-II centuries AD. Kushan kingdom. A huge territory - Northern India, Afghanistan, Central Asia, East Turkestan. The influence of Buddhism is growing. Greek gods are no longer minted on coins. New cities are being built along the Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Zeravshan (along the lines of trade routes). Caravans with silk, iron products, bronze mirrors go to the west to Rome. (So, there is evidence that the Parthians already had silk banners in the middle of the 1st century BC). To the east, woolen blankets, various fabrics, sheepskins, weapons, and horses were sent to China and India.

7. III century AD. Sasanian state. Capital Herat.

8. IV-VI centuries. Central Asia under the rule Hephthalites nomads.

9. In the VI century, far from the border of Central Asia in Altai, a state formation was formed, which played an important role in the history of Central Asia - Turkic Khaganate(VI-VIII centuries). A huge nomadic empire is being created, covering the space from Korea to the Black Sea region. China turned into a de facto vassal of the Turks and bought them off with a colossal annual indemnity. But the huge Turkic power was not destined to remain united. Internecine wars begin and at the beginning of the 7th century. The Khaganate breaks up into a number of separate states.

10. Tokharistan, VI-VIII centuries AD. Occupied the territory - the south of Tajikistan, part of Uzbekistan (Surkhandarya region), northern regions of Afghanistan. Noble lal (spinel) and lapis lazuli were mined on the territory of Badakhshan. In China, lapis lazuli was called the Khotan stone. Tokharistan horses were valued.

11. VIII century - conquest of Central Asia by the Arabs, the gradual spread throughout the territory of the Muslim religion. 751 - Talas battle. Not far from the city of Taraz, the Arabs were stopped by a Chinese army. Beyond this meridian, up to Dzungaria itself, a buffer zone appears between Muslims and Chinese.

12. IX-X centuries AD - education Samanid states. The capital is Bukhara. Unification of Khorasan and Maverannahr.

13. XI century - Karakhanids. Sultan Mahmud Ghaznevid became famous for his brutal raids on India.

14. XII century - the formation of states Seljukov, Guridov. In the north-east State of Kara-Kitaev with its capital in Balasagun. The flourishing of trade between East and West. The range of products is changing. More common are items for the personal use of broad sections of the population and for the needs of handicraft industry. The caravan route began in the coastal Mediterranean countries, passed through Baghdad, Hamadan, Nishapur, Merv, Amul to Bukhara, and from there through Samarkand, Shash, Taraz, Balasagun, Suyab and the southern coast of Issyk-Kul, led to Mongolia and China.

Caravans were sometimes very large. So, for example, Ibn Fadlan, who in 921-922. as a secretary, he participated in the embassy of Caliph Muktadir to the kingdom of the Volga Bulgars, claims that the ambassador's caravan consisted of 5 thousand people and 3 thousand horses, not counting camels. Not only merchants often traveled with caravans, but also artisans, craftsmen, scientists, artists and travelers. Often the caravans were accompanied by armed detachments.

15. XIII-IX centuries - the conquest of Central Asia Tatar-Mongols. The guides of the troops of Genghis Khan were merchants from Khorezmshah. It was they who led the forward detachments of the sons of Genghis along the routes of the Great Silk Road. The troops gathered in Dzungaria and Inner Mongolia, dispersed along the Dzungarian corridor and through the Dzungarian gates broke out into the strategic expanse of the Chu-Ili valley. After the capture of Otrar (1219), Bukhara and the entire Bukhara oasis came to an end. Samarkand, Termez, Urgench…, dozens of other cities of Khorasan, Balkh and all of Maverannahr fell. As a result of robberies and fires, the cities of Central Asia turned into heaps of ruins, and their population was subjected to mass extermination. Agriculture and trade fell into disrepair.

At this time, the opening of new sea trade routes between East and West, the complex and geopolitical situation in the territory of Central Asia led to the closure of the main routes of the Great Silk Road.

16. The contradictions and enmity of Shiite Iran with its Sunni neighbors also, to some extent, influenced the closure of trade routes within Western and Central Asia.

We digress. It's time to draw the route.

The mountains on our map will be shown as Chinese - a series of cones along the strike of the main ridges (by the way, in most of the old Chinese maps, the top of the map is oriented to the south, not to the north). Deserts will be marked in yellow, rivers in blue. From point A (Xian) straight to the west - the Nan Shan mountains. We go around them from the north through Xining to the city of Dunhuang. Dunhuang considered the gateway to China, here the route is divided into three parts. For convenience, let's designate them as follows: Northern (Chu-Ili), Central (Fergana) and Southern (Pamir) routes.

1.northern route. From Dunhuang it goes northwest along the Dzhungar corridor, through Hami, Turfan, Manas before Kulji and then turns west into the valley of the Ili River.

Dzungarian valley is an accumulative desert of internal runoff with a hot, dry, sharply continental climate, bounded from the northeast by the Mongolian Altai ridge, and from the west by the Tien Shan mountains. Here is also the famous Turfan depression(150 meters below sea level). The general global drying of Central Asia, the constant removal of material from the nearest mountains and its accumulation in the lower parts of the valley, led to the death of many ancient cities in this region. So famous Buddhist and Zoroastrian monuments disappeared under the eolian sands Khara-Khoto and Kara-Khodzhi.

From Gulja, the route line stretches along the northern spurs of the Tien Shan, along the southern coast of Issyk-Kul, to the city Balasagun. The route is very difficult and trade caravans spent up to two weeks on this segment of the journey. From Balasagun we draw a line to the city Taraz and further to Otrar. Otrar- one of the largest cities in the Middle Ages. Logistic center, transshipment base. Here the line forks - one goes to Samarkand and Bukhara, the second stretches northwest along the Syrdarya to Yanykent on the Aral.

From Bukhara, one of the branches of the trade route went to the Amu Darya, then along the Amu Darya to kyat- the center of South Khorezm, then in Urgench, and from there through Embu to the Bulgarian kingdom. Until the 10th century, the trade route from Baghdad and Iran to the Bulgar kingdom went through the Caucasus and the Khazar kingdom. However, at the beginning of the 10th c. Relations between the Baghdad caliphs and the Khazar kingdom deteriorated sharply, and trade routes began to pass through Maverannahr.

The intensity of trade relations between Central Asia and Russia is evidenced by a large number of Samanid dirhams found in various parts of Russia, up to the Baltic Sea. Furs, leather, bark for tanning leather, cattle, slaves, honey, nuts, and much more were exported from the Bulgar kingdom through Khorezm. Silk, rice, dried fruits, silver and gold coins were brought from Central Asia to Eastern Europe. From Samarkand, trade routes turned south and went through Termez to Balkh. From Balkh, one of the highways through Khulm went to Kabul and further south to India. From Bukhara the main trade highway went to Merv.

Merv- a supercity in the Middle Ages (however, like Samarkand, Bukhara, Balkh and Kashgar). All these cities were once the largest trade and cultural centers. Trade deals were concluded here, duties were removed, contraband was confiscated ...

AT Balkh(Baktr) gems were brought from Badakhshan - this is lapis lazuli (heavenly stone) and Badakhshan lal (noble spinel). Mined in Badakhshan in the Middle Ages, lapis lazuli (lajuar) was extremely valued in the Middle Ages, both in the east and in the west. In India and ancient Iran, this stone was burned and ground into a fine powder. The powder was mixed with resin, wax and oil. The best artists bought this ultramarine. The Scythians wore beads made of lajuar. He was a favorite and expensive stone of China. China decorated them with bowls, caskets, made rings, amulets and figurines from it. In historical times, balls were made from lapis lazuli for mandarin headdresses, as an emblem of their power. Mongolian caravans delivered lajuar to Kyakhta and exchanged a pound of lapis lazuli for a pound of silver.

Europe until the 17th century almost did not know lapis lazuli. To this day, some tableware made of lapis lazuli has survived - these are goblets, bowls and vases of Francis I and Henry IV. In the 19th century, the Peterhof lapidary factory lined the columns of St. Isaac's Cathedral with lapis lazuli, and this work was done twice: Montferan rejected the columns made of Baltic lapis lazuli and placed them in his house on the Moika, and for Isaac, a lajuar from the "country of Bukhara" was issued - 78 pounds of Badakhshan blue stone.

The western branch stretched from Merv to the Mediterranean Sea and without significant changes crossed the modern territory of Iraq, Iran and Syria.

The large rivers of Western and Central Asia, such as the Tigris, Euphrates, Amu Darya and Syr Darya, were a serious obstacle for caravans. It is difficult to understand exactly how the crossings were carried out - after all, hundreds of tons of cargo, camels, horses had to be transported. Perhaps these were stationary ferries, perhaps hired ships were used.

2. Central (Fergana) route. We return to the fork from the Chinese city of Dunhuang. The central branch of the trade route ran along the northern edge of the Taklamakan desert, through Karashahr and Uch-Turfan to Kashgar. Kashgar is a transit base, the last Chinese (or first) outpost. Here again the route is divided into several components. One line stretches along the valley of the Karadarya River to Uzgend and then goes to the Ferghana Valley, the second along the Kuzylsu Valley to the Alai Valley and further through the Taldyk Pass to the city of Osh. Now the fertile Ferghana Valley extends to the west to Samarkand and Bukhara.

From Kashgar there is another trade trail along the river valley Markans, along which, again, you can dump into the Alai Valley. This road is called the trail of smugglers. They rarely used it, mostly dubious elements who did not want to pay a fee at the border.

Markans, or as it is called - death valley- this is a deserted, waterless, flat valley like a table, covered with red-hot rubble and gruss. A strong wind constantly blows here, which, like a hair dryer, dries everything that gets in its way. The valley has preserved material evidence of the presence of an old caravan trail here - these are bones and mummified corpses of animals - horses and camels. There was a funny incident described by Stanyukovich. In the 30s of the last century, the Moscow-Osh-Khorog rally took place. And the road foreman at the Kyzyl-Art pass (near Markansu) was a guy with humor. He collected several animal mummies and placed them along the road, and even hung signs - “hello to the participants of the rally” ...

3. Southern (Pamir) route. From Dunhuang, the route leads west along the northern foothills of Nanshan, Altyntag and Kuen-Lun, skirting the Tibetan Plateau along the southern edge of the Takla-Makan Desert. This path went through the cities Cherchen, Niya, Keriya, Khotan before Kashgar and Yarkand. But then it's not entirely clear. The only logical route is to the south along the Kashgar mountains, further through Tashkurgan to the west, along the southern outskirts of the Pamirs. Where exactly the route went, no one knows for sure. At the beginning of the 13th century, Marco Polo passed this segment of the journey, traveling with his father and uncle from Italy to China. This trio were professional merchants and, it is clear that they did not travel on their own, but joined trade caravans. Since the records of Marco Polo have been preserved, it is possible to draw their route, and hence the caravan road along which the Venetians crossed Badakhshan.

It is authentically known that Marco Polo, going from west to east, first visited Shesmur (Kashmir), and then Badakhshan - a city not preserved even in ruins. Then, turning to the northeast, he crossed the Hindu Kush and went to Badasian (Pyanj River). It is not clear where he crossed the Panj. Luknitsky believes that somewhere not far from the modern city of Khorog, near the ruins of the fortress Kala-i-bar-Pyanj.

Let's look at the physical map of this area, or even better, "turn on" the satellite. Yes, there is a natural passage here through the Hindu Kush mountains - this is through Lake Shiva and further southwest to modern Faizabad.

This is how Marco Polo describes Badasian (r, Pyanj): “From Badasian you travel 12 days to the east and northeast along the river; it belongs to the brother of the Badasian ruler; there are many fortresses and settlements. The people are brave, revere Muhammad. Twelve days later - another region, not very large, in each direction three days of travel; it's called Wahan…”

But the Rushan Range stretches from Khorog to the east and northeast, and along the Pyanj from Khorog you can only go south to Ishkashim, or in the opposite direction to the north - to Rushan. The general direction to the border with China at Marco Polo is maintained, but these 200 km, which must be passed to the south, somehow freeze.

Maybe, after all, Marco Polo and his friends went to Pyanj through Zebak directly to Ishkashim, and not through Lake Shiva to Khorog? The caravan road to the very Kashmir valley passed through Zibak.

Further from Ishkashim to Kashgar (where Marco Polo went), the most logical route is along the Pyanzh to the east to the confluence of the Pamir and Vakhan Darya rivers, then to the northeast across Lake Zorkul to Tashgurgan, Yarkend, or immediately to Kashgar.

Crossing Badakhshan, Marco Polo may have visited the ancient Kukhilal mines. At least gave them a brief description. Noble spinel was mined at the Kuhilal deposit until the 15th century. Then the reserves were depleted and the field was closed. In the 80s of the 20th century, the development of the deposit was resumed by the Pamirkvartssamotsvety expedition. In 1985, geologist Ya. A. Gurevich found a unique, unusually large sample of Badakhshan lal in the bottom of an adit. A bright pink crystal weighing 6 kg was nicknamed the Miracle Stone.

Lake Shiva

We return to the northern segment of the GSR route to the city of Dunhuang. Obruchev V.A. A well-known geologist and explorer of Central Asia in his book “In the Wilds of Central Asia” indicates that trade routes connecting the Chinese Dzungaria and Fergana existed until the 20th century. Caravans were not as big as in the Middle Ages. Silk, Chinese souvenirs were brought to Ferghana, back - fabrics, various consumer goods (fish hooks, tools, etc.). Trade routes passed through the cities - Niya, Keriya, Khotan, which allowed them to exist to this day, despite the destructive onslaught of the sands of the Takla Makan desert. Along the Dzhungar corridor to the north, to Chuguchak, caravans went until the Dungar uprising (1862-1877). The Chinese brutally suppressed the uprising of the inhabitants of the western provinces of China - Muslims. As a result, hundreds of wells were filled up, stations and settlements along trade routes were destroyed.

The decline of the cities of ancient Bactria, such as Balkh, Khulm, Oxian Alexandria and others, located both on the right and on the left bank of the Amu Darya River, is associated both with general historical processes and with the activity of the Amu Darya River. Frequent change in the channel, deposition of alluvial sand from the ancient terraces above the floodplain, ultimately led to the death of these cities. The super-city of Merv, a city with two thousand years of history, standing at the crossroads not only of trade routes, but also at the crossroads of migrations of peoples and religions, was destroyed by the Mongols in 1221. The Timurids tried to revive it, but in vain.

This is how the Great Silk Road ended its existence. Many of the cities it passed through fell into disrepair over time, and are now gently sloping sandy hills overgrown with camel thorn.

Well, everything I wanted - I wrote and drew. The principle that I used when laying routes is simple - we draw key cities, and connect them, bending around natural obstacles, maintaining the general direction. Everything is very simple.

Kyiv, Borshchagovka, 2016

The founding of the Silk Road dates back to the 2nd century BC. e., when the Chinese ambassador Zhang Qian visited the countries of Central Asia on a diplomatic mission. Until the II century. BC e. the path from Europe to Asia was interrupted at the borders of China, since the mountain systems of Asia - the Tien Shan, Kun-Lun, Karakorum, the Hindu Kush, the Himalayas - hid the ancient Chinese civilization from the rest of the world. Chance helped to open the richest western direction. One of the nomadic tribes allied with China was forced out by another tribe openly hostile to China. The former ally went to the West. The Chinese emperor sent an embassy in pursuit, led by Zhang Qian. Having passed the hardest deserted Takla Makan, the Tien Shan mountains, having survived a ten-year captivity, Zhang Qian found former allies in the oases of Central Asia. Zhang Qian was amazed by what he saw: in the Ferghana Valley alone, he counted more than 70 large and small urban settlements with developed handicrafts and agriculture. The inhabitants of the cities - oases conducted extensive trade with India, the Near and Middle East, the ancient world. Returning to China, Zhang Qian told the emperor about the countries to the west of China, about what they are rich in. He reported on the thoroughbred "winged" horses of Davani, which cannot be compared with small Chinese horses. The emperor immediately wanted to have such horses, since their possession gave huge advantages in the fight against nomads. Soon embassies were sent to Central Asia. Among other gifts, they carried Chinese silk.

This is how the ancient civilizations of Central Asia and China met, and later the Mediterranean countries and India. Two great roads converged into a single whole. One, coming from the West, from the countries of the Mediterranean to Central Asia, explored and passed by the Greeks during the campaigns of Alexander the Great. The other, leading from the East, from the Han Empire to Central Asia, was explored by Zhang Qian, who passed this region from north to south through Davan, Kangju, Sogd, Bactria.

The name "Great Silk Road" is associated with a precious commodity for the Western countries in those days - silk. At the end of the 2nd century BC. e. silk introduced two worlds - West and East along the first transcontinental road in the history of mankind. But it would be unfair to reduce the significance of the Great Silk Road in the history of world civilization solely to the silk trade. Its role was much broader and more diverse, because caravans passed through it not only with various eastern and western goods, but spiritual values ​​and religious ideas also penetrated.

The road - the Great Silk Road itself - began in Rome and through the Mediterranean Sea went to the Syrian city of Hieropolis, and from there through Mesopotamia, Northern Iran, Central Asia led to the oases of East Turkestan and further to China. The Central Asian section of the road began in Arey. From Areia the road deviated to the north and went to Antioch of Margiana, from here to the southwest to Bactria, and then went in two directions - to the north and east.

During the journey, silk and spices passed through dozens of hands. In this regard, historians are talking about the travel of goods and technologies, and not people. Donkeys and camels were mainly used for transportation. The number of camels in caravans varied from 3 to 300.

The past two decades of rapid economic growth in China have turned it into a superpower. With the coming to power of a new leadership led by Xi Jinping, the PRC has ceased to hide its foreign policy ambitions. The project to create a New Silk Road is a logical continuation of China's policy in recent years. The first steps to make the dream come true have already been taken: financial resources have been allocated, agreements have been worked out with key countries. The plan also has several opponents from among the major world powers. By implementing the project, China will solve not only a number of internal problems, but also globally affect the economic picture of the world. How will the New Silk Road go?

grand plan

Not so long ago, Foreign Minister Wang Yi defined the concept for China's foreign policy "One Belt - One Dream", according to which it is planned to build a New Silk Road from Asia to Europe. In early 2014, Chinese President Xi Jinping presented a plan to create a Silk Road. As part of the project, it is planned to form a giant single economic belt, consisting of infrastructure facilities in many countries. The new Silk Road will pass through Central Asia, Russia, Belarus, Europe. The sea route will follow the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. A variant with routes through African countries is being considered.

China is going to invest more than $40 billion in the project from a special fund. $50 billion has already been allocated by the Asian Bank. The funds will be directed to the construction of railways, ports and other facilities, to the development of relations between the countries participating in the project. Wantchinatimes estimated China's total investment at $22 trillion.

Attempts to revive the Silk Road have already been made by Europe and the United States. China turned to this idea last but did much more to implement it. Thanks to impressive financial opportunities and “soft economic aggression”, it will be possible to form a safe transit that will be used by many states. Today, China is actively discussing infrastructure construction projects with participating countries. A more specific scheme of the new Silk Road and the results of lengthy negotiations will become known in late March at the Boao Forum (South China's Hainan Province).

Silk Road Concept

Today, China supplies electrical and high-tech products to the world market. In terms of length (16 thousand km), the country ranks first in the world. The ancient Silk Road was exclusively a Chinese transport corridor. Today, China announces the creation of an international economic platform.

The initiative to unite the "Economic Belt" and the "Maritime Silk Road of the 21st century" is carried out within the framework of the "One Belt - One Road" program. The concept of the New Silk Road is to implement the plan through five interrelated elements:

• unified infrastructure;
• political coherence;
• monetary and financial flows;
• trade relations;
• humanitarian communication.

On this basis, full-scale cooperation is being promoted, strengthening mutual trust between countries, developing economic integration and cultural tolerance. The implementation of the project as a whole was planned along three routes:

• "China - Central Asia - Russia - Europe".
• "China - Central and Western Asia".
• "China - Southeast Asia - South Asia".

New Silk Road. Route

The scale of the project is impressive not only in terms of investment, but also in terms of geography. The entire "path" is divided into two routes (by land and by sea). The land line starts in Xi'an (Shaanxi province), passes through the whole of China, follows to the city of Urumqi, crosses such as Iran, Iraq, Syria, Turkey. Further through the Bosphorus it follows to Eastern Europe, to Russia. The New Silk Road, the route of which will pass through the territory of several European countries, will run from Rotterdam to Italy.

A no less grandiose sea route begins in the city of Quanzhou (Fuzqian province), follows through large southern Chinese cities, through the Strait of Malacca, entering Kuala Lumpur. Crossing the Indian Ocean, stops in Colombo (Sri Lanka), in the Maldives, reaches Nairobi (Kenya). Further, the route passes through the Red Sea through Djibouti, through the Suez Canal it goes to Athens (Greece), to Venice (Italy) and merges with the land Silk Road.

Economic tasks of the "path"

As the largest exporter, China influences the global economy in many ways. According to forecasts, the Silk Road is expected to trade $21 trillion a year, which could increase China's share in world GDP up to 50%.

It is assumed that the New Silk Road, the construction of which is already in full swing, will redirect the flow of exports of goods and capital to regions that until recently remained outside of international trade. In recent decades, China has been actively cooperating with Asian countries. Investments provided by Chinese state-owned companies are perhaps the only way for many developing countries to maintain independence among the great powers.

From an economic point of view, the benefit of the project for China lies in the reduction of logistics costs. For the countries participating in the Silk Road - in attracting additional funds. An example of such cooperation based on Chinese investment is the iHavan project in the Maldives (in the future, this is one of the important points on the map of the maritime Silk Road).

Regional tasks

China's presence in Central Asia and Africa is not purely economic. At the regional level, the priority task for the PRC remains the political and economic stability of the border regions: East, Central and Southeast Asia. The main barrier to the spread of the Chinese economic phenomenon has become the factor of the “Chinese threat”. It is planned to reduce the threat to "no" with the help of the strategy of "soft power", strengthening the cultural influence of the PRC. The number of students in the Asian region studying at universities in China reflects the degree of penetration

The energy security of the Celestial Empire largely depends on its control over the sea and land Silk Road. As the world's largest energy importer, China is 100% dependent on maritime supplies. The threat of an “oil embargo” constantly hangs over the country. This tactic was used by the United States against Japan before the war.

The new Silk Road will unite many countries, including the US opponents (Russia, Pakistan, Iran). The states participating in the path can become a powerful political force. An important task associated with the creation of the Silk Road is the protection of Chinese investments. Through trade points controlled by the PRC, it is possible to implement not only commercial, but also anti-terrorist goals. From time to time, information appears in the media about the creation of a Chinese network of military bases "Pearl String" in the Indian Ocean.

The impact of the project on the domestic policy of the PRC

Major international projects are also becoming a priority in China's domestic policy. The new Silk Road will contribute to the resolution of several internal problems.

1. The Pro-Chinese Economic Belt is a profitable investment project with high payback and long-term profitability.
2. Passing through Western China, the belt will contribute to solving the problems of uneven development of the country, cultural and economic integration of the western regions.
3. The construction of infrastructure facilities is a source of new jobs for state-owned companies of the PRC, which have solid human resources.

Central Asia and Russia

The territories of Russia and Central Asia, which combine the West and the East, are significant transit arteries for China. Today, China is the world's factory. They have been considering the idea of ​​using Central Asia for the benefit of the economy since the collapse of the Soviet Union. At the same time, systematic work began in this direction: the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, raising the issue of economic cooperation. It was important not only to equalize the internal economic situation, but also to prepare a corridor to Europe through Central Asia and Russia.

It is not so important where the New Silk Road will pass: in any case, it will become a large-scale “shake-up” of the infrastructure of Central Asia and significantly expand cargo flows from China. The success of the tactics of unification and stability, the only possible one on the Silk Road, has been proven historically. Coups, wars between peoples led him to decline, and navigation - to lack of demand. Subsequent attempts to resume the route without merging at the regional level did not lead to anything.

Central Asia has always been a sphere of Russian interests. The rapprochement between China and the Russian Federation is a rather complicated issue. It is not yet clear how the Silk Road will affect the Customs Union and the SCO. Much depends on the position of Kazakhstan, the regional center

Russia's role in the project

On the ancient Silk Road, China was the only exporter. The modern path differs from its predecessor precisely in the desire for integration. At the talks in Moscow, China for the first time offered Russia to use the infrastructure of the economic corridor for trade purposes. Russia will apparently gain access to ports on the New Silk Road and take part in the transit of goods. Of course, in this way, the PRC solves one of the important tasks - to give an impetus to the development and inclusion in the international economy of the western territories.

Russia on the New Silk Road so far acts only as an accomplice, a supplier of raw materials, a transit country. A holistic strategy is needed to develop within the “path”. Governmental, corporate plans of individual companies are not enough for this, a unified one is required. Thanks to China, we have formed a positive image of this project, but there are not many really positive moments for Russia.

After the collapse of the USSR, we left Central Asia and solved internal problems. China established the Shanghai Cooperation Organization for integration purposes. Small states were afraid of the PRC, so security was on the agenda. The PRC raised economic issues related to free trade and the opening of borders. The SCO would have been a monopoly in the region if not for the formation of the Eurasian Economic Union, which showed that Russia has the will and strategic plans for Central Asia. Today, the SCO and the EAEU are the only projects in Central Asia, and the second has more prospects for development, so China is entering into negotiations.

Xi Jinping voiced several proposals to unite the future economic belt and the EAEU. The idea was supported by V. Putin. The President expressed the opinion that both projects together will become a powerful impetus for economic activity in the territory of Eurasia. The projects will be merged on the basis of the SCO, which also puts China in the lead.

Prospects for the project in Russia

The New Silk Road project will help increase trade turnover and develop Russia's own land and sea transport network. To do this, you need to create an associated infrastructure. Today, the Russian government is saving the budget, including cutting funds allocated for construction.

Connecting Russia to the route as a whole depends on the degree of development of the domestic railway infrastructure. It was planned that the New Silk Road through Russia would go through the Middle, Southern Urals and the northern regional territories, where the construction of the Northern Latitudinal Railway is underway. The possibility of extending the line through the Polunochnoe-Obskaya line to Kazakhstan and China is being considered. The Northern Urals could be integrated into the "way" by sea or by land, but only by fulfilling the conditions for the modernization of the railway network.

Sokolov raised the issue of modernizing the BAM and the Trans-Siberian Railway, which would make it possible to create a high-speed railway line "Moscow - Beijing", but no money is expected. In 2015, according to the plan, the financing of the BAM and the Trans-Siberian Railway was to be at least 21 billion rubles, but in fact, 16 billion were allocated.

One of the options for including Russia in the New Silk Road was rejected along with the termination of the project to build the Crimean port. Crimea could become a strategic trading base and a new point of entry for the trade route to Europe. In any case, the Silk Road by land will go through one of the European countries, where it is easy to provoke a change of power and block transit. For example, stopping the South Stream in Bulgaria. The presence of a trading base in the Crimea will allow redirecting the movement of goods through any of the countries.

New Silk Road bypassing Russia

Ukraine has announced its intention to take part in the Silk Road project as an intermediate link for cargo flow from China to Europe. According to Mikheil Saakashvili, it is more profitable to direct trade flows to the seaport of Ilyichevsk, since logistics through it will take no more than 9 days, and through Russia - 30 days. Saakashvili stressed that work is already underway to build roads in the EU, a large bridge is being built across the Dniester Estuary.

China has already made significant progress in the implementation of the basic version of the path: Kazakhstan - Azerbaijan - Georgia - Turkey. From China, bypassing the territory of Russia, a Nomadexpress test container train left, passing 3,500 km in five days - through Kazakhstan, the Caspian Sea to the Kishly station (not far from Baku). The second route of the New Silk Road will pass through Iran, the third one (through the territory of Russia to Moscow and St. Petersburg) is still being discussed. The last route is more profitable: it is shorter than the other two. In addition, Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan are members of the EAEU. The issue of Russia's participation in the project took a long time to decide, a declaration of consent was signed in May 2015.

He considers the option with an "independent" PRC quite acceptable. The Chinese ambassador said that Chinese banks are ready to invest $20 billion in Ukraine's infrastructure. Doesn't this mean that there will be a New Silk Road bypassing the territory of the Russian Federation? Wait and see. It is quite obvious that China is considering several route options at once, as in ancient times.

The direction "Kazakhstan - Russia - Belarus" is the most beneficial for China, but Russia has not joined the concept of the "New Silk Road" and defends its own interests related to the EAEU. Ukraine is really convenient for organizing transportation, but it is not suitable for large investments due to its instability. The game of the PRC with the “square” strengthens the Chinese position in negotiations with the Russian Federation. Of course, the route "Kazan - Moscow - Petersburg ..." on the Silk Road will still be discussed.