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Dictionary of basic terms and concepts of the history of Russia

A

Absolutism(or absolute monarchy) - a form of a feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. The heyday of absolutism in the countries of Western Europe - 17-18 centuries, in Russia - 18-19 centuries.

Autonomy(gr. autos- self + nomos- law) - self-government, the right to independently exercise certain functions of state power and or control, granted by the constitution of any part of the state.

Authoritarianism- a political regime established or imposed by such a form of power, which is concentrated in the hands of one person or in one of its organs and reduces the role of others, primarily its representative institutions.

excise tax(Latin accidere- trim) a type of indirect tax on consumer goods; included in the price of the relevant product or service fee.

Alternative- the choice of a single solution from two or more mutually exclusive possibilities.

Annexation- forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of territory belonging to another state or people.

B

Corvee- a form of feudal land rent, gratuitous forced labor of the dependent peasantry, working with their own equipment in the economy of the feudal lord. It spread widely in Russia from the second half of the 16th century, reaching its peak in the 18th century.

Baskak- a tribute collector appointed by the Horde to one or another Russian principality.

boyar- originally a senior combatant in the princely squad. Later - a rank in Moscow Rus'.

Boyar Duma- since the 15th century, the advisory body under the Grand Duke, consisting of boyars and roundabouts, was served by duma clerks.

Bureaucracy- a system of government, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, separated from society, standing above it, with specific functions and privileges.

IN

rope- the name of the territorial community among the Eastern Slavs.

Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution in Russia in 1726-1730. It was created by Catherine I to solve the most important state issues.

Veche- the highest self-government body in the cities of ancient Rus'.

military settlements- a special organization of troops in the Russian Empire in 1810-1857, introduced with the aim of reducing military spending and the possible reduction of serfdom. Military settlers combined service with agricultural activities.

parish- an administrative-territorial unit of Russia until 1923. In ancient Rus' - the entire territory subordinate to the prince.

Free cultivators- to peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner according to the Decree of 1803.

Voluntarism(Latin voluntas - will) - an activity that does not take into account objective laws and is guided by the subjective desires and arbitrary decisions of those who carry it out.

Eastern Question- designation of the problem that arose in connection with the beginning of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the growing national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples and the struggle of the leading European countries for the markets of raw materials and sales of products.

VSNKh- The Supreme Council of the National Economy (December 1917 - 1932) - the central Soviet state body for the regulation and management of the main sectors of the national economy.

G

General Regulations- the charter of the civil service of Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries, issued by Peter I in 1720. It established the duties of officials, the procedure for discussing cases, and the organization of office work.

State peasants- in Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century, peasants who lived on state (state) lands. They carried feudal obligations in favor of the state, but were considered personally free.

Civil War- organized armed struggle for state power between classes and social groups within the country.

Province- the main territorial-administrative unit in Russia since 1708. It was divided into counties.

Gulag- Main Directorate of Camps, later the full name of the Main Directorate of Corrective Labor Camps and Colonies. As of May 1, 1930, 279 corrective labor institutions with 171,251 prisoners were under the jurisdiction of the NKVD of the RSFSR, and about 100 thousand prisoners were in the OGPU camps. In 1930, the OGPU Camp Administration was organized, which in 1931 became the main one (GULAG). At the end of 1930, the NKVD of the RSFSR ceased to exist, and the prisoners under its charge were transferred to the Gulag. On January 1, 1941, about 1,930 thousand prisoners were kept in the Gulag, in addition, 930,221 people. (mostly exiled kulaks) made up a contingent of special settlers

D

Tribute- natural or monetary extortion from the conquered peoples.

dual power- this is a peculiar and extremely contradictory intertwining of two authorities in Russia, created after the February Revolution in March-early July 1917: the Provisional Government and the Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies.

Yard people- in ancient Rus', the courtiers of princes and kings. In the 17th - 19th centuries, serfs taken to serve in the landowner's house.

Palace (specific) lands- lands that belonged in Rus' personally to the Grand Duke, and later to the Tsar, by the right of feudal property. They provided food and agricultural raw materials for the royal palace and the palace economy.

Nobility- in Russia arose in the 12th - 13th centuries. as the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 14th century, they began to receive land for service - the estate, in the 17th century. constituted the bulk of the landowners, in whose interests serfdom was legally formalized. Under Peter I, it finally developed into a class - an estate. According to the "Table of Ranks" it was replenished with people from other classes for promotion. Privileges were enshrined by Catherine II in the "Charter to the nobility" (1785). After 1861 the economic role weakened, but continued to dominate politically until 1917.

Democracy(democracy) - a political regime in which the following principles are unconditionally fulfilled: separation of powers; the legality of the opposition; the rule is not of persons, but of the law (legal state); independence from the authorities of the media; resolution of conflicts by constitutional means.

De-Stalinization- the process that began after the death of Stalin in the life of Soviet society, which meant the rejection of certain provisions of the theory and practice of the Stalinist version of economic and political development.

Dictatorship- unlimited political, economic and ideological power, exercised by a strictly limited group of people headed by a leader.

Dictatorship of the proletariat- the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with the working peasantry and other sections of the working people. According to Marxism, the main functions of the proletariat are: to suppress the resistance of the overthrown exploiting class and to build a socialist society.

Dissident(disagreeing, contradicting) - a dissident person who does not agree with the dominant ideology, with the dominant worldview, with the existing system.

Differentiation(Latin differentia - difference) - division, dismemberment into various parts, forms, steps.

Druzhina- armed detachments under the prince in ancient Rus'. Divided into "senior" and "younger".

Thought- body of representative and legislative power in Russia (City Duma, State Duma). In ancient Rus' - an assembly, a council of boyars, zemstvo elected (zemstvo duma, Boyar Duma).

Absolutism(absolute monarchy) - a form of feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the feudal state reaches the highest degree of centralization, a bureaucracy, a standing army and police are created. In Russia, it was finally approved in the 18th century.

avant-garde- an artistic movement of the 20th century, advocating a break with the principles of the past and the search for new forms and means of expressing the surrounding world, which manifested itself in such movements as cubism, expressionism, surrealism, etc.

Autocephaly- In Orthodoxy, the administrative independence of the church. Autocephalous church in Russia since 1589

Autonomization- the idea put forward by I.V. Stalin in 1922, according to which all Soviet republics should become part of the RSFSR as autonomies, which violated their independence and equality.

Autonomy- the right of independent existence, the ability to resolve issues related to the conduct of a particular autonomous entity (republic, district, national, religious or territorial community). Autonomy does not have state sovereignty (complete independence). Cultural-national autonomy implies self-government in matters of culture (including religion, language and education).

autochthonous- indigenous peoples who lived on their lands before the formation of existing state borders, associated with a certain territory and living on it from time immemorial; original population.

Aggression- military violation of the sovereignty of the state, its independence and integrity of borders. It can be economic, ideological, psychological, etc.

Alternative- one of several mutually exclusive possibilities; the need to choose a single solution from a number of possible ones.

Empire- an original version of Russian classicism of the first quarter of the 19th century, which has features of an external, formal resemblance to the French Empire style.

Anarchism- a political movement that advocates the destruction of the state as a coercive form of power and its replacement by a free, voluntary association of citizens.

Annexation- forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of territory belonging to another state or people.

Antagonism(antagonistic contradiction) - one of the types of contradictions of social development, characterized by the highest acuteness of the struggle of irreconcilably hostile tendencies, forces, social classes, which inevitably leads to such a radical way of resolving the contradiction as a revolution.

Arakcheevshchina- the internal political course of the autocracy in 1815-1825, which seeks to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life in Russian society (planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, intensifying persecution of education and the press).

Bishop- the general name of the highest Orthodox clergy (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan).

Assembly- balls in the homes of the Russian nobility, introduced by Peter I.

"Velvet Revolutions"- a special type of revolutions, as a result of which there is a transition from a socialist to a liberal system.

Baroque- artistic style in Russia in the 40s-50s. XVIII century, distinguished by decorative splendor, dynamic complex forms, emotional expressiveness and picturesqueness.

Corvee- all types of forced labor performed by dependent peasants on the feudal lord, primarily on the master's land for several days a week.

Baskak- a representative of the Horde Khan in Rus', who exercised control over the actions of the princes and was in charge of collecting tribute.

Basma- a plate of gold, silver, wood, issued by the Golden Horde khans as a pass.

white guard- military formations of anti-Bolshevik forces that opposed the Soviet republic after the October Revolution. White color was considered a symbol of "lawful order".

Secular clergy- the general name of the lower clergy of the Orthodox Church (priests, deacons). Unlike the black clergy, the white clergy are allowed to create a family and run a personal household.

"White settlements"- urban settlements exempted from state duties.

Bipolar system of international relations- a system based on the confrontation between the two superpowers (USSR and the USA) and the military-political blocs created by them.

Bironovshchina- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features: political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, strict taxation, drill in the army.

Blitzkrieg- a strategy based on the fastest achievement of victory by delivering concentrated strikes on the enemy and defeating his main forces in the first days of a military campaign.

beekeeping- collection of honey from wild bees from the ancient Slavs.

Boyars- in Kievan Rus, senior warriors of the prince, who helped him govern the state. From the 15th century boyars - the highest rank among service people.

boyar- a representative of the upper stratum of society in Rus' in the XI-XVII centuries. Initially, the boyars were vassals of the princes, who were obliged to serve in their troops, but later became an independent political force in a number of Russian principalities. In the XIV century. were divided into introduced boyars (closest advisers to the prince) and worthy boyars (who headed separate branches of government). From the end of the XV century. the title of boyar became the highest duma rank, its bearers were directly involved in government along with the monarch.

Boyar Duma- the highest council under the prince in Rus'.

Bourgeois Democratic Revolution- a social upheaval, as a result of which the power of the bourgeoisie is strengthened and broad democratic transformations are carried out, while the bourgeoisie itself often loses its revolutionary role.

Bylina- a work of oral folk art in Ancient Rus', based on real events. Tells about the exploits of Russian heroes.

Bureaucracy- the power of officials, the system of government, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which has certain functions and privileges and stands above society.

Varangians- so in Ancient Rus' they called the Normans (Vikings), immigrants from Scandinavia, participants in predatory campaigns.

Voucher- in 1992-1994. a security intended for free transfer to citizens of objects of state property.

Great Migration- the era of grandiose ethnic movements during the IV-VII centuries. n. e., an integral part of which was the resettlement of the Slavs.

rope- a community of free peasants ("rope" - with its help, the boundaries between communities were determined).

Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution in the Russian Empire in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body consisting of six prominent dignitaries.

Veche- a meeting of all free-born men of the tribe, who have the right to bear arms, to resolve issues of intra-tribal life.

Vikings- Scandinavian navigators of the Middle Ages, the ancestors of modern Swedes, Norwegians, Danes and Icelanders.

Vira- a fine in favor of the prince in the Old Russian state, imposed for the murder of a free man.

Governor military leader in ancient Rus'. Subsequently (since the end of the 15th century), governors were appointed commanders of the main regiments in the Moscow army. In the XVI-XVIII centuries. The governors also headed the local government in the Russian state (they were the royal governors in the cities), they had in their hands the full administrative and military executive power in the city and district.

Voivodeship is a territorial unit of the Principality of Lithuania. The voivode is the head of the voivodship.

Military democracy- one of the initial forms of political organization among a number of tribes and nationalities during the period of decomposition of the primitive communal system; The organs of military democracy were: a popular assembly, in which warriors participated, a council of leaders (or elders) and an elected or appointed military leader, the main distinguishing feature of whose power is military leadership.

military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops.

war communism- the economic policy of the Soviet government in the context of the civil war and foreign military intervention in 1918-1921, which was a system of emergency measures, such as: food allocation, complete nationalization of industry, state monopoly on certain types of goods (salt, sugar, manufactory, matches etc.), militarization of labor, labor front, military general education, free provision of certain types of services (including public transport, pharmacies, telephone, etc.).

Volostel- an official in the Russian state of the 11th-16th centuries, managing the volost on behalf of the great or specific prince, in charge of administrative and judicial affairs. Volostels did not receive a salary, they "fed" at the expense of taxes from the population.

Free cultivators- in Russia, peasants freed from serfdom with land by decree of 1803 on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners.

Magus- a pagan priest, a clergyman in Ancient Rus'; a person who was recognized for supernatural abilities, a magician, a sorcerer. With the introduction of Christianity, they began to be considered opponents of state power, led a number of social performances.

Voluntarism- activity that does not take into account the objective laws of development, imposes its will, ignores real possibilities, when the desired is presented as real.

Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th - early 19th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, the rise of the liberation struggle of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region.

Votchina- type of land ownership (hereditary family or corporate ownership with immunity).

Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861.

Exit(Horde) - a tribute paid by the Russian principalities in the XIII-XV centuries.

Ghazavat(jihad) - the holy war of Muslims against the infidels.

Hegemony- a dominant position, the use of political force to obtain a leading role in the movement, the struggle (the hegemony of the proletariat).

Geopolitics- a concept in the theory of international relations, according to which geographical factors play an important role in the development of a state or a group of states: the presence of minerals, access to the sea, climate, etc.

Publicity- a concept developed by domestic political thought, close to the concept of freedom of speech, but not adequate to it. Availability of information on all the most important issues of the work of state bodies.

The State Duma- 1) Representative legislative institution (1906-1917), established by the manifesto of Nicholas II on October 17, 1905.

2) According to the Constitution of 1993, one of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation.

State capitalism- socio-economic structure with state intervention in economic life to establish control and accelerate the development of production.

State Council- the highest legislative body of the Russian Empire since 1810; since 1906 - the upper house with legislative rights. He considered bills submitted by the ministers before they were approved by the emperor, estimates and staffs of state institutions, complaints against the definitions of departments of the Senate and other bodies.

Guests- merchants engaged in long-distance and international trade.

Civil War- large-scale armed confrontation between organized groups within the state (less often between two nations that were part of the previously unified united state) with the aim of seizing power in the country or in a separate region or changing government policy.

Gridney

Lip- a territorial district in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries, as a rule, coinciding with the parish, from the middle of the XVI century. - with the county.

Province- the main administrative-territorial unit in Russia since 1708, divided into counties.

Lip headman- an official who headed the lip institutions, local governments (from the 30-50s of the 16th century to 1702), which were in charge of the detective, the criminal court on the scale of the lip.

Gulag(Main Directorate of Correctional Labor Camps, Labor Settlements and Places of Confinement) - was established in 1934 under the jurisdiction of the NKVD (People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), to which all correctional labor institutions of the People's Commissariat of Justice were transferred. Existed until 1956

Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax from subjects.

"Date people"- soldiers who, on the basis of the Code of Service of 1556, were to be armed and equipped by the landowner from a certain amount of land. Military service was carried out only in wartime.

dual faith- a mixture of pagan and Christian rites and beliefs.

Butler- courtyard man of Russian princes and Moscow tsars. With the development of the command system in the XVI century. becomes the head of the order of the Grand Palace. From 1473 to 1646 there was only one butler in Moscow. Since 1646, 12 boyars had this title; then he was annually granted to one or several boyars. As a result, this position has become an honorary title.

Yard peasants- in the Russian state, dependent people (serfs), who lived at the court of the landowner and served the family of the feudal lord. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. domestic serf servant in a landowner's house.

nobles- a feudal service estate that owned land on the condition of compulsory military service without the right to sell its landed property, which was a reward for this service.

Nobility- the privileged class of secular landowners and civil servants. In the XIII-XIV centuries. these are persons who are obliged to the princes for military service and the execution of orders. From the 15th century the nobles were endowed with land and merged with the feudal lords. In the XVI-XVII centuries. there were Moscow and elected (city) nobles, from the beginning of the XVIII century. formed a single nobility.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state.

Demilitarization- liquidation on the basis of an international treaty of military installations in a certain area and the prohibition to keep military bases and troops on it.

Democratization—recognition of the need for and introduction of democratic principles, reorganization of social and political life on the basis of democracy.

Denationalization- transfer of state property into the ownership of individuals or collectives.

Cash quitrent- a form of payment by the peasant to the feudal lord in the form of money.

Denomination- changing the face value of banknotes in order to stabilize the currency, simplifying calculations.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 1920-1940s. violent and illegal expulsion of many peoples of the USSR from their territories.

De-Stalinization- the process of abolition, destruction of the Stalinist system.

tithe(church) - one tenth of the harvest or other income given by the population to the maintenance of the church.

Dictatorship- unlimited political, economic and ideological power, exercised by a limited group of people or one person.

Dynastic marriage- marriage between representatives of the ruling dynasties in different countries in order to strengthen the alliance between states.

Dynasty- a series of rulers who successively succeeded each other according to the principle of kinship and the tradition of succession to the throne.

Dissident- a dissident who opposes his beliefs to the official ideology of the country. In 1950-1970. in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state. The struggle contributed to the transition of the USSR from totalitarianism to democracy.

Doctrine- a philosophical, political, religious concept, theory, doctrine, belief system, guiding theoretical or political principle.

Druzhina- a detachment of warriors united around the leader; in Ancient Rus' - an armed cavalry detachment under the prince, participating in military campaigns, managing the principality, as well as the personal household of the prince.

Duma nobles- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. the third "by honor" Duma rank after the boyars and okolnichy; participated in the meetings of the Boyar Duma. Most of them come from noble families. They served as the backbone of tsarist power in the fight against the boyar aristocracy in the Duma.

Spiritual regulation- the legislative act of Peter I (1721) on the reform of the church institution, according to which the church was subordinate to the state.

clerk- from the 15th to the 18th centuries. official (official): manager of affairs of the order, clerk, head of the office of various departments. The clerks constituted the top layer of the bureaucracy (“order people”) in the Muscovite state; from the second half of the 16th century. the rank of a duma clerk was assigned the responsibility of maintaining current office work in central institutions, as well as at local governors. The clerks were mostly from non-noble strata of society.

Deacon- in Orthodoxy, a person who has a lower level of priesthood, an assistant to a priest who participates in a church service. The senior deacon is called a protodeacon.

Smoke- a hut, a peasant's yard.

Diocese- in the Russian Orthodox Church, a church-administrative territorial unit, the boundaries of which are determined by the Holy Synod, taking into account the administrative-territorial division of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The management of the diocese is carried out by the bishop (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan) together with the bodies of diocesan administration (assembly, council).

Heresy— 1) dogma that deviates from the dogmas and organizational forms of the dominant religion; 2) deviation from generally accepted rules, delusion.

The heresy of the "Judaizers"- the Orthodox church name for a number of heterogeneous heresies from the point of view of the official Orthodox Church, is used mainly in relation to a breakaway religious group that arose in Novgorod in the last quarter of the 15th century.

Letter of Complaint- a document issued by the highest authority in Russia on the provision of any rights or benefits to individuals, monasteries (from the 12th century) or groups of the population (from the 17th century).

"Iron curtain"- a term denoting the isolation of the USSR from the capitalist world. As a political concept for the first time in the XX century. introduced by G. Wells in the book "The Time Machine", and in Russia - by the philosopher V.V. Rozanov after the revolution of 1905-1907. to mark the end of history and culture. In Soviet times, the term was used as the concept of a wall separating socialism and capitalism - irreconcilable systems. After World War II, the term came to mean the boundary between the "free" and "communist" worlds.

life- a work, a biography of a spiritual or secular person, as a rule, canonized by the Christian church as a saint.

Strike- one of the ways to resolve a labor conflict, the promotion of both economic and political demands by a team of workers and employees who stopped working before satisfying them.

Procurement- communal peasants who became dependent by borrowing a "kupa" (loan).

Westerners- the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. They criticized the theory of official nationality, serfdom and autocracy; put forward projects for the liberation of peasants with land. Leaders of the movement: P. A. Annenkov, V. P. Botkin, T. N. Granovsky, K. D. Kavelin, M. N. Katkov, I. S. Turgenev, P. Ya. Chaadaev and others. "Domestic Notes", "Russian Bulletin", etc.

reserved summers- the period during which the peasant exit was prohibited on the autumn St. George's Day (provided by Sudebnik, 1497). Protected years began to be introduced by the government of Ivan IV from 1581 simultaneously with the activities of the general census of land, which was carried out to determine the extent of heavy economic ruin in the 70-80s. 16th century

Zaporizhzhya Sich- the name of a number of successive military and administrative centers of the Dnieper Cossacks from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Liquidated by decrees of Catherine II.

Zemsky Sobors- the highest class-representative bodies in Russia in the XVI-XVII centuries. They included members of the Holy Cathedral, the Boyar Duma, the "sovereign court", elected from the provincial nobility and merchants.

Zemstvos- elected bodies of local self-government in Russia since 1864.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of Russia, not included in the oprichnina by Ivan IV. The center - Moscow, was controlled by the Zemstvo Boyar Duma and orders.

Architecture- building art in Rus'.

Elected Rada- the unofficial government of the Russian state in the late 40-50s. 16th century Proponents of compromise between different strata of landowners.

hegumen head (priest) of a Russian Orthodox monastery.

Idol- an image of a deity worshiped by the pagans, most often made of stone or wood.

outcasts- people who left their social group (peasants who left or were expelled from the community, princes who lost their possessions) for various reasons.

Icon- a picturesque image of God or saints in Orthodox Christianity.

iconography- Church painting.

Impeachment- the procedure for prosecution, including criminal prosecution, of persons of municipal or state execution, officials, up to the head of state, with their subsequent removal from office.

Investment- long-term investment of capital in sectors of the economy within the country and abroad with the aim of making a profit.

Indo-European group of peoples- a generalizing concept for the tribes of the Indo-European language family, which have common roots at an early stage of their development (English, Germans, French, Greeks, Iranians, Armenians, Irish, etc.).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in all major sectors of the economy.

Inoki- monks.

Integration- rallying, merging public, state structures for joint activities both in the field of politics and in the economy.

Intervention- forcible intervention of one or more states in the internal affairs of another state, violation of its sovereignty. It can be military (aggression), economic, diplomatic, ideological. Intervention is prohibited by international law.

Intelligentsia- the social stratum of people professionally engaged in mental, mostly complex creative work, the development of culture. It arose in connection with the division of physical and mental labor, the accumulation and generalization of knowledge. The term was introduced in the 1860s. writer P.D. Boborykin and became international.

Josephites- church-political trend in the Russian state of the late XV - mid-XVI century. (ideologist Iosif Volotsky), who defended the principle of a “rich church”; defended the church-monastic land ownership.

kagan- the title of the head of state among the ancient Turkic (nomadic, tribal) peoples.

Cadets(Constitutional Democrats) - members of the Constitutional Democratic Party, founded in 1905 and which was the party of the liberal bourgeoisie. Officially, the Cadets called themselves the "party of people's freedom" and moderately criticized the existing order in Russia.

Cossacks- free residents of the outskirts of the Russian state, who carried out military service, and were also engaged in agriculture, hunting, and sometimes robbery.

Canonization- reckoning someone to the saints for a righteous life and charitable deeds.

Capitalism- a socio-economic formation that replaced feudalism, which is based on private ownership of the means of production and the use of hired labor of workers. Having arisen in the 16th century, capitalism played a progressive role in the development of society, ensuring, in comparison with feudalism, higher labor productivity and more perfect social relations.

Surrender- the cessation of armed struggle and the surrender of the armed forces of one of the belligerent states.

Cyrillic- the ancient Slavic alphabet, created by the Orthodox missionaries brothers Cyril and Methodius.

Classicism- the artistic style in Russia in the 18th - early 19th centuries, focused on ancient art as the norm and ideal model; characterized by a desire for clarity and purity of proportions, balance, harmony of forms.

Prince- the head of the tribe, clan, leader of the military squad, and with the development of feudalism - the highest representative of the class of feudal lords, the ruler of the feudal state; an honorary title that was inherited in some noble families.

Coalition- a political or military alliance of states for joint action (anti-Hitler coalition); the formation of a government of representatives of several parties (the coalition Provisional Government in Russia in 1917).

Collectivization- the transformation of agriculture in the USSR at the end of 1920-1930. through the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms).

Kolkhoz(collective farm) - a cooperative organization of peasants in the Soviet era, based on collective ownership of land and severe state regulation.

combos- Committees of the poor, created in 1918 in Russia as state authorities. They participated in the implementation of the food dictatorship together with the food detachments: they distributed landowners' lands, agricultural implements, carried out food appropriations, and recruited for the Red Army. Disbanded early 1919.

Convention- an international treaty on a specific issue.

Convergence- the theory of peaceful rapprochement between socialism and capitalism. Academician AD Sakharov was an active supporter of this theory.

Conversion- the process of transition of defense enterprises to the production of civilian products.

Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by the Supreme Privy Council with the aim of limiting the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.

Conservatism- a political ideology focused on the protection of the traditional foundations of public life, unshakable values, the denial of revolutionary changes, distrust of the popular movement.

Constructivism- an artistic trend in the art of a number of European countries at the beginning of the 20th century, which proclaimed that the basis of the artistic image was not composition, but construction.

Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

confessional principle- formation of authorities taking into account the interests of population groups professing different religions in a single state; solution of political issues, problems of education, culture.

confession- a feature of religion within a certain religious doctrine, as well as the unification of believers who adhere to this religion.

Confrontation- confrontation, clash of opposing interests, opposing sides.

Concession- an agreement on the transfer of natural resources, enterprises or other objects belonging to the state to a foreign state or company for a certain period of time.

Cooperation- voluntary partnership for joint management of the economy, organization of fishing, small-scale production, intermediary activities. Main forms: consumer, supply and household, credit, production.

Feeding- the territory and the system of maintenance of the boyar governors at the expense of extortions from the local population.

feeder- a representative of the local princely administration of the XIII-XV centuries, whom the population was obliged to support ("feed") during the entire period of service. The princes sent boyars to cities and volosts as governors, giving them the right to collect duties in their favor. As a result of the Zemstvo reform of 1555-1556. the feeding system was abolished, and the government converted fees for the maintenance of feeders into a special tax in favor of the treasury.

Corruption- use by officials of their official position for the purpose of personal enrichment.

Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of their originality, the isolation of their national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to bait "rootless cosmopolitans" who were accused of "groveling" before the West.

Red Guard- armed detachments, consisting mainly of workers from industrial cities of Russia, formed from March 1917, were the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution of 1917, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - RKKA, official name of the Soviet armed forces from 1918 to 1946).

Serfdom- a system of non-economic dependence, in which a person is deprived of the right or opportunity to freely dispose of himself, choose a place of residence, move, determine the type of his occupation, dispose of the results of his activities, move from one social state to another, etc.

Serfdom- a set of legal norms that fix the most complete and severe form of peasant dependence. Includes a ban on peasants leaving their land plots (that is, attaching peasants to land or a "fortress" of peasants to land; fugitives are subject to forced return), hereditary submission to the administrative and judicial power of a certain feudal lord, deprivation of peasants of the right to alienate land plots and acquire real estate, sometimes the opportunity for the feudal lord to alienate peasants without land.

Serfs- farmers attached to the land and a certain landowner were considered his personal property, subject to sale and purchase and even deprivation of life.

Fortress- a written document on the ownership of a peasant, a serf, property.

Cross-domed building- architectural structures, more often temples, the plan of which is based on the principle of central symmetry in the form of a Greek cross with a large dome in the center.

Peasants- in the XIII-XIV centuries. the name of rural and urban residents, from the 15th century. - a generalized name only for rural residents, in contrast to the previous division (people, smerds).

Mutual responsibility- the guarantee of all members of the community for the performance of service, payment of taxes, etc.

Cult of personality- exalting the role of one person, attributing to him during his lifetime a decisive influence on the course of historical development, when a person replaces the leadership of the party, eliminates democracy, establishes a dictatorial regime. The sources of the cult of personality are rooted in both objective and subjective conditions.

Kupa- in ancient Rus', a cash or in-kind loan issued to someone on credit by a usurer or landowner on the condition that, in order to return it, the debtor (“purchase”) becomes dependent on his creditor for a certain time and works in his household, performs various assignments etc.

Lavra- the name of some of the largest male Orthodox monasteries, as a rule, subordinate directly to the patriarch.

Legalization- Permitting the activities of previously banned political organizations, parties that come out of the underground and begin to operate legally (openly).

lend-lease- a state program under which the United States transferred weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food and other material resources to its allies in the anti-Hitler coalition during the Second World War.

ladder right- the custom of princely inheritance in Kievan Rus. All the Rurik princes were considered brothers (relatives) and co-owners of the whole country, so the eldest in the family sat in Kyiv, the next in importance in smaller cities. They reigned in this order: the elder brother, then the younger ones in order, then the children of the older brother, followed by the children of the next brothers, followed by grandchildren in the same sequence, then great-grandchildren, etc.

Chronicle- a collection of chronicles.

chronicle- Old Russian historical works in which events are described by years (years).

Liberal- a supporter of progressive views, individual freedom and freedom of enterprise.

Price liberalization- the establishment by the authorities of free prices in the market while encouraging private entrepreneurship. Introduced in the Russian Federation on January 2, 1992.

Liberalism- a political movement that advocated parliamentarism, political rights and freedoms, the democratization of society, and the expansion of entrepreneurship. Rejecting the revolutionary path of transformation, he sought changes in society by legal means, reforms.

The League of nations- an international organization (1919-1946), founded as a result of the Versailles-Washington system, whose main goals were: disarmament, prevention of hostilities, ensuring collective security, settling disputes between countries through diplomatic negotiations, as well as improving the quality of life on the planet.

People- free peasants-communes.

Magistrate- a class body of city government in Russia since 1720, originally had administrative and judicial functions. Abolished by judicial reform of 1864

Manifesto- 1) Appeal of public organizations, parties, groups of persons, which has a programmatic character. 2) An act of supreme power in the form of a solemn appeal to the people.

Manufactory- large-scale production based on the division of labor and handicraft technology.

Outcasts- groups of the population that have changed their status and have not sufficiently adapted to the new environment.

Marxism- a theory developed by Marx and Engels in the middle of the XIX century. Marxism proved the inevitable death of capitalism, the role of the proletariat and the victory of the socialist revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the building of socialism and communism.

Small commodity production- production by artisans of goods - products intended for sale on the market.

Mercantilism- an economic policy based on the predominance of exports of goods over imports according to the principle "buy cheaper, sell more expensive." Associated with the policy of protectionism.

Localism- the order of appointments to the position according to the nobility of the family and the limitation of service to the Grand Duke.

month- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. a six-day corvée of serfs, primarily yard people, deprived of land allotments. Remuneration for work was carried out in kind on a monthly basis.

Memorandum- a diplomatic document that sets out the essence of any international issue.

Metropolis- a state that has colonies is a metropolis in relation to them.

Militarism- a policy aimed at increasing the military power of the state to solve internal and external problems by military means.

Ministry- the central body of executive power in charge of certain sectors of the economy or certain areas of public life (culture, education, etc.). In Russia, the ministries were formed by the Decree of Alexander I in 1802 instead of collegiums.

Metropolitan- one of the highest ranks of the Christian church hierarchy. From the end of the X century. and before the establishment of the patriarchate, the metropolitan headed the church organization in Rus'. Until the middle of the XV century. The Russian metropolis was one of the provinces of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.

Conciliator- an official in Russia during the period of the peasant reform of 1861, appointed from the nobility to approve charters and resolve disputes between peasants and landlords.

Modernization- updating, improvement that meets modern requirements, tastes (for example, equipment upgrades).

Modernism- the general name of the directions of literature and art of the late XIX-XX centuries, moving away from traditional concepts and advocating a new approach to reflecting life (expressionism, avant-garde, surrealism, futurism, etc.).

Mosaic- images made up of multi-colored pieces of glass or pebbles.

Monarchy- a form of government in which the supreme state power partially or completely belongs to one person - the monarch (king, king, emperor, duke, sultan, emir, khan, pharaoh, etc.) and is inherited.

Monastery- a religious community that lives separately according to uniform rules (charter) and conducts its own economy.

Monopoly- exclusive right to something; an alliance of capitalists who seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods in order to dominate the market, the establishment of high monopoly prices regulated by the market. The formation is associated with the development of free competition capitalism into monopoly capitalism at the end of the 19th century. Basic forms: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. In Russia, monopolies arose in the 1980s. XIX century.

Monotheism- monotheism.

"Moscow—Third Rome"- a theory created by Abbot Philotheus at the beginning of the 16th century, which argued that the center of world Christianity after the fall of the Byzantine Empire moved to Moscow, since Russia remained the only independent Orthodox state, the guarantor of the preservation of the true Christian faith.

Muzhi- in the pre-state and early state period - free people.

Allotment- after the reform of 1861, communal or household land peasant property.

taxes— obligatory payments established by the state, collected from the population.

Naryshkin baroque- the conventional name for the style of Russian architecture of the late 17th century, which combined the traditions of Russian white-stone patterning with new trends in European architecture.

Natural economy- a type of economy in which the products of labor are produced to satisfy needs, and not for sale on the market.

natural quitrent- payments of peasants in favor of the feudal lord in the form of natural products.

Nazism- one of the names of German fascism, derived from the name of the National Socialist Party of Germany (Nazi), which operated in 1919-1945. led by Hitler (since 1921), who seized power in 1933 and established a fascist regime. After the defeat of German fascism in World War II, the party was liquidated. Reborn as neo-Nazism.

Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises, land holdings and other sectors of the economy into the ownership of the state.

Nationalism- ideology, politics, as well as psychology in the national question. It is based on the ideas of national exclusiveness and national superiority, which develop more or less depending on the historical situation, on the relationship of a given nation with others.

Nation- a historical community of people, the characteristic features of which are a common language, territory, culture, awareness of a common historical destiny.

merchant- a wholesale merchant, a merchant who conducts large-scale trade deals mainly with other countries.

Nonpossessors- adherents of the religious-political trend at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries, who preached the need for the church to refuse "acquisition" (acquisition of land and property values) as contrary to the principles of the Gospel. Ideologists: Nil Sorsky, Vassian Kosoy and others.

New political thinking- a new philosophical and political concept, the main provisions of which provided for: the rejection of the principle of socialist internationalism and the recognition of the priority of universal human values ​​over class, national, ideological, religious and others; the proclamation of the impossibility of solving international problems by force; recognition of the world as integral and indivisible.

Nomenclature- a circle of officials selected on the basis of personal loyalty to the leader and ideological verification. The appointment or approval of officials falls within the competence of a higher body.

Norman theory emerged in the second quarter of the 18th century. direction in Russian and foreign historiography, whose supporters credited the Normans (Varangians) with the creation of a state among the Eastern Slavs.

NEP(new economic policy) - the economic policy pursued in Soviet Russia and the USSR in the 1920s, replacing the policy of "war communism". The goal is the restoration of the national economy and the subsequent transition to socialism; the main content is the replacement of surplus appropriation with a tax in kind in the countryside, the use of the market and various forms of ownership, the attraction of foreign capital in the form of concessions, and the implementation of a monetary reform. Diversity of the economy while maintaining the "commanding heights" (banks, railways, foreign trade, engineering, mining) in the hands of the state.

Free servility- complete serfs in Ancient Rus'. The sources of private servility were: marriage to a slave, the acquisition of slaves. Purchasing as a punishment for escaping from the master also became serfs.

quitrent- a form of payment by a dependent peasant to a feudal lord for the use of land in the form of money (cash) or natural products (natural).

ognischanin- estate manager.

okolnichiy- the second (after the boyar) most important duma rank (Boyar Duma) in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries, later they head orders and certain branches of government.

Oligarchy- political and economic domination, the power of a small group of people.

militia- a military formation created for the duration of the war, a military campaign.

Opposition- opposition, resistance, opposition of one's actions, views, policies to other policies, views, actions. Speaking contrary to the opinion of the majority, with the prevailing attitudes, putting forward its own alternative (parliamentary, intra-party opposition, etc.).

Opportunism- opportunism, conciliation, unscrupulousness.

Oprichnina- a system of measures taken by Ivan IV in 1565-1572. to combat the alleged betrayal of the boyars, which included: the creation of a special territory with a special army, state apparatus, mass repressions, confiscation of land and property.

Horde- a form of community of nomadic peoples, uniting several genera.

"Horde Exit"- a tribute to the Golden Horde, which was collected by the Baskaks with the help of armed detachments.

Orthodox- in the church understanding - corresponding to the official dogmas of the Christian denomination.

Working off- the work of the peasants after the abolition of serfdom on the landowner with their tools and livestock for rented land, received a loan.

Youths- junior warriors who accompanied the prince.

Otkhodnichestvo- temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or agricultural work in other areas (it was common in Russia among landlord quitrent peasants).

Fatherland(patrimony) - the hereditary possession of the princes.

Pantheon- a set of gods of any religion; temple of all gods.

"Parade of sovereignties"- the process of the collapse of the USSR, which entailed the formation of new states in the post-Soviet space; a tendency towards isolation of some former parts of the RSFSR from a common center.

Parsuna- the conditional name of the works of Russian portrait painting of the 17th century.

Patriarch- the highest spiritual rank in Orthodoxy, the head of an independent (autocephalous) church, is elected by the church council. Established in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589.

Pacifism- an international anti-war movement that opposes all wars.

Parchment- material for writing, made from the skin of domestic animals - small and large cattle.

Wanderers- Russian artists who were members of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions, created by I. N. Kramskoy and V. V. Stasov in 1870.

perestroika- the policy of perestroika assumed the introduction of structural and organizational changes in economic, social, political mechanisms, as well as in ideology in order to achieve the same acceleration of social development

Tribe- the type of ethnic community and social organization of the era of the primitive communal system (several clans living together in the same territory, speaking the same language and connected by common customs, a single leader, traditions and religious cult).

Pluralism- a concept according to which various parties, trade unions, church, business and other organizations interact in society while observing democratic norms of tolerance, mutual respect, and the rejection of violence as a means to achieve an end.

"Graveyards"- certain places where tribute (tax) was to be brought within the specified period, as well as the name of the administrative units from which a certain amount of tax was levied.

Slash-and-slash farming system- a primitive management system in which trees were cut down in a forest area and left to dry on the vine, and then uprooted and burned. The site was used until it was completely depleted, and then a new one was cleared. It demanded collective management of the economy by the whole family and even the tribe.

Poll tax- in Russia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. main direct tax. Replaced in 1724 household taxes. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80s and 90s. 19th century

Elderly- a collection of money from peasants when they transfer from one owner to another, established by the Sudebnik of 1497.

Polytheism polytheism, worship of many gods.

Shelves of the "foreign system"(regiments of the "new system") - military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Mostly cavalry: Reiter and dragoon.

polyudie- a detour by the prince and a squad of territories (tribes) subject to him in order to collect tribute.

Estate- a form of feudal land tenure in Russia in the XIV-XVII centuries, based on the conditional right to dispose of property. Estates were given to their owners (nobles) on the condition of performing military service in favor of the suzerain - first the Grand Duke, then the Tsar. By the beginning of the XVIII century. the legal status of the estate merges with the estate, so that their owners acquire all the rights of unconditional disposal of property.

landowners- a new kind of nobles that arose in the XIII-XIV centuries, endowed with land (estate) on certain conditions (most often on the condition of military service).

Posad- a trade and craft part of the Russian city, inhabited by merchants and artisans.

Posadnik- an elected official in the ancient Russian city-republics (Novgorod, Pskov), head of the executive branch, city government.

Possession peasants- in Russia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked.

Pososhnoe- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.

Poshny people- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. temporary service people recruited in the order of duty (staff) from the draft population. They were used in the infantry and in military construction work.

"Funny Troops"- detachments of young people created in the early 80s. 17th century for the "military fun" of Tsar Peter. At the end of the XVII century. of these, the Guards Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments were formed.

preemptive strike- a preemptive attack on a potential enemy.

Privilege- special rights or benefits.

Orders- bodies of central government in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries; local palace administration in the 16th-17th centuries; names of archery regiments in the XVI-XVII centuries.

Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 17th - first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace peasants, who, instead of paying the poll tax, worked in state and private factories, i.e., attached (assigned) to them.

Provinces- administrative-territorial units in Russia in 1719-1775. as part of the province, were divided into shares and districts.

food detachment(food detachment) - during the period of war communism, an armed detachment that participated in the food requisition. The food detachments consisted mainly of workers, soldiers and sailors.

Prodrazverstka(food allocation) - the system of procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet state in 1919-1921, an element of the policy of "war communism": the obligatory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (in excess of the established norms for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. With the introduction of the New Economic Policy (1921), it was replaced by a tax in kind.

Producing economy- type of economy, the purpose of which is the creation of material values.

industrial revolution— a leap in the development of productive forces associated with the transition from manufacture to machine production and the formation of the two main classes of the new capitalist society—the proletariat and the bourgeoisie.

Enlightened absolutism- the name of the policy of the second half of the XVIII century. in Russia, aimed at the destruction and transformation of the most obsolete feudal institutions; depicted the activity of the monarch as a union of philosophers and sovereigns and was aimed at strengthening the dominance of the nobility.

Protectorate- one of the forms of dependence of economically and politically weak states on large ones; a country that has received the state legal status of a protectorate from a protector country (“patron”) transfers to the protector state the right to determine its foreign policy and represent it in foreign relations. The protectorate was usually established as a result of unequal treaties imposed on a weak state, which led to the complete or partial deprivation of this state of independence not only in external, but also in internal affairs.

Protectionism- state policy of protecting the domestic market from foreigners by strengthening exports and restricting imports, high customs duties and a number of other measures.

Putsch- the actions of a group of conspirators to carry out a coup d'état.

glad- the council of the highest nobility under the Grand Duke of Lithuania, as well as the national assembly in Lithuania and Poland.

Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes (legally, this category was not formalized).

Split- a socio-religious movement that arose in the middle of the 17th century, as a result of which a part of the believers separated from the Russian Orthodox Church, who did not recognize the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1653-1656) and broke with the official church.

Dissenters- the official name of the supporters of the Old Believers in Russia.

Ratification- approval by the supreme body of state power of an international treaty signed by an authorized representative of the state, as well as international conventions.

Rat- Russian army.

Rehabilitation- restoration of rights, the return of a good name, the reputation of an incorrectly accused, defamed person.

Reaction- active resistance in politics to the development of social progress in order to preserve and strengthen obsolete social orders.

Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, the economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.

Regency- in monarchical states, temporary collegiate (regency council) or sole (regent) exercise of the powers of the head of state in the event of infancy, illness, incapacity of the monarch.

Redoubt- field fortification, a place surrounded by a moat and a rampart.

Residence- residence of a high-ranking person.

Requisition- compulsory, gratuitous seizure of property into the ownership or temporary use of the state.

Recruitment duty- a method of manning the Russian regular army in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Recruitment duty was subject to tax-paying estates (peasants, philistines, etc.), who nominated a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by universal military service.

Craft- production of various goods by artisans - craftsmen.

Reparations Compensation by the defeated state for damage to the victorious state.

Repression(political) - punishment, punitive measure applied by state bodies in order to protect and preserve the existing system. Any political repression is a manifestation of political violence; an important element of control under totalitarian and authoritarian regimes.

Republic- a form of government in which the supreme power belongs to the representatives elected by the population.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the traditional name of the Polish state since the end of the 15th century. A special form of estate monarchy headed by an elected king (since the Union of Lublin in 1569, which finally united the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, until 1795), the official name of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

tribal community- the settlement of people connected with each other by blood ties and leading a joint economy on the basis of collective property.

Russification- the forcible introduction of the Russian language, Russian traditions in the national outskirts of Russia.

Russophobia- a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian people, its history, culture.

"Russian Truth"- the first written code of laws in Kievan Rus.

Row- treaty, agreement in Ancient Rus'.

Ryadovichi- in Ancient Rus', persons who served landowners under a number (contract), as a rule, became dependent on him for a monetary debt, help with seeds or tools, forced to work part of their time with the master; close to buying.

Autocracy- an unlimited monarchical form of government of the power of the Russian tsar (emperor), which finally took shape by the beginning of the 18th century.

Secret Committees in Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. temporary state institutions created in the reign of Nicholas I to discuss projects of various reforms, and in 1857-1858. - projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Secularization- the transformation of church property into state property.

Seven Boyars- the government of Russia after the overthrow of V. Shuisky in 1610

Separate peace- a peace treaty or a truce concluded with the enemy by one of the states that are part of a coalition of countries waging war, without the knowledge or consent of their allies.

Symbolism- philosophical concepts built on the basis of the interpretation of the concept of a symbol as the fundamental principle of the connection between being, thinking, personality and culture. In a narrow sense, the aesthetic direction and artistic style in European culture from the 1880s to the 1920s.

Synod- the highest state governing body, created by Peter I in 1721, united the highest church hierarchs, headed by a civil official appointed by the emperor (chief prosecutor), was in charge of the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church: he was engaged in the interpretation of religious dogmas, supervision of observance of rituals, issues of spiritual censorship and enlightenment, fought against "heretics" and "schismatics".

Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century, substantiated and approved a special path of the historical development of Russia, different from Western Europe. Slavophile leaders: S. Khomyakov, I. V. Kireevsky, P. V. Kireevsky, K. S. Aksakov, I. S. Aksakov, Yu. F. Samarin, A. I. Koshelev. Western culture was criticized for the ideas of individualism, the contractual nature of social relations, the imperfection of the regulation of social life, the departure from the true faith (Orthodoxy).

Sloboda- type of settlements in feudal Russia, the first mentions date back to the 9th century; in the XII - 1st half of the XIV century. sloboda - separate settlements, including those near a fortress city, or a group of settlements, sometimes a whole district, whose inhabitants were exempted from taxes and duties imposed on the taxable population.

Service people- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVIII centuries. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people according to the “fatherland” (boyars, nobles, boyar children), who owned land with the peasants, who had legal privileges, who held senior positions in the army and government, and service people according to the “device” (archers, gunners, city Cossacks and etc.) from peasants and townspeople who received monetary and grain salaries, and were exempted from state taxes and duties.

Smenovekhovism- a socio-political trend among the Russian bourgeois intelligentsia in 1920-1922, which meant the turn of a certain part of the intelligentsia from the struggle against Soviet power to its actual recognition. The ideologists of Smenovekhism counted on the rebirth of Soviet power under the NEP.

Smerdy- communal peasants in Ancient Rus' (free, then personally dependent).

Troubles/Time of Troubles(the term was introduced by the writer G.K. Kotoshikhin in the middle of the 17th century) - the period from 1598 (the year of the death of Fedor Ivanovich) to 1613 (the election of Mikhail Fedorovich by the Zemsky Sobor), marked by natural disasters, the Polish-Swedish intervention, the most difficult political , economic, state and social crisis.

Adviсe- elective political organizations that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. as Soviets of Workers' Deputies, Soviets of Peasants' Deputies, Soviets of Soldiers' (Sailors') Deputies. In the February Revolution of 1917, there were Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which in 1918 merged with the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies.

Neighborhood (territorial) community- settlement of people who are not related by blood relations, based on the community of economic interests and jointly owning land, but leading an individual economy.

estate- a group of people with the same rights and duties, inherited.

estate monarchy- a form of state in which the power of the monarch was combined with the bodies of estate representation of the nobility, clergy, townspeople. Estate monarchy preceded absolutism.

hundreds- merchant associations (corporations).

sokha- a unit of taxation in Russia in the XIII-XVII centuries, from which the state land tax was collected - per field. Initially, it was measured by the number of labor force. From the middle of the XVI century. The "big plow" consisted of one or another number of quarters of the earth (soshnoe letter). In 1679, the field tax was replaced by a household tax.

Elder- the elected head of the community, who ensured order and fair distribution within the clan or tribe.

Old Believers- a set of religious groups and churches in Russia that did not accept the church reforms of the 17th century. and become oppositional or hostile to the official Orthodox Church.

Warden- in the XVI - early XX century. an elected official to lead small administrative-territorial units or public groups (headman of a labial, rural, artel, etc.).

Warden of the mouth- an elective position introduced by Ivan III in order to limit the powers of governors - feeders. The functions of the labial warden are the protection of public order, legal proceedings in criminal cases.

Headman Zemsky- an elective position introduced by Ivan IV in 1555 instead of governors - feeders in order to eliminate the centers of princely separatism and strengthen the central government. The main functions of the zemstvo head: tax collection, criminal proceedings. Under the zemstvo headman, there was a staff of assistants, as well as kissers.

Strategy- a part of military art dealing with the preparation, planning and conduct of war.

archers- in the 16th - early 18th centuries. - a standing army armed with firearms. Created in 1540-1560. based on squeaker squads.

Sudebnik- the name of the code of laws in the XV-XVI centuries.

"Table of Ranks"- the law on the order of public service, finally approved by Peter I in 1724. The “Table of Ranks” unified and systematized the administrative service on the principle of not origin, nobility of the family, but serviceworthiness, merit.

Tactics- part of military art, strategy; the art of commanding troops in battle.

customs duty(duty) - a fee collected by the state for the transportation of foreign goods across the border.

Shadow economy- a term denoting all types of economic activity not taken into account by official statistics and not included in the GNP (gross national product).

Terror- violent actions with the aim of intimidating, suppressing political opponents, competitors, imposing a certain line of behavior.

Tiun- a servant who managed the boyar or princely household.

TOZ- partnership for joint cultivation of the land, a form of agricultural cooperation in the 1920s; reorganized into collective farms.

Totalitarianism- a political regime striving for complete (total) control of the state over all aspects of society; a form of relationship between society and power, in which political power takes society under complete (total) control, forming a single whole with it, completely controlling all aspects of human life

Three fields- a farming system in medieval Rus', when arable land was divided into three plots, of which only one was sown annually (in turn), and the other two remained untouched in order to restore soil fertility.

Trizna- part of the funeral rite among the Eastern Slavs of the pagan period (until the 11th century), accompanied by war games, dances, songs, feast. After Christianization, it was preserved in the form of funeral songs and a feast.

Tushino camp- the residence of False Dmitry II, the "betrothed patriarch" Filaret, located in the village of Tushino near Moscow in 1608-1610.

Tysyatsky- in Novgorod he was the closest assistant to the posadnik, he was in charge of trade and taxes. He is also the elected head of the city militia.

"Thousand"- city militia.

tax- the totality of all monetary and in-kind duties of peasants and townspeople in favor of the state, hence the "hard peasants" - "black-haired" and privately owned, who paid state taxes and carried duties in favor of the state (participation in various public works).

lot- land, part of the state, which the prince allocated to his sons or relatives.

Specific period- the era of fragmentation, when the possessions of the princes began to separate from a single state.

Counties- territorial units of the Russian state of the XVI century.

Laid commission- a temporary collegial body convened by Catherine II with the aim of creating a new Code (code of laws) 1767-1768.

unitary state- a form of government in which the territory of the state does not include federal units (states, lands), but is subdivided into administrative-territorial units (districts, regions).

Union- the unification of two monarchical states by a common monarch or the unification of churches.

Lessons- the amount of taxation (tribute) introduced by Princess Olga.

Lesson summers- in the XVI-XVII centuries. terms (5 and 15 years) during which the landowners could bring a claim for the return of fugitive serfs. The "Council Code" of 1649 established an indefinite investigation, which meant the legal registration of serfdom.

strife(civil strife) - wars between princes for the grand princely throne.

Acceleration of social and economic development- an attempt to bring the country out of the systemic crisis and correct the country's economic situation. The main acceleration factors were to be scientific and technological progress, the technical re-equipment of mechanical engineering, and on this basis the entire national economy, and also the activation of the “human factor”.

constituent Assembly- a representative institution created on the basis of universal suffrage to establish the form of government and develop the constitution of Russia.

Favorite- a person who enjoys the favor of the ruler (influential person), who has received privileges and exerts influence.

Favoritism- Orders in which everything is determined by the influence of favorite favorites. In Russia, the flowering of favoritism is observed in the era of palace coups (1725-1762).

Fascism- the most reactionary political trend that arose in the capitalist countries (Italy, Germany) in 1920-1930. The policy of fascism is characterized by: terrorist dictatorship, the use of extreme forms of violence, chauvinism, racism, anti-communist ideology, the elimination of democratic freedoms, the use of state-monopoly methods of regulating the economy. In the late 1930s distributed in Portugal, Spain and several Eastern European countries.

Federation- a form of government in which the state forms federal units - subjects. In the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of 1993, the subjects (89 units of the federation) are the republics within Russia, territories, regions, cities of federal significance (Moscow, St. Petersburg), autonomous regions and autonomous districts.

feud- hereditary possession, granted by the prince-seigneur to his vassal, who is obliged to carry out court, military service for this.

Feudal lord- the owner of the feud, the landowner who exploited the peasants dependent on him.

Feudal fragmentation- a period in the history of feudalism, a natural process of separating individual lands led by princes claiming political independence, during which the power of the supreme ruler was significantly weakened.

feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor (corvee labor), grocery (natural dues) and money. It was finally abolished in 1881.

Fiscal- in 1711-1729. civil servant to supervise the activities of government agencies and officials.

Fusee- flintlock gun

Futurism- a trend in literature and art of the early 20th century, which sought to create an "art of the future" that denied traditional culture.

"Journey to the people"- mass movement of democratic youth to the countryside in Russia in the 1870s. The slogan "To the people!" put forward by A. I. Herzen in connection with the student unrest of 1861. In 1860 - early 1870s. attempts to rapprochement with the people and revolutionary propaganda among them were made by members of the Land and Freedom, the Ishutin circle, the Ruble Society, and Dolgushinites.

cost accounting(economic accounting) - a method of planned economic management in the USSR, which consisted in comparing the costs of production with the results of economic activity on the basis of self-sufficiency (costs are reimbursed by income), self-financing, self-government.

"Cold War"— the state of military-political confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States and its allies, on the other, in the period from 1946 to 1991. Signs of the Cold War: an arms race, the organization of opposing military political blocs, the creation of military-strategic bases and footholds, the widespread use of economic pressure measures (embargo, economic blockade, etc.).

Tsar- in Russia in 1547-1721. the official title of the head of state.

Tselovalniki- an elective position in the Russian state at the end of the 15th-18th centuries, which participates in the court of governors and volostels. There were three types of kissers: 1) customs and taverns at the heads, 2) labials at the labial elders, 3) zemstvos at the zemstvo elders. As a result of the Peter's reforms, the province and zemstvo institutions were liquidated, and in 1754 - internal customs taxation. Only the tavern kissers remain. Later, sellers of state-owned wine shops were called kissers.

centralized state- a state in which political (gathering together lands with common legislation and central government bodies) and economic (creating a single market) unification around a strong central government takes place. There is a narrowing of the powers of local authorities, their strict subordination to the central ones. In Russia, the process of forming a centralized state begins in the second half of the 15th century. and ends at the end of the 17th century.

petition- request, complaint, denunciation in writing (clerical work of the 15th - early 18th centuries).

Servants domestic: women, children, servants, slaves.

"Human factor"- a specific designation of the functioning of a person in the system of social, economic, industrial, scientific and technical, organizational and managerial and other relations; everything that relates to a person as a subject of activity in various spheres of public life. During the period of perestroika, the successful solution of the tasks of the country's socio-economic development, the qualitative renewal of society is associated with an increase in the role of the "human factor" as an inexhaustible reserve of such development, a decisive factor in all changes.

Striped stripes- a system of peasant use of landlords' land, in which the peasant allotment was not concentrated in one place, but consisted of strips remote from each other. It was liquidated as a result of agrarian reforms (1906-1911).

Black Hundreds(black hundred) - 1) In Muscovite Rus' - part of the urban population, which included small merchants and industrialists who were not included in the highest ranks (hundreds) of merchants (i.e., in trading, cloth, etc.). 2) Extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1907, consisting of different strata of society (from the lumpen to the nobles) and speaking from the positions of monarchism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”), were aimed at fighting with the revolutionary movement, carried out Jewish pogroms, dispersed rallies and demonstrations.

Black-nose peasants- personally free peasants, owned by the state.

black lands- Possessions of black-mowed peasants and taxed urban population in the XIV-XVII centuries. From the beginning of the XVIII century. began to be called "state" (state) lands.

"Black" people- the general name of the urban and rural population in the XII-XVII centuries, who carried the tax in favor of the state.

"Black redistribution"- an organization of populists that arose in St. Petersburg after the split of the "Land and Freedom" (1879). They advocated an egalitarian division of land among the peasants according to the labor norm, for communal socialism; denied the tactics of terror, leaned towards propaganda. Leaders: G. V. Plekhanov, P. B. Axelrod, V. I. Zasulich.

Serif features- a system of defensive structures on the southern and southeastern outskirts of the Russian state in the 16th-17th centuries. to repel the raids of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars. Consisted of notches, ramparts, ditches and palisades. They had strongholds - forts and fortified cities. In the XVIII century. fortified border lines were formed.

Number- the system of taxation in the XIII-XV centuries. in the territories subject to the Mongolian state and the Golden Horde (China, Central Asia, Iran, North-Eastern Rus', etc.). Based on a census (calculus, "number") of the population. Taxes were levied without exception, in proportion to the property of the payer.

Extraordinary commissions(Cheka) - commissions to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and speculation (1918-1922), were local bodies (provincial, district, transport, army), subordinate to the Cheka (All-Russian Emergency Committee). The main methods of struggle: confiscation of property, expulsion from Russia, withdrawal of food cards, judicial repression, etc.

Chauvinism- a policy consisting in the preaching of national exceptionalism. Expresses false patriotism and excessive national pride.

Evacuation- the withdrawal of troops, military property, enterprises, institutions from places under threat during a war, natural disaster or from areas intended for economic transformation.

Eclecticism- in art, the combination of incompatible, various alien phenomena in one artistic image.

Extensive- directed not in depth, but in breadth. The term means an increase, an expansion quantitative, not qualitative.

Ethnos- a historically emerged type of stable social community of people, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation.

Ethnogenesis- the process of the formation of an ethnic community (ethnos) on the basis of various ethnic components.

Yuriev day- a single period (a week before November 26 and a week after) the transition of peasants from one owner to another, established by the Sudebnik of 1497.

language family- association of related languages.

Paganism- religious beliefs, which are characterized by polytheism (polytheism) and the deification of objects and animals (fetishism and totemism).

Label- Khan's charter for reigning, giving the right to Russian princes to rule in their lands. It is also a khan's letter to church hierarchs for certain rights.

Fair— auctions organized periodically (1-2 times a year) in one established place.

Yasak- a tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, consisted mainly of furs, so the population (the so-called foreigners), subject to such a tax, was called "yasak" people. In the 17th century they became personally free.

Concise Dictionary of Historical Terms

This edition and additions: Roman Alekseevich Mandrik (YAXY GROUP).

Methodological instructions "A Brief Dictionary of Terms and Concepts in National History" are intended to deepen students' knowledge of the history of Russia in the 9th - 20th centuries, develop stable ideas about the patterns of social development in our country at the stages of feudalism, capitalism, the socialist experiment, the transition period after August 1991.

The guidelines provide definitions (definitions) of the most commonly used concepts in the course "Patriotic History" in the form of logically designed general distinguishing features of historical events, phenomena, objects.

I. List of basic abbreviations of words denoting state, language, nationality.

II. Alphabetical list of terms and concepts.

III. Sources, literature.

I. List of the main abbreviations of words denoting state, language, nationality:

English - English.

arab - arabic.

Greek - Greek.

other Icelandic-Old Norse.

other Norwegian-Old Norse.

other Russian - Old Russian.

other scan. - Old Norse.

ital. - Italian.

lat. - Latin.

mong. - Mongolian.

German - German.

Polish -Polish.

Turk. - Turkic.

French-French.

Franco-Frankish.

II. Alphabetical list of terms and concepts

A

ABSOLUTISM(absolute monarchy) (lat.) - a form of a feudal state in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the feudal state reaches the highest degree of centralization, a bureaucracy, a standing army and police are created. In Russia, it was finally established in the 18th century. (Peter I).

AUTOCEPHALY(Greek) - in Orthodoxy, the administrative independence of the church. At present there are 15 autocephalous churches (Greek, Serbian, Antiochian, Bulgarian, etc.). In Russia, the autocephalous church from the end of the 16th century. (1589, the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich).

AUTONOMY(Greek - self-government, self-government, independence) - the right of independent existence, the ability to resolve issues related to the conduct of a particular autonomous entity (republic, district, national, religious or territorial community). Autonomy does not have state sovereignty (complete independence). Cultural - national autonomy involves self-government in matters of culture (including religion, language and education).

AUTHORITARISM(fr. - imperious) - a social system that reflects the desire of the ruling elite (person) to use non-democratic methods of influencing ordinary citizens in the form of orders, instructions, punishment. As a rule, under an authoritarian regime, the head of state is a charismatic person, with the formal functioning of government institutions.

ANATHEMA(Greek) - a church curse, accompanied by excommunication; the highest punishment in Christianity.

ANNEXATION(lat. - accession) - forcible annexation, the seizure by one state of territory belonging to another state or people.

APOLOGIST(Greek - defensive) - a person who speaks with immoderate, excessive praise of someone or something.

ARCHBISHOP(Greek - high priest) - senior bishop, one of the highest spiritual ranks.

BISHOP(Greek - senior) - the general name of the highest Orthodox clergy. (Bishop, Archbishop, Metropolitan).

ASTRAKHAN KHANATE - a state in the steppe regions of the Lower Volga and the Northern Caspian. Separated from the Great Horde in 1502. religion is Islam. The population is Turkic-speaking, the main occupations are cattle breeding, crafts, and trade. In 1556 attached to Russia.

ATAMAN(Turk.) - The leader of a military formation independent of state power (sometimes a band of robbers). In addition, this is the name of the positions and units in the Cossack army (military, koshevoi, marching) or the head of the Cossack administrative-territorial unit (district, stanitsa, farm).

BORSCHINA- the form of land rent (regularly received income) in the form of gratuitous forced labor of serfs in the manor's field. Corvee was legally abolished in 1882.

BEAUTY- Initially, the collection of honey from wild bees from natural hollows, then breeding bees in hollowed hollows. In ancient Rus', it was one of the important branches of the economy.

BASQUE- a representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands of Rus' in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. The main duty of the Baskak was to oversee the collection of tribute.

SECULAR CLERGY - the general name of the lower clergy of the Orthodox Church - (priests, deacons). Unlike the black clergy, the white clergy are allowed to create a family and run a personal household.

BOYAR- in Rus' 9 - 17 centuries. the upper class of the feudal lords. In the Kievan state, the descendants of the tribal nobility, senior combatants, vassals and members of the princely duma, large landowners. In the period of fragmentation - the richest and most influential feudal lords, rivals of princely power. From the 15th century, the rights of the boyars were gradually limited. Until the abolition of the title at the beginning of the 18th century. boyars in the Russian state occupied the main administrative, judicial, military positions, headed orders, were governors.

BOYAR DUMA- 1. In the Old Russian state, the council under the prince of the members of the senior squads.

2. During the period of feudal fragmentation, the council of noble vassals under the prince. A term used in the historical literature to refer to the complex of feudal land ownership and related rights to feudally dependent peasants.

3. In the Russian state of the late 15th - early 18th centuries. a permanent class-representative body of the aristocracy under the Grand Duke (Tsar) of a legislative nature, which discussed issues of foreign and domestic policy.

VARYAGI(from other Scandinavian “giving an oath”) - in Russian sources - Scandinavians, hired warriors of Russian princes in the 9th - 11th centuries. and merchants who traded on the way “from the Varangians to the Greeks”.

GRAND DUKE- Head of the Grand Duchy in Rus' 10 - 15 centuries. and in the Russian state from the 15th to the middle of the 16th centuries.

ROPE (COMMUNITY, WORLD) - the name of the neighboring (rural) community in Ancient Rus'.

SUPREME PRIVATE COUNCIL - the highest advisory state institution in the Russian Empire in 1726 - 1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body consisting of six prominent dignitaries. Carried out the actual management of Russia. He tried to limit the autocracy in his favor, but was dismissed by Empress Anna Ioannovna.

VECHE- People's assembly in ancient medieval Rus' in the 10th - 14th centuries. It resolved issues of war and peace, called and expelled princes, adopted laws, and concluded agreements with other lands. In Novgorod, Pskov, the Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

VOIVOD - military leader, ruler of the Slavs. In Rus', it is known from the beginning of 15 to the beginning. 17th centuries; military leader of a regiment or detachment. In the middle of the 16th century governors headed the city administration. Since 1708 they were at the head of the provinces. Position abolished in 1775

VOLOSTEL

HAM- 1. The oldest type of feudal property, a family estate that was inherited. It arose in the 10th - 11th centuries (princely, boyar, monastic).

WAR COMMUNISM - the system of emergency measures of the Soviet government during the Civil War of 1918-1921. The most important of them were: food allocation, complete nationalization of industry, state monopoly on certain types of goods (salt, sugar, manufactory, matches, etc.), militarization of labor, labor front, military general education, free provision of certain types of services (in including public transport, pharmacies, telephone, etc.).

VOLOSTEL- an official in the Russian state of the 11th-16th centuries, managing the volost on behalf of the great or specific prince, in charge of administrative and judicial affairs. Volostels did not receive a salary, they "fed" at the expense of taxes from the population.

MAGI- the name in Ancient Rus' of the ministers of pagan cults, healers, who were considered sorcerers and soothsayers.

FREE GROWERS - in Russia, peasants freed from serfdom with land by decree of 1803 on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners. By the middle of the 19th century. 151 thousand male souls were released.

HEAD- the name of military and administrative officials in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. The position existed until 18th century In 1785, a charter granted to the cities introduced the position of mayor.

Mayor- Representative of the local administration in the Moscow state from the 1st half of the 16th century. Position abolished in 1862

THE STATE DUMA - 1) Representative legislative institution (1906 - 1917). It was established by the manifesto of Nicholas II on October 17, 1905. It considered bills, which were then discussed in the State Council and approved by the emperor. Elections are multi-stage for 4 unequal curiae (landowning, city, peasant, workers). Women, students, military personnel are deprived of voting rights. Had 4 convocations: 1). 27.IV 1906 - 8.VII. 1906 2). 20.II. 1907 - 2. VI. 1907 3). 1.XI. 1907 - 9. VI. 1912 4). from 15.XI. 1912 - Chairman M.V. Rodzianko. 27.II 1917 The Provisional Committee of the State Duma was formed. Formally, it continued to exist until October 6, 1917, when it was dissolved by the Provisional Government.

2) According to the Constitution of 1993, one of the chambers of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation. It consists of 450 deputies, half of which are elected on the lists of political parties and social movements, the other half - in single-member districts by the majority system for a period of 4 years. Chairmen: I.P. Rybkin (1994 - 1996), G.N. Seleznev (1996 - 2003), B.V. Gryzlov (since 2003).

STATE COUNCIL - the highest legislative body of the Russian Empire since 1810, founded by Alexander I. Since 1906 - the upper house with legislative powers. He considered bills submitted by the ministers before they were approved by the emperor, estimates and staffs of state institutions, complaints against the definitions of departments of the Senate and other bodies.

The chairman and members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor. The State Council consisted of the General Assembly, departments and the State Chancellery. After the creation of the State Duma (1906), the State Council included members (equally) appointed by the emperor, and members based on the results of elections as representatives of the clergy, provinces, noble assemblies, the Academy of Sciences and universities, industry and trade. The State Council considered bills adopted by the Duma before they were approved by the emperor.

HRYVNA- a monetary and weight unit in Ancient Rus', a silver ingot of ½ pound (in the 12th century from 51 to 204 grams - in various cities). In the 15th century displaced by the ruble, from the 16th century. - counting - a monetary unit equal to 10 kopecks (hryvnia).

GRID- in Ancient Rus', princely warriors, bodyguards of the prince, who lived in the palace premises - gridnitsa.

GUBA- a territorial district in the Russian state of the 16th - 17th centuries, as a rule, coinciding with the volost, from the middle of the 16th century. with the county.

PROVINCE- the main administrative-territorial unit in Russia since 1708, divided into counties. Some provinces were united into governor-generals.

LIPSTICK- an official who headed the lip institutions, local governments (from 30 - 50 years of the 16th century to 1702), who were in charge of the investigation, the criminal court on the scale of the lip.

CHILDREN BOYARSKY- in the Russian state 15 - 17 centuries. petty feudal lords in military service with princes, kings, church boyars. Merged with the nobility.

BUTLER- courtyard man of Russian princes and Moscow tsars. With the development of the command system in the 16th century. becomes the head of the order of the Grand Palace. From 1473 to 1646 there was only one butler in Moscow. Since 1646, 12 boyars had this title; then he was annually granted to one or several boyars. As a result, this position has become an honorary title.

DVORSKII- manager of the princely economy in Rus' from the beginning of the 16th century.

YARD PEASANTS - in the Russian state, dependent people (serfs) who lived at the court of the landowner and served the family of the feudal lord. In the 18th - 19th centuries. domestic serf servant in a landowner's house.

KIDS- the name of the internal fortification in a Russian medieval city around the residence of a prince or bishop. From the 14th century replaced by the term "Kremlin".

CHILDREN- junior members of the squad in Ancient Rus'. Only a free person could become a child. They accompanied the prince as bodyguards, did not take part in the prince's council.

DOCTRINE(lat. - teaching) - teaching, scientific or philosophical theory, political system, guiding theoretical or political principle.

DRUZHINA- armed detachments under the prince in Ancient Rus', participating in wars, managing the principality and the personal household of the prince. It was divided into “senior” (persons closest to the prince - “princely men”) and “younger” (“gridi”, “lads”, “children”, “swordsmen”).

DYAK(Greek - servant) - 1). The rank of government administration, supervised the work of local institutions and orders. In the 16th - 17th centuries. rank of the Boyar Duma. 2). In the 18th century head and clerk of the office of various departments.

DEACON(Greek minister) - in Orthodoxy, a person who has a lower level of priesthood, an assistant to a priest who participates in a church service. The senior deacon is called a protodeacon.

DUMA NOBILIES- in the Russian state 16-17 centuries. the third "by honor" Duma rank after the boyars and okolnichy. Participated in meetings of the Boyar Duma. Most of them come from well-born families. They served as the backbone of tsarist power in the fight against the boyar aristocracy in the Duma.

DIOCESE(Greek - domination) - in the Russian Orthodox Church, a church-administrative territorial unit. The boundaries of the diocese are determined by the Holy Synod, taking into account the administrative and territorial division of the subjects of the Russian Federation. The management of the diocese is carried out by the bishop (bishop, archbishop, metropolitan) together with the bodies of diocesan administration (assembly, council).

HERESIS(Greek - a special creed) - 1) A creed that deviates from the dogmas and organizational forms of the dominant religion. 2) Deviation from generally accepted rules, delusion.

ESAUL(Turkic - chief) - position from the 16th century. and rank from the 18th century. in the Cossack troops. In 1798 equated to the rank of captain in the cavalry.

WELCOME DIRECTORY - a document issued by the highest authority in Russia on the provision of any rights or benefits to individuals, monasteries (from the 12th century) or groups of the population (from the 17th century). Letters of grant of 1785: 1) to the nobility - a set of class privileges; 2) cities - the foundations of self-government.

“THE LIVING” - Novgorod - Moscow heresy of the late 15th - early 16th centuries, whose representatives were accused of adherence to Judaism.

RESIDENTS- one of the categories of a service rank in the Moscow state 16 - early. 17th century between Moscow and city nobles. A city nobleman who became a tenant could become a Moscow nobleman and receive further promotion. During the reforms of Peter I, the term disappeared.

"LIVE PEOPLE"- a layer of medium landowners in the Novgorod Republic.

WESTERS- the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. They advocated the development of Russia along the Western European path, opposed the Slavophiles. They criticized the theory of official nationality, serfdom and autocracy; put forward projects for the liberation of peasants with land. Movement leaders: P.A. Annenkov, V.P. Botkin, T.N. Granovsky, K.D. Kavelin, M.N. Katkov, I.S. Turgenev, P.Ya. Chaadaev and others. Printed organs: “Domestic Notes”, “Russian Bulletin”, etc.

Zemsky Councils- the highest class-representative bodies in Russia in the 16th-17th centuries. They included members of the Holy Council, the Boyar Duma, the "sovereign court", elected from the provincial nobility and merchants.

ZEMSTVA- elected bodies of local self-government in Russia since 1864.

ZEMSHCHINA- the main part of the territory of Russia, not included in the oprichnina by Ivan IV. The center - Moscow, was controlled by the Zemstvo Boyar Duma and orders.

RESERVED LÉTA- in the Russian state at the end of the 16th century. years in which the tsar's decree prohibited the transition of peasants from one feudal lord to another on St. George's Day (a week before and a week after November 26).

Zaporizhzhya Sich - fortified center and organization of Ukrainian Cossacks in the 16th - 18th centuries. beyond the Dnieper rapids. Liquidated by decrees of Catherine II.

CHOSEN RADA(Polish - assembly) - the unofficial government of the Russian state in the late 40s - 50s. 16th century Proponents of compromise between different strata of landowners. The composition included: Adashevs, Kurbsky, Sylvester, Viskovaty and others.

Rogue- in Ancient Rus' (11th - 12th centuries) persons who left their usual social category. (Peasants who left the community or redeemed serfs).

EMPEROR(lat.) - the title of the head of state. Introduced in Russia in 1721. (Peter I).

IMPEACHMENT(English) - the procedure for bringing the highest officials of the state to the court of parliament.

JOSEPHLANS- ecclesiastical and political trend in the Russian state of the late 15th - mid-16th centuries. (Ideologist Iosif Volotsky). In the fight against nonpossessors, they defended the principle of a “rich church”, defended church and monastic land ownership.

IGUMEN- rector of an Orthodox monastery (in the women's abbess).

CADETS (CONSTITUTIONAL DEMOCRATS) - members of the constitutional-democratic party, founded in 1905. and was the party of the liberal bourgeoisie. Officially, the Cadets called themselves the "party of people's freedom" and moderately criticized the existing order in Russia. The program demands of the Cadets: the transformation of the autocracy into a parliamentary monarchy, the granting of rights and freedoms to the citizens of Russia, regardless of nationality, religion, gender, achieved in European countries; united and indivisible Russia, etc. In 1917. participated in the Provisional Government. In 1917 outlawed by the Bolsheviks.

Bonded slaves - in the Russian state 15 - early. 18th century former free people who became temporary serfs until the salary presented to them in debt was worked out.

COSSACKS, COSSACKS - in the 14th - 18th centuries. free people who worked for hire; persons who carried out military service in the border areas (city and guard Cossacks). In the 15th - 16th centuries. communities of free Cossacks arise mainly from fugitive peasants. From the 18th century the Cossacks turn into a privileged estate.

Kazan Khanate - a state in the Middle Volga region (1438 - 1552), separated from the Golden Horde. The population is Kazan Tatars, Mari, Chuvash, Udmurts, Mordovians, Bashkirs. In 1487 - 1521. was in vassal dependence on Russia, since 1524. - from Turkey. By the middle of the 16th century. in the Kazan Khanate, there were about 100 thousand. Russian prisoners. As a result of the Kazan campaigns of 1545-1552. the khanate was abolished; The Middle Volga region is annexed to Russia.

CANONIZATION(Greek) - reckoning someone as a saint for a righteous life and charitable deeds.

CAPITALISM(lat. - main) - a socio-economic formation that replaced feudalism. Capitalism is based on private property and means of production and the use of hired workers. Having emerged in the 16th century, capitalism played a progressive role in the development of society, ensuring higher labor productivity and better social relations than feudalism.

PRINCE-1. The leader of the tribe, with the development of feudalism - the ruler of the state. 2. Honorary title of nobility, from the 18th century. complained to the king for special merits.

CONVERGENCE(lat. - rapprochement) - the theory of the peaceful rapprochement of socialism and capitalism. An active supporter of this theory was Academician A.D. Sakharov.

CONVERSION(lat. - change) - the transfer of a militarized economy to peaceful production.

KING(other - Norwegian) - a military leader among the Scandinavian peoples in the Middle Ages. After the formation of states here, this term began to be called the king.

CONFESSIONAL PRINCIPLE - formation of authorities taking into account the interests of population groups professing different religions in a single state; solution of political issues, problems of education, culture.

CONFESSION(lat. - church) - the common name of the leading religions (Christianity, Islam, Confucianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, etc.).

KONYUSHY- court rank in the Russian state 15-beginning. 17th century Head of the Stable Department. Actively participated in diplomatic and military activities; sometimes headed the government (B. Godunov).

FEEDING- the system of maintenance of officials (governors, volostels, governors) at the expense of the local population in Rus'. Liquidated by the zemstvo reform of 1555-1556. (Ivan IV).

KRAVCHY- a court rank in the Muscovite state (from the beginning of the 16th century). He served the sovereign at the table during ceremonial dinners. In his charge were the stewards who served food. Representatives of the most noble families were appointed to the position of kravchey. Service life did not exceed five years. In the lists of ranks, the kravchies were written after the roundabouts.

SERFDOM - a form of feudal dependence of the peasants: attaching them to the land and subordinating the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a national scale, it was finally formalized by the Council Code of 1649.

CRIMEAN KHANATE - a state that separated from the Golden Horde in 1443. Since 1475 - Vassal of the Ottoman Empire. The capital (since the beginning of the 16th century) is Bakhchisarai. Crimean khans raided Russian, Ukrainian, Moldavian and Polish lands. As a result of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. under the terms of the Kyuchuk-Koynarji peace, the khanate lost the support of Turkey and was annexed to Russia in 1783.

L

LEGITIMACY(lat.) - legality.

LAND - LIZ(English) - a system for the transfer of US weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food and other material resources on loans or leases to countries - allies in the anti-Hitler coalition during the Second World War.

M

MAGISTRATE(lat.) - a class body of city government in Russia since 1720. (in 1727 - 1743 it was called the town hall). Initially, he had administrative and judicial functions. Since 1775 - Judicial only. Abolished by the Judicial Reform of 1864.

MANUFACTURE(lat.) - large-scale production based on the division of labor and handicraft technology.

MARGINAL, MARGINAL (lat. - region) - groups of the population that have changed their status and have not sufficiently adapted to the new environment. For example, peasants who moved to the city and did not break with the traditions, customs of rural life, the way of their former life.

MAFIA(it.) - organized crime using violence, blackmail and terror; having connections with officials of the state apparatus, law enforcement agencies, certain government circles.

MENTALITY- mindset, attitude, worldview, psychology.

LOCALITY- the system of filling official positions at the end of the 15th century. taking into account the origin of the feudal lords, their official position and personal merits. Canceled in 1682. (Fyodor Alekseevich).

MINEI - CHETI(Greek) - collections of the lives of the saints of the Orthodox Church, spiritual hymns, prayers. The Great Menaion - Readings were compiled by Metropolitan Macarius (16th century), were intended for family reading, consisted of 12 volumes according to the number of months in a year.

MINISTRY(lat. - serve, manage) - the central executive body in charge of certain sectors of the economy or certain areas of public life (culture, education, etc.). In Russia, ministries were first formed in 1802 instead of colleges by decree of Alexander I.

METROPOLITAN(Greek) - one of the highest ranks of bishops. Head of a large diocese, subordinate to the patriarch.

MONARCHY(Greek - autocracy) - a form of government in which the supreme power in the state is fully or partially concentrated in the hands of the sole, most often hereditary head of state - the monarch. there are several forms of monarchy: despotism, theocracy (possession of secular and spiritual power), early feudal monarchy (9th - 12th centuries). Kievan Rus), class-representative monarchy (Muscovite state 15 - 17 centuries), absolute monarchy (Russian Empire 18 century - until 1906), monarchy with elements of parliamentarism (Russian Empire 1906 - 1917). With the exception of the Time of Troubles (1598 - 1613), the Russian state was a hereditary monarchy.

MONASTICISM(Greek) - a social religious group whose members undertake obligations: “withdrawal from the world”, renunciation of property, abstinence (compulsory celibacy), breaking old family and social ties, attachment to a monastery, submission to its charter.

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NATIONALIZATION- the transfer of private enterprises, land holdings and other sectors of the economy into the ownership of the state. In 1917 - 1918. Soviet authorities nationalized banks, railways, mining and military enterprises, post office, telegraph, and then all large-scale industry, liquidated private ownership of land, introduced a state monopoly of foreign trade. In 1919 - 1920. medium and small industrial enterprises were nationalized.

NATIONALISM- ideology and politics, the foundations of which are the ideas of national exclusivity and national superiority, the interpretation of the nation as the highest form of community.

NATION(Greek - people) - a historical community of people (usually formed in the era of developed capitalism), the characteristic features of which are a common language, territory, culture, awareness of a common historical destiny.

non-possessors- adherents of the religious and political movement in the late 15th - early 16th centuries; preached the need for the church to refuse “acquisition” (acquisition of land and property values) as contrary to evangelical principles. Ideologists: Nil Sorsky, Vassian Kosoy and others. The Josephites opposed the tenants. The nestezhateli were condemned at the church councils of 1503, 1531.

NOMENCLATURE(lat. - painting names) - a characteristic feature of totalitarian regimes. It is a circle of officials, selected on the basis of personal loyalty to the leader and ideological verification. The appointment or approval of officials falls within the competence of a higher body.

NEP- new economic policy. Called new in relation to the policy of "war communism". Measures: replacement of food surplus with tax in kind, permission for private trade, small capitalist enterprises, admission of state capitalism in the form of concessions, lease of enterprises, land, deposits; replacement of wages in kind with cash, transfer of enterprises to self-financing, multistructural economy while maintaining the “commanding heights” (banks, railways, foreign trade, engineering, mining) in the hands of the state.

ABOUT

whitewashing - complete lackeys in Ancient Rus'. The sources of private servility were: marriage to a slave, the acquisition of slaves. Purchasing as a punishment for escaping from the master also became serfs.

quitrent- annual collection of money and products from dependent peasants by landowners. The quitrent was abolished in 1861, the cash quitrent was retained for temporarily liable peasants until 1883.

COMMUNITY - a small social group capable of biological reproduction, having self-governing bodies, unique forms of values ​​and culture. Community relations are characterized by isolation, subsistence housekeeping, and mutual responsibility.

OLIGARCHY(Greek) - political and economic domination, the power of a small group of people.

OPPORTUNISM(fr.) - opportunism, conciliation, unscrupulousness.

OPRICHNINA(from Old Slavonic oprich - except) - a system of measures taken by Ivan IV in 1565 - 1572. to combat the alleged betrayal of the boyars, which included the creation of a special territory with a special army and state apparatus; mass repressions, confiscation of land and property.

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PAIZZA(basma) (Chinese) - a travel document issued by the authorities of the Golden Horde.

PASSIONARITY(Spanish - inspiration, fiery) - in the theory of ethnogenesis (the history of the origin and development of individual peoples) - a special property of the character of people produced by exposure to solar energy, the composition of food and water, an irresistible inner desire for activity (including aggressive, destructive). The term passionarity was widely used by L.N. Gumelev.

PATRIARCH(Greek) - in Orthodoxy - the highest spiritual rank, the head of an independent (autocephalous) church. Elected by the church council. Established in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589. In 1703 - 1917. the rank of patriarch was replaced by the collective body of the Synod, headed by the chief prosecutor of the Synod, who was appointed from secular persons.

The chairman and members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor. The State Council consisted of their general assembly, several departments and the State Chancellery. After the creation of the State Duma (1906), the State Council included members (equally) appointed by the emperor and members based on the results of elections as representatives of the clergy, provinces, noble assemblies, academies of sciences and universities, industry and trade. The State Council considered bills adopted by the Duma before they were approved by the emperor.

TRANSFER AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM - after harvesting several crops, the land (fallow) was left uncultivated for a long period (8-15 years) to restore soil fertility.

Pogost- originally the center of a rural community in the North-West of Ancient Rus'. Later the center of the taxable district, a peasant village with a church and a cemetery. From the 18th century a detached church with a cemetery was called a graveyard, later - a rural cemetery.

Slash - FIRE farming system; on the lands liberated from the forest (clearing, burning), crops were grown for several years, the natural fertility of the soil was used. After the loss of fertility, the site was abandoned and virgin lands were developed, in connection with which they had to move to a new place of residence.

CAPIT- in Russia 18 - 19 centuries. main direct tax. Replaced in 1724. household taxes. The poll tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80s - 90s. 19th century

ELDERLY- in the Russian state 15 - 17 centuries. collection of money from peasants upon their exit (peasant exit) from landowners on St. George's Day. Introduced by Sudebnik in 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants. In the 17th - 18th centuries. fine for accepting runaway peasants.

POLYUDIE- in Kievan Rus, a detour by the prince and a squad of subject lands to collect tribute and analyze court cases, later - the tribute itself of a certain amount. In the Novgorod and Smolensk lands in the 12th century. fixed monetary obligation.

landlords- 1). In pre-revolutionary Russia, the nobles were landowners. Initially, service people, “placed”, i.e. received land (estate) for use for the implementation of the state. services. Gradually, the estates became hereditary, from 1714. - property. 2). The general name in Russia of large landowners.

Posadnik- 1) Viceroy of the prince in the lands of the Old Russian state of the 10th - 11th centuries. 2). The highest state position in Novgorod in the 12th - 15th centuries. and Pskov in the 14th - early 16th centuries. He was elected from the noble boyars at the veche.

POSAD- 1). In the Russian principalities of the 10th - 16th centuries. commercial and industrial populations outside the city walls, which later became part of the city; sometimes the settlements were divided into settlements and hundreds. 2). In the Russian Empire - small urban-type settlements.

POSSAD PEOPLE- in the Russian state, the commercial and industrial urban population. They carried the state tax (taxes, trade duties, natural and labor duties, etc.). In 1775 divided into merchants and philistines.

POSAD STRUCTURE - activities of the Russian government in the 15th - mid-17th centuries; the liquidation of tax-free urban lands of the feudal lords and the prohibition to settle on them for the taxed trade artisan population.

POSOSHNOE- in the Russian state 16 - 17 centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.

HELP PEOPLE(assisted army) - in the Russian state of the 16th - 17th centuries. temporary service people recruited in the order of duty (staff) from the draft population. They were used in the infantry and in military construction work.

BED TREASURY - personal repository of the Grand Duke (Tsar) in Russia in the 15th - 17th centuries. (clothing, jewelry, dishes, icons, manuscripts, archives). She was in charge of bedkeeping.

BEDDING- in Russia 15 - 17 centuries. he was in charge of the bed treasury, the internal routine of the grand ducal (royal) chambers, the workshop chamber, in which linen and clothes were sewn for the king and his family members. The bed-keeper kept the king's personal seal and often headed his office. Managed the settlements of palace weavers.

PRESUMPTION OF INNOCENCE (lat. - assumption) - one of the democratic legal principles of legal proceedings, according to which the accused is considered innocent until his guilt is established by the court in accordance with the law.

ORDERS- 1). , Bodies of central government in Russia 16 - beg. 18th century 2). Local palace administration in the 16th - 17th centuries. The names of the archery regiments in the 16th - 17th centuries.

PROVINCE(lat.) - 1). In ancient Rome, non-Italian territories subject to Rome were ruled by Roman governors. 2). Administrative - territorial units in Russia in 1719-1775 within the province. Divided into shares and districts.

PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS OF RUSSIAN POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE FIELD OF AGRARIAN TRANSFORMATIONS:

1. Municipalization - put forward by representatives of the Menshevik part of the social - democracy, was reduced to the requirement to transfer land to the disposal of local authorities, from which the peasants receive it on a leasehold basis.

2.Nationalization - the requirements of the Bolsheviks, according to which the land was declared the property of the state (landlord property was confiscated without compensation). Peasants turned into land users united in cooperatives.

3. Socialization (lat. - public) - the transfer of land from private property to the public domain. For the first time the demand for the socialization of the land was put forward by the Socialist-Revolutionaries in 1906. The agrarian program of this party was reduced to an egalitarian distribution of land and was criticized by the Bolshevik Party. In October 1917 The Bolsheviks included a program of "socialization of the land" in the Decree on Land. Subsequently, the CPSU, violating the requirements of an egalitarian distribution of land, actually pursued a policy of transferring land to the hands of the state (ie, nationalization).

SURVEY(food allocation) - the system of procurement of agricultural products in the Soviet state in 1919 - 1921, an element of the policy of "war communism". Compulsory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (in excess of the established norms for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. It was carried out by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Education, food detachments together with the committees, local councils. State. planned tasks were distributed to the provinces by counties, volosts, villages and peasant households. With the introduction of the New Economic Policy (1921), it was replaced by a tax in kind.

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SPLIT- a social and religious movement that arose in the middle of the 17th century, as a result of which a part of the believers separated from the Russian Orthodox Church, who did not recognize the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon (1653 - 1656) and broke with the official church. The reforms provoked a protest from part of the clergy, headed by Archpriest Petrov, as well as among the boyars, white and black clergy, townspeople, archers, and the peasantry.

REQUISITION(lat.) - forced, gratuitous seizure of property in the ownership or temporary use of the state.

REGENCY(lat.) - in monarchical states, temporary collegiate (regency council) or sole (regent) exercise of the powers of the head of state in the event of infancy, illness, incapacity of the monarch.

REFERENDUM(lat.) - a popular vote held in connection with the adoption of a new constitution, other important laws or amendments to them.

RSDLP- Russian Social Democratic Labor Party, founded in 1898. Before 1903 existed as a single party. At the II Om Congress of the RSDLP, the party split into the Bolsheviks, who took the name RSDLP (b) and RSDLP (Mensheviks).

RUSSOPHOBIA- a contemptuous attitude towards the Russian people, its history, culture.

"RUSSKAYA PRAVDA" - a collection of norms of ancient Russian law, the main source of evidence of legal and social relations in Dr. Rus'. "Russian Truth" has come down to us in the lists of the 13th - 18th centuries, constituting 3 editions: Brief (11th century); Abbreviated (2nd half of the 12th century); Spacious (early 13th century). The drafting of "Russian Truth" was influenced by the norms of Byzantine and German-Scandinavian law. "Russian Truth" formed the basis of agreements with the Germans of the 12th - 13th centuries, the Novgorod and Pskov judgment letters, the Sudebnik of 1497.

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HOLY GOVERNING SYNOD (Greek - assembly) - the highest state governing body, created by Peter I in 1721, united the highest church hierarchs, headed by a civil official appointed by the emperor (chief - prosecutor). He was in charge of the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church: he was engaged in the interpretation of religious dogmas, supervision of the observance of rituals, issues of spiritual censorship and education, fought against "heretics" and "schismatics".

SIBERIAN ORDER - the central state institution in 1637 - 1763, created to manage Siberia. Separated from the order of the Kazan Palace. He had some foreign policy functions in relations with border states.

SIBERIAN KHANATE - a state in Western Siberia. It arose at the end of the 15th century. during the collapse of the Golden Horde. Center - Chipgi - Tura (Tyumen), later Kashlyk. In 1555 Khan Ediger recognized vassal dependence on Moscow. In 1572 Khan Kuchum severed relations with the Moscow principality. In the early 1580s. Ermak initiated the annexation of the Siberian Khanate to Russia, which was completed at the end of the 16th century.

SCYTHIANS(Greek) - ancient tribes in the Northern Black Sea region (7th century BC - 3rd century AD). According to Herodotus, they were divided into royal Scythians, nomads, landowners, plowmen. In the 4th c. BC. created a state that, under the blows of the Sarmatians (3rd century BC), moved to the Crimea. After the defeat, the Goths (3rd century AD) dissolved among other tribes.

SLAVOPHILE(Slav. - Greek) - representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought in the middle of the 19th century. The Slavophils substantiated and affirmed a special path of the historical development of Russia, different from the Zap. Europe. From the point of view of the Slavophiles, the identity of Russia lies in the absence of a class struggle (enmity between classes), in the existence of a community, in the preservation of Orthodoxy. Slavophiles considered Orthodoxy to be the core of Russian culture, they had a negative attitude towards the revolution, serfdom. They advocated the development of trade and industry, joint-stock and banking, the construction of railways and the use of machines in agriculture, the convening of an all-class Zemsky Sobor (Duma), and the preservation of the monarchy. By social origin, the Slavophiles were representatives of the noble intelligentsia, as well as raznochintsy (come from the merchants, clergy, and peasant milieu). Slavophile leaders: S. Khomyakov, I.V. Kireevsky, P.V. Kireevsky, K.S. Aksakov, I.S. Aksakov, Yu.F. Samarin, A.I. Koshelev. Western culture was criticized for the ideas of individualism, the contractual nature of social relations, the imperfect regulation of social life, and the departure from the true faith of Orthodoxy.

SLOBODA- the name of various settlements in the Russian state of the 11th - 17th centuries. behind the city wall. The population of settlements was temporarily exempted from state duties. Settlements are known: Streltsy, Pushkar, monastery, Yamsk, foreign.

SOLOVETSKY UPRISING (sitting) 1668 - 1676 Uprising in the Solovetsky Monastery. The number of participants is 450 - 500 people. It began under the slogan of a struggle “for the old faith” with a refusal to accept the newly corrected liturgical books. The top of the "elders", using the removal of the rank of patriarch from Nikon, opposed the fruits of his church reform. The majority of the brethren are against the centralization of the church. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich ordered a streltsy detachment of 1,000 men to lay siege to the monastery. The siege lasted 7 years. The brethren of the monastery were supported by the surrounding peasants and working people. However, the idea of ​​the Old Believers was not sustained to the end; there was no cohesion within the monastery. The siege ended with the victory of the Streltsy troops, who took advantage of the betrayal of the monk Theontist (he pointed out the unprotected window of the White Tower). Of the 500 participants in the uprising, only 60 people survived, but they were subsequently executed.

SERVANT PEOPLE- in the Russian state 14 - beg. 18th century persons in public service. From Ser. 16th century were divided into service people according to the “fatherland” (boyars, nobles, boyar children), who owned land with the peasants, who had legal privileges, who held senior positions in the army and government, and service people according to the “device” (archers, gunners, gunners on the fortress walls, city Cossacks, etc.), recruited from peasants and townspeople; received monetary and grain salaries, were exempted from state taxes and duties.

CHANGEOVER- socio-political trend among the Russian bourgeois intelligentsia (chief arr. emigrant) in the 20s - 22s. 20th century It meant the turn of some part of the intelligentsia from the struggle against Soviet power to its actual recognition. The ideologists of Smenovekhism counted on the rebirth of Soviet power under the NEP.

TIME OF TROUBLES- the term was introduced by the writer G.K. Kotoshikhin (mid-17th century). Under this name, the period from 1598 entered the history of Russia. (the year of Fedor Ivanovich's death) to 1613. (election of Mikhail Fedorovich by the Zemsky Sobor). According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, the Troubles were started by the boyars with their intrigues, continued by the small landed nobles and people. The turmoil turned into a social struggle, complicated by the Polish and Swedish intervention. The impetus for the Troubles was given by the suppression of the Rurik dynasty with the death of Fyodor Ioannovich and the election by the Zemsky Sobor to the throne of B. Godunov (not a hereditary tsar). The patrimonial and dynastic nature of Russian statehood made it difficult to master the idea of ​​an elected tsar, and the "tax" nature of statehood did not contribute to the unification of estates. The Time of Troubles includes: the reign of Godunov (1598 - 1605); the movement of False Dmitry I, supported by the Poles, Cossacks, peasants, boyars (1602/1605 - 1606); peasant uprising I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607); the reign of Shuisky (1606 - 1610); "seven boyars" (1610 - 1612); struggle for the throne of False Dmitry II (1607 - 1610); Polish (1610 - 1612) and Swedish (1608 - 1617) interventions; the first (1611) and the second (1611 - 1612) people's militias.

SOHA- a unit of taxation in Russia in the 13th - 17th centuries, from which the state land tax was collected - per field. Initially, it was measured by the number of labor force. From the middle of the 16th century a large Sokha consisted of one or another number of quarters of the earth (soshnoe letter). In 1679 field tax was replaced by yard taxation.

“SOYUZ OCTOBER 17” (Octobrists) - a right-wing liberal political party, united large landowners and entrepreneurs. The organizational design of the party was completed in 1906. Named in honor of the Manifesto of 10/17/1905, which, according to the Octobrists, marked the transformation of Russia into a constitutional monarchy. "Union" of popular representation, democratic freedoms, civil equality, etc. The Octobrists were the most numerous faction in the 3rd State Duma, blocking with the moderate right and the Cadets. By 1915 The Union ceased to exist as an independent party. Leaders: A.I. Guchkov, P.L. Korf, M.V. Rodzianko, N.A. Khomyakov and others.

UNION OF THE RUSSIAN PEOPLE (NRC) is a far-right monarchist party. Formed in October 1905. Leaders - A.I. Dubrovin, V.M. Purishkevich, M.E. Markov. The social composition of the party is rather motley; however, the landowners, clergy, and intelligentsia predominated. They advocated a united and indivisible Russia, for the preservation of the autocracy, its unity with the people in an advisory body (Zemsky Sobor), equalization of the political rights of all classes, the preservation of the community, the state. insurance for workers. The ideology of the RNC was based on Uvarov's three-term formula: "autocracy, Orthodoxy, nationality." From the point of view of the NRC, "the future of Russia is not in the mud of the European Parliament."

MILL- 1). In the Russian state 14 - 16 centuries. administrative - territorial unit. 2). In Russia, an administrative police district of several volosts, headed by a bailiff. There were 2-3 camps in the counties.

OLD RELIEVE -a set of religious groups and churches in Russia that did not accept the church reforms of the 17th century. and become oppositional or hostile to the official Orthodox Church. Supporters of the Old Believers until 1906 persecuted by the imperial government. The Old Believers are divided into a number of interpretations and agreements.

CHIEF- in the 16th - early 20th centuries. an elected official for the leadership of small administrative-territorial units or public groups (headman, labial, rural, artel, etc.).

VEGAN MATERIAL(Slav. - criminal - policeman), (lip - judicial district from "destroy") - an elective position, introduced by Ivan III in order to limit the powers of governors - feeders. The functions of the labial headman are the protection of public order, legal proceedings in criminal cases.

STAROSTA ZEMSKY - elective office introduced by Ivan IV in 1555. instead of governors - feeders. The purpose of the Zemstvo reform was to eliminate the centers of princely separatism and strengthen the central government. In the fight against the boyars, Ivan IV relied on the nobility, the middle strata of the urban and rural population. The main functions of the zemstvo head: tax collection, criminal proceedings. Under the zemstvo headman, there was a staff of assistants, as well as kissers.

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TABLE OF RANKS” (lat. - board, table) - the law on the order of public service, finally approved by Peter I on January 24, 1724, was based on the experience of Europe. The "Table of Ranks" unified and systematized the administrative service on the principle of not origin, nobility of the family, but serviceworthiness, merit. Each of the 4 types of public service - court, military land, military sea, civil signed hierarchically according to 14 ranks. Correspondence was established between the ranks of different services. Rank 1 was considered the highest. The “Table of Ranks” legitimized the acquisition of the title of nobility by length of service and an award from the sovereign.

TAMGA(Turk., Mong. - brand, seal) - 1) a sign of ownership, which was placed on trees, weapons, animal skin by Mongolian cattle breeders;

2) a seal, a document with a khan's seal;

3) the main city tax introduced by the Mongols - a cash tax levied on trade, crafts and various crafts in the countries of Central Asia, Transcaucasia, and the Middle East). In Rus', the name spreads in the 13th-15th centuries. in relation to the collection from trade transactions. Local merchants in their city did not pay tamga or paid less. In the middle of the 16th century a new name for the fee was introduced - the ruble duty (charged from the price of the goods, the ruble).

TARKHANS(Turk. - san) - 1) the name of the feudal lord (prince) among the Turkic peoples;

2) land and property of the feudal lords of Transcaucasia, Central Asia, Kazan, Astrakhan, Crimean khanates, exempted from taxes;

3) the name of preferential letters in Rus' (12-16 centuries). Letters determined the volume of financial (exemption from taxes) and judicial privileges of the feudal lords, as well as certain groups of the urban population. The issuance of charters ceased in the first half of the 16th century.

TEHRAN CONFERENCE - took place in Iran from November 28 to December 1, 1943. It was attended by I. Stalin (USSR), V.D. Roosevelt (USA), W. Churchill (England). An agreement was reached to open a second front no later than May 1, 1944.

THE WORLD OF TILSIT- concluded between Russia (Alexander I) and France (Napoleon I) in 1807. The conclusion of peace was preceded by Napoleon's victories over the Russian-Austrian and Russian-Prussian blocs in 1805-1807. By decision of the Tilsit Peace Treaty, the Bialystok region departed to Russia, Prussia fell under the rule of France. The Treaty of Tilsit was also an alliance treaty. The allies (Russia and France) divided Europe into spheres of influence (the right to dominate Western Europe belonged to Napoleon, and the right to dominate Eastern Europe belonged to Alexander I). Russia joined the continental blockade of England. Napoleon was the initiator of the Continental System against England. His goal is to achieve the economic ruin of England. Russia pledged to go to war with Turkey and Sweden, and France, with the support of Russia, with Germany and Italy. In general, the Tilsit peace treaty was unfavorable for Russia.

TYRANNY(Greek - to torment, depress) - a form of power established by force and based on one-man, despotic rule. Plato contrasted tyranny with monarchy. In his opinion, the main difference between tyranny and monarchy is that the tyrant pursues his own goals, and the monarch is the guarantor of the public good.

TIUN(ancient Icelandic - servant) - a princely or boyar servant, managing a feudal economy (11-16 centuries). Some of the tiuns were not free. Russkaya Pravda mentions a groom tiun (vira - 80 hryvnias), a fire tiun (vira - 80 hryvnias), and a rural tiun (vira - 12 hryvnias).

TOZ- partnership for joint cultivation of the land, a form of agricultural cooperation in the 1920s; reorganized into collective farms.

TOTALITARIANISM(from the Latin totalis - whole, whole, complete) - one of the forms of an authoritarian state, characterized by complete (total) control over all spheres of public and spiritual life of a person and society.

TRADITIONAL SOCIETY (lat. - transmission, tradition) - a society in which tradition is the main way of transferring social experience from generation to generation, a social connection that subjugates the personal development of a person. A traditional society is characterized by the enormous inertia of once accepted cultural patterns, customs, modes of action, work skills, and the predominance of prescribed patterns of behavior. Historians and sociologists distinguish two types of traditional society - tribal (primitive - communal) and feudal. A traditional society is usually a “closed”, “closed” society that protects the norms and standards of its culture from foreign influences. The main guardian of professional skills in a traditional society is the family: the son inherits the skills of his father. The traditional society begins to lose its positions as trade and economic contacts develop between countries, the emergence of technology and technology, i.e. with the development of capitalist relations. In Russia, traditional society begins to be destroyed by the reforms of Peter I.

TRIOHPOLYE- crop rotation with annual alternation of fields and crops. For example, two were allocated for cereal crops, one - for fallow (that is, it was not sown to restore soil fertility).

TRIZNA(Slavic) - part of the funeral rite among the Eastern Slavs of the pagan period (until the 11th century). Trizna was accompanied by military games, dances, songs, feast. After Christianization, it was preserved in the form of funeral songs and a feast.

TUMEN(Turk. - Mong.) - in the Mongolian army, a unit of 10 thousand soldiers; - tumen - in the old Russian account - darkness, 10 thousand ..

TUSHINSKY CAMP - the residence of False Dmitry II, the "betrothed patriarch" Filaret, located in the village of Tushino near Moscow in 1608 - 1610. The noble militia of the Seversk land opposed V. Shuisky, negotiated with False Dmitry II about the conditions for his accession to the throne. Several draft constitutions were drafted. In 1610 troops of False Dmitry II defeated M.S. Shuisky (nephew of V. Shuisky), False Dmitry II himself fled and was soon killed as a result of a quarrel with the Kasimov Tatars.

THOUSAND- the military leader of the city militia (thousands) in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected from the boyars at the veche and was the closest assistant to the posadnik. In cities without a vecha, he was appointed by the princes, the position is hereditary. By the middle of the 15th century, the position of the thousandth disappears, being replaced by governors.

TAX- the system of monetary and in-kind duties of peasants and townspeople in the 15th-early 18th centuries. In 1724 after the introduction of the poll tax, the term "tax" was replaced by "submit".

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SPECIFIC LAND- land property of the imperial family, created in 1797 (Paul I) from the palace lands. Were in the use of the peasants (in 1863 - provided to them for ransom). According to the Decree on Land of 1917, they were nationalized.

INDIVIDUAL PRINCIPALITIES (DEITIES) - an integral part of the large grand principalities, ruled by members of the grand ducal family (12-16 centuries). In the interpretation of V.O. Klyuchevsky, the inheritance is the private property of the prince, which implies the choice of an heir. The origins of the appanage system date back to 1097, when a new principle of inheritance was established at the congress of princes in the city of Lyubech: “everyone owns the patrimony of his father.”

county- administrative-territorial unit. Initially - a set of volosts that gravitated towards any center. They were ruled by governors, from the 17th century. - governors. From the beginning of the 18th century (provincial reforms of Peter I) counties are part of the province, controlled by zemstvo commissars. Since 1775 (provincial reform of Catherine II), the county is the lowest administrative, judicial and financial unit, police and administrative power is exercised by the police captain, who is at the head of the three-estate elective lower zemstvo court. In 1923-1929. counties were converted into districts.

STATED COMMISSION - temporary collegiate body convened

Catherine II in order to create a new Code (code of laws). The commission acted during 1767-1768. The order of business in the Commission was close to the parliamentary customs of Western Europe, but the Commission did not fulfill its main task. The formal reason for its dissolution was the beginning of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. The Commission included deputies from government agencies, the nobility, cities, state peasants, foreigners, a total of 564 people. The activity of the Commission was a prerequisite for the judicial reform and the reform of the regional administration (1775). Catherine II addressed her "Instruction" to the deputies of the Commission.

ULUS(Turk. - camp, camp) - 1) a tribal association with a certain territory, subject to a khan or leader among the peoples of Central and Central Asia, Siberia. The Khans of the Golden Horde called Rus' their ulus;

2) an administrative-territorial unit such as a Russian volost among the Buryats, Kalmyks and Yakuts.

UNITARY STATE (lat. - union) - a form of government in which the territory of the state does not include federal units (states, lands), but is subdivided into administrative-territorial units (districts, regions).

LESSON SUMMER- in the 16-17 centuries. 5-15-year terms, during which the landowners could bring a claim for the return of fugitive serfs. Introduced in the 90s. 16th century The Cathedral Code of 1649 established an indefinite investigation, which meant the legal registration of serfdom.

CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY - a representative institution created on the basis of universal suffrage to establish the form of government and develop the constitution of Russia. Elections of deputies of the Constituent Assembly were held from November 12, 1917 to the beginning of 1918. 715 deputies were elected, 410 deputies were present. About 59% of voters voted for the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, 25% for the Bolsheviks, 5% for the Cadets, and 3% for the Mensheviks. The Constituent Assembly refused to recognize the Decrees of the Second Congress of Soviets. On January 7 (20), 1918, by a decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, the Constituent Assembly was dissolved, which caused an aggravation of civil confrontation in the country.

FAVORITE(lat. - favor) - a person who enjoys the favor of the ruler (influential person), who has received privileges and exerts influence.

Favoritism - orders in which everything is determined by the influence of favorite favorites. In Russia, the flourishing of favoritism is observed in the era of palace coups (1725-1762).

FASCISM(it. - bundle, bundle, association) - the most reactionary political movement that arose in the capitalist countries in the 20s - 30s. 20th century In 1919 it appeared in Italy and Germany. The policy of fascism is characterized by an open-terrorist dictatorship, the use of extreme forms of violence, chauvinism, racism, anti-communist ideology, the elimination of democratic freedoms, the use of state-monopoly methods of regulating the economy. In the late 1930s distributed in Portugal, Spain and several Eastern European countries.

FEBRUARY REVOLUTION (1917) - caused by the exacerbation of the socio-economic and political crises in connection with the failures on the fronts of the First World War, economic devastation. The strikes that began on February 23, 1917 developed into a general strike and an armed uprising. March 2, 1917 Nicholas II abdicates the throne. Dual power is established in the country - the Provisional Government and the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. By nature - bourgeois-democratic.

FEDERATION(lat. - union) - a form of government in which the state forms federal units of subjects. In the Russian Federation, according to the Constitution of 1993, the subjects (89 units of the federation) are the republics within Russia, territories, regions, cities of federal significance (Moscow, St. Petersburg), autonomous regions and autonomous districts.

FEUDALISM(Frankish - livestock as property) - in modern historical science is considered as a socio-economic system that existed in Western, Central and Eastern Europe, as well as in the Transcaucasus, Central Asia and other regions. Feudalism was based on land And interpersonal relations: boyar and prince, landowner and tsar, peasant and landowner. Feudalism is characterized by class-legal inequality, enshrined in law, a specific military organization. In Russia, the era of feudalism covers the period from the 9th century. ser. 19th century, in Western Europe - from the 4th century. by the 15th c. Russian feudalism is characterized by the predominance of state land ownership over private property, which led to the underdevelopment of class self-awareness and the enslavement of estates by the state, and the long-term preservation of the economic basis - the community.

FEUDAL RENT (lat. - regularly received income) - one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor (corvee labor), grocery (natural dues) and money. It was finally abolished in 1881.

FISKAL(lat. - state) - in 1711 - 1729. civil servants to supervise the activities of government agencies and officials.

UNION OF FLORENCE (lat. - union) - 1439 - an attempt to unite the Catholic and Orthodox churches (signed by Metropolitan Isidore), according to which the Orthodox Church recognized Catholic dogma and the primacy of the pope while maintaining Orthodox rites. The Russian clergy and Prince Vasily II (Dark) refused to accept the Union of Florence.

X

CHARISMA(Greek - mercy, God's gift) - exceptional talent. A charismatic leader is a person endowed in the eyes of his followers with authority based on the qualities of his personality - wisdom, heroism, "holiness".

"WALKING INTO THE PEOPLE" - mass movement of revolutionary-minded youth to the countryside after the abolition of serfdom (since the spring of 1873). There are 3 directions of populists: followers of P. Lavrov - propaganda and agitation of the ideas of socialism; M.A. Bakunin - a supporter of general rebellion; P. Tkachev - a supporter of a coup d'etat by conspiracy. The peasantry did not support the supporters of the populist movement.

"COLD WAR" - a term denoting the state of military-political confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States and its allies, on the other. Signs of the Cold War: an arms race, the organization of opposing military-political blocs, the creation of military-strategic bases and bridgeheads, the widespread use of economic pressure measures (embargo, economic blockade, etc.). It arose shortly after the Second World War and was discontinued in the late 1980s - early. 1990s, in connection with political and social changes in the USSR and the countries of the socialist camp.

KOLOPY(Art. - Slav. - Slave)- in the 10th - early 18th centuries. category of the population, legally close to slaves. Initially, they did not have their own household and performed various jobs for their owners. Russkaya Pravda singles out three sources of private (complete) servitude: self-sale for debts in front of witnesses, admission to serfs without a contract, marriage to a serf or serf without a contract. In addition, captivity, the disgrace of a prince, commercial insolvency, a crime committed, etc. were common sources of servility. Before the beginning 18th century serfs did not pay duties in favor of the state. With the introduction of the poll tax in 1722, the serfs turned into serfs, and from 1705 they became suppliers of recruits to the regular army.

CHRISTIANITY- the doctrine emanating from Jesus Christ and the forms of organization of religious life based on it. The first religious communities appear after the sermons of the holy apostles. For 1-3 centuries AD were characterized by persecution of Christians. At the end of the 4th century, Christianity became the official religion of the Eastern Roman Empire. Christianity is based on the doctrine of the God-man Jesus Christ, the Son of God, who was sent to earth, accepted suffering and death to redeem people from original sin; miraculously resurrected and endowed the Holy Spirit with his apostle disciples. God in Christianity is one in three persons (God the Father, God the Son and God the Holy Spirit); is the creator of the world, but not a part of the world (God cannot be thought in terms of time and space); not known by scientific methods. God is love itself, placed above the law. In Rus', Christianity was adopted in 988 by Prince Vladimir according to the Byzantine model.

C

TSAR(from Latin - Caesar, emperor) - in Russia in 1547-1721 - the official title of the head of state. Begins to be used under Ivan III, denoted independence from external forces. Under Ivan the Terrible, the title was used constantly and already indicated unlimited internal power. Under Peter I, it was replaced by the title "emperor", although it continued to exist unofficially until 1917.

TsELOVANNIKI(those who took the oath, kissing) - an elective position in the Russian state at the end of the 15th-18th centuries. Mentioned in the Sudebnik of 1497 as a person who participates in the court of governors and volosts. In connection with the strengthening of local estate institutions, the importance of elected officials (headmen, heads and kissers) in local government is increasing. There were three types of kissers: 1) customs and taverns at the heads, 2) labials at the labial elders, 3) zemstvos at the zemstvo elders. Zemstvo and labial kissers were assistants to zemstvo and labial elders, and customs and taverns were assistants to customs and tavern heads. They were responsible for cash income, participated in police and judicial supervision of the population. They were chosen for 1 year from hard people, swore to honestly fulfill their duties (kissed the cross). As a result of the Peter's reforms, the province and zemstvo institutions were liquidated, and in 1754 - internal customs taxation. Only the tavern kissers remain. Later, sellers of state-owned wine shops were called kissers.

CENTRALIZED STATE - a state in which political (gathering together lands with common legislation and central government bodies) and economic (creating a single market) unification around a strong central government takes place. There is a narrowing of the powers of local authorities, as well as their strict subordination to higher central ones. In Russia, the process of forming a centralized state begins in the second half of the 15th century. (Ivan III) and ends at the end of the 17th century. (Peter I).

H

PETITION(St. Slav. - from “beat with a forehead”) - bow with a forehead touching the ground. Request, complaint, denunciation in writing (clerical work of the 15th - early 18th centuries).

SERVANTS(St. Glory) - originally - slaves from captives (9 - 12 centuries). From the 12th century - part of the dependent population employed in the economy of landowners. In the 18th - 19th centuries. - courtyard people (serfs) of landowners.

SLAYER- a system of peasant use of landlords' land, in which the peasant allotment was not concentrated in one place, but consisted of strips remote from each other. It was liquidated as a result of the Stolypin agrarian reforms (1906-1911).

BLACK Hundreds- 1. In Muscovite Rus' - part of the urban population, which included small merchants and industrialists who were not included in the highest ranks (hundreds) of merchants (ie, in trade, cloth, etc.). 2. The self-name of the extreme right-wing organizations in Russia in 1905-1907, which consisted of different strata of society (from the lumpen to the nobles) and acted with the position of monarchism and anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian People”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”). They were aimed at fighting the revolutionary movement, carried out Jewish pogroms, dispersed rallies and demonstrations.

BLACK SOSH PEASANTS - in the Russian state 14-17 centuries. category of personally free rural population. They owned communal lands and carried state duties. In the 18th century became known as state peasants.

BLACK EARTH- Possessions of black-mowed peasants and taxed urban population in the 14th-17th centuries. From the beginning of the 18th century began to be called "state" (state) lands.

“BLACK REDITION” - Populist organization. It arose in St. Petersburg after the split of "Land and Freedom" (1879). They advocated an egalitarian division of land among the peasants according to the labor norm, for communal socialism. They rejected the tactics of terror and leaned towards propaganda. Leaders: G.V. Plekhanov, P.B. Axelrod, V.I. Zasulich. In 1880 leaders emigrated. In 1883 created the Marxist group "Emancipation of Labor" (Geneva).

FEATURES- a system of defensive structures on the southern and southeastern outskirts of the Russian state in the 16-17 centuries. to repel the raids of the Nogai and Crimean Tatars. Consisted of notches, ramparts, ditches and palisades. They had strongholds - forts and fortified cities. In the 18th century fortified border lines were formed.

“FEATURES AND CUTS”- the oldest Slavic writing.

"NUMBER"-taxation system in the 13th-15th centuries. in the territories subject to the Mongolian state and the Golden Horde (China, Central Asia, Iran, North-Eastern Rus', etc.). Based on a census (calculus, "number") of the population. Taxes were levied without exception, in proportion to the property of the payer.

EXTRAORDINARY COMMISSIONS (EC) - to combat counter-revolution, sabotage and speculation (1918-1922), were local bodies (provincial, district, transport, army), subordinate to the Cheka (All-Russian Emergency Committee). The main methods of struggle: confiscation of property, expulsion from Russia, withdrawal of food cards, judicial repression, etc.

W

defamation(German - rogue) - in Russian law in 1716-1766. a kind of shameful punishment for nobles sentenced to death, eternal exile, etc. It consisted in declaring the guilty person a thief (rogue) and breaking a sword over his head. It was accompanied by the deprivation of the nobility and class rights.

gentry(from Polish - genus, origin, species) - in Poland, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Commonwealth and the Kingdom of Poland, the name of the secular nobility, corresponding to the nobility.

CHAUVINISM(fr. - by the name of the soldier Chauvin, who is selflessly devoted to Napoleon I, the hero of the play by the Cognard brothers) - a policy that consists in preaching national exceptionalism. Expresses false patriotism and excessive national pride.

E

EVOLUTION(lat. - deployment) - in a broad sense, the idea of ​​​​changes in society and nature, their direction, order, patterns. In a narrower sense, the idea of ​​slow gradual quantitative changes, as opposed to revolution

ETHNOS(Greek - tribe, people) - a historically emerging type of stable social community of people, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation. Ethnogenesis is the origin of peoples.

YU

YUR'EVDAY- the name of the spring and autumn church holidays dedicated to the Christian Saint George the Victorious. Celebrated on April 23 and November 26 according to the old style. In November, the annual cycle of agricultural work came to an end, there was a settlement of monetary and natural obligations in favor of the landowner and the state. According to the Sudebnik of 1497, the right of peasants to transfer from one landowner to another was limited. The peasant, subject to settlement with the former landowner, had the right to move to another within two weeks a year - one week before St. George's Day and one week after St. George's Day. Subsequently, the right to move was temporarily canceled with the introduction of reserved years, it was prohibited by law in the 90s. 16th century The ban was officially confirmed by the Council Code of 1649.

I

PAGANISM- the traditional designation of polytheistic (polytheism - polytheism) and pantheistic (pantheism - the doctrine according to which God and the world are indistinguishable, God is in everything) religions. Pagan beliefs include primitive beliefs - animism, fetishism, shamanism, totemism, as well as the beliefs of the Egyptians, Assyro-Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Slavs, etc. Pagan gods were most often identified with the spirits of nature, to whom sacrifices were made. The term "paganism" was introduced by Christian chroniclers and points to the inauthentic, fictitious reality of the gods revered by the pagans (ideas about gods have grounds only in the "language" of man). The East Slavic tribes (6th-9th centuries) did not have a single worship of pagan gods; each tribe had its own hierarchy of gods.

YALTA CONFERENCE (from the name of the city of Yalta) - took place from February 4 to February 11, 1945. At the Yalta Conference, the conditions for the surrender of Germany and the principles of the post-war policy towards it were developed: 1) The amount of reparations assigned to Germany amounted to $ 20 billion, of which 50% was to be received by the USSR. 2) It was assumed that the armed forces (England, USA, USSR) during the post-war occupation of Germany would be located in 3 zones. The USSR zone is the eastern part of Germany. 3) A secret agreement was reached on the entry of the USSR into the war with Japan in 2-3 months. after the surrender of Germany. 4) The issue of a coalition government of Poland was being resolved. 5) Conditions for the exchange of prisoners of war were worked out: all Sov. citizens liberated by the Allied forces were handed over to the Soviet authorities.

LABEL(Turk. - command, order) - privileged letter of the Mongol-Tatar khans of the Golden Horde subject to secular and spiritual feudal lords. In Rus', the label was issued to the princes and confirmed the right to take the throne. The obligatory issuance of labels was one of the forms of Rus''s dependence on the Golden Horde (13-15 centuries).

YASAK(Turk. - tribute, tribute) - a tribute from the Mongol and Turkic tribes, paid in kind. In Russia 15-20 centuries. - tax in kind from the peoples of Siberia and the North, mainly furs.

III. Sources, literature:

1. History of the Fatherland. Encyclopedic Dictionary. Great Russian Encyclopedia. M., 1999.

2. I.S. Kuznetsov. Comprehending the history of the fatherland. Issue II. Novosibirsk. NSU Publishing House, 1996, p.80.

3.S.I. Ozhegov. Dictionary of the Russian language. State publishing house of foreign and national dictionaries. M., 1960.

4. Dictionary of foreign words. M., 1964.

5. Dictionary of historical terms. Names of historical - geographical names. M., 2002.

6. Historical dictionary (1.2 part). M., Ostozhye. 1999.

7. Soviet encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1989.

A

Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, the highest degree of centralization is achieved, a standing army and police are created, and an extensive bureaucratic apparatus is created. The activities of estate-representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia fell on the XVIII-XIX centuries.

Autonomization- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin's proposal to include independent Soviet republics in the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.

excise tax(lat. cut) is a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced by domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the item. existed in Russia until 1917.

Anarchism(gr. anarchy) - a socio-political movement that advocates the destruction of all state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Later, Russian anarchism manifested itself during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.

Annexation(lat. accession) - the forcible seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.

antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.

"Arakcheevshchina"- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815–1825) of the reign of Alexander I. It was named after the confidant of the emperor - A.A. Arakcheev. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of life in Russian society: the planting of military settlements, the tightening of discipline in the army, and the intensification of persecution of education and the press.

Assembly(fr. meeting) - meetings-balls in the homes of the Russian nobility, introduced in 1718 by Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

B

Corvee- gratuitous forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvée has already been recorded in Russkaya Pravda. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th century. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a labor system.

Baskak- Representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled the local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. - Horde tribute collector.

white guard- military formations that spoke out after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. White color was considered a symbol of "lawful order". The military force of the white movement - the White Guard - is an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of the officers of the Russian army, headed by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.

white matter Ideology and politics of the White Guard. It was an independent trend in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The beginning of the movement was in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated "restoring order" in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​"one and indivisible" Russia, the primacy of the Orthodox Church, loyalty to the historical "principles", but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the "democratic counter-revolution" in the person of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but in the future, the monarchist tendency with the idea of ​​​​restoring the monarchy became more and more clearly manifested. The White movement failed to offer a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces in the whitest movement, the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.

"Bironovshchina"- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features of "Bironism": political terror, omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, strict taxation, drill in the army.

Middle thought- advice close to the Grand Duke, and then to the king. Under Vasily III, the Middle Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the XVI century. The Near Duma was in fact the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the XVII century. especially trusted persons began to favor "in the room" (hence the name - Secret Thought, Room Thought). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many respects opposed the Boyar Duma.

Bolshevism- an ideological and political trend in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of the governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the XX century. rejected many provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.

Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the XV century. - the highest rank among service people "in the fatherland" in the Russian state. The boyars occupied the highest positions, headed the orders, were governors. The rite was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma.

Boyar Duma- in Russia, the supreme council under the prince (since 1547 under the tsar) in the X-XVIII centuries. Legislative body, discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.

"Bulyginskaya Duma"- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of the Interior A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative representative body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convocation of the "Bulygin Duma" was disrupted by the revolutionary events in October 1905.

Bureaucracy(gr. office dominance) - 1) The control system, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

IN

Varangians(Normans, Vikings) - so in Rus' they called the participants in predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes).

"Great Menaion" (monthly readings) - a Russian church and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a monthly collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian hagiographies, writings of the "fathers of the church", as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.

rope- a territorial community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs.

Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution of Russia in 1726–1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.

Veche(old-timer Vet - advice) - a national assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Rus'. The first chronicle references to the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development was in the Russian cities of the second half of the XI-XII centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded agreements with other lands, etc.

Governor- military leader, ruler of the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term "voivode" meant the head of the princely squad or the head of the people's militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. the post of city governor appeared, who headed the military and civil administration of the city and county. From the beginning of the 17th century governors were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719, governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775 the post of voivode was abolished.

Courts-martial- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out expedited trials and immediate reprisals for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.

Military Industrial Committees- public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for military needs.

military settlements- a special organization of part of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the planting of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruiting sets. "Settled troops" settled on state (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both military service and agricultural work. In 1817–1826 Count Arakcheev was in charge of the military settlements. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.

"War Communism"- a kind of economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state under the conditions of the Civil War (1918–1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the resources of the country in the hands of the state. "War Communism" was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features are: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer of defense plants and transport to martial law, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of surplus appropriation and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the context of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor service (since 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some of the features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society dreamed of by Marxists. In 1921, "war communism" showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the country's peaceful development, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.

Volosteli- in the Russian principalities from the XI century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the XVI century. official in rural areas - volosts. Volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.

"Free Plowmen"- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for release could be: a one-time redemption, a redemption with installment payment, working off corvee. The landlords could release the peasants without a ransom. By the middle of the XIX century. about 100 thousand male souls were released. In 1848, the free cultivators were renamed into state peasants, settled on their own lands.

Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in the history of international relations in the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening of the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the Eastern question. The Eastern question escalated during the Crimean War (1853-1856). Russia was losing its positions in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured the dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in the Russian-Turkish war (1877–1878) and the signing of the victorious peace at San Stefano, it was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. From the end of the 19th century and before Turkey's participation in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was an integral part of international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After the surrender of Turkey in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire took place, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the powers of the Entente established new borders of the Turkish state.

Votchina(fatherland- passed from the father, sometimes from the grandfather) - the oldest type of feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant form of land ownership. From the 15th century existed alongside the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually faded away. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by a decree of 1714 on uniform inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.

Temporarily liable peasants- a category of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants carried duties (share-cropping or dues) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship has not been established. Having redeemed the allotment, the temporarily liable were transferred to the category of landowners. But until that moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was issued on the mandatory redemption of allotments of temporarily liable peasants. In some regions of Russia, temporarily liable relations remained until 1917.

All-Russian market- an economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of the economies of certain regions of the country in the production of any specific types of products and the strengthening of the exchange of goods between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. Fairs played a huge role in the formation of a single market.

Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the allies of the USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 by landing in Normandy.

Redemption operation- a state credit operation carried out by the Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. To buy land plots from landowners, peasants were provided with a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of the redemption payments depended on the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased from 1907.

G

Guard- privileged (i.e., enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the "amusing" troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it turned into a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. Since the beginning of the nineteenth century. loses its importance as a political force, retaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. In the Great Patriotic War, from September 1941, the rank of guard units for the Armed Forces of the USSR was introduced.

Hetman- Elected head of the registered Cossacks in the XVI-XVII centuries. Since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army. From 1708 the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. For a long time there were no such appointments, and in 1764 the hetmanship was abolished.

Vowels- Elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia since the second half of the 19th century.

City Council- a non-estate body of city self-government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in landscaping, health care and other city affairs. Headed by the mayor.

City government- the executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). Elected by city council. The mayor headed the council.

living hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, the second in wealth and nobility after the "guests". With the knowledge of the tsar, merchants from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Living Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.

The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation, and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after the approval of the State Council and approval by the emperor. Elected for a term of 5 years. In total, during the existence of this body of power, there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, naming the lower house of the Federal Assembly as such. This emphasizes the continuity of the legislative bodies of modern Russia with pre-revolutionary ones. Since 1999 the State Duma of the third convocation has been working.

State peasants- a special estate in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. Decorated by decrees of Peter I from the black-haired peasants, odnodvortsev, ladles and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. Considered personally free. From 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the nineteenth century. they accounted for 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886, they received the right to buy out land allotments into their property.

State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Indispensable Council in 1810, and in 1906 became the upper legislative chamber. Considered bills submitted by ministers before they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some members of the Council were elected. Abolished December 1917

GOELRO(State Electrification of Russia) - the first unified long-term plan for the restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10–15 years, adopted in 1920. It provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Completed mostly by 1931.

Civil War- the most acute form of social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.

Lip- in North-Western Rus', a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. - a territorial district, governed by the headman.

Province- An administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into districts. Some provinces united into governor-generals. At the head were governors or governors-general. In 1914 Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the twentieth century. instead of provinces, krais and oblasts were formed.

Gulag- the main directorate of the camps of the NKVD (MVD) of the USSR. The abbreviation GULAG is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.

"People Walking"- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. the general name of freed serfs, fugitive peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation and place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or work for hire. Didn't have any duties.

D

Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax on subjects. Known in Rus' since the ninth century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a kind of tribute was the "exit" - a collection of money in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became an obligatory state tax from black-haired, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called given money.

Data people- in Russia XV-XVII centuries. persons from the taxed urban and rural population, given to lifelong military service. From the middle of the XVI century. included in the regiments of the "new system". Under Peter I, they were replaced by recruits.

"Twenty-five thousand"- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks for economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.

Palace peasants- feudal dependent peasants in Russia, who lived on the lands of the great princes, kings and persons of the royal family and carried duties in their favor. Since 1797, they began to be called appanage peasants.

Palace coups era- the name of the period 1725–1762, adopted in historiography, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, the supreme power passed from hand to hand through palace coups, which were carried out by noble groups with the support of guards regiments.

Nobility- the ruling privileged class, part of the feudal lords. in Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility - these are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the thirteenth century nobles began to be endowed with land for service. In the XVIII century. changed from a servant to a privileged class.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the first years of Soviet power, laws and resolutions issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies were called decrees. Thus, the Decree "On Peace" and the Decree "On Land" were adopted by the II Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the Great Patriotic War, this measure affected many peoples. Eviction in 1941–1945 Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachays, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others were subjected to. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, and others. .

tithe- tax in favor of the church. It was a tenth of the harvest or other incomes of the population.

"Wild Field"- the historical name of the southern Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously mastered in the XVI-XVII centuries. fugitive peasants and serfs, settled by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.

Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other sections of the working people. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must take place after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transitional period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is connected with the exercise of violence against "foreign" classes and strata of society.

dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.

Volunteer army- the white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. Headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by the Red Army under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.

Duma ranks- in the Russian state, officials - boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles, duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century led orders. They were governors of the largest cities.

E

sole inheritance- Established by the decree of Peter I in 1714, the procedure for the transfer of land ownership by heredity, directed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.

heresy- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and worship. They were most widespread in the Middle Ages.

AND

Gendarmerie, gendarmerie- the police, which has a military organization and performs security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827–1917 in Russia there was a separate corps of gendarmes, which performed the functions of a political police.

W

Pawnbrokers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered bondage, "laid down". Having lost their personal freedom, they were exempted from paying taxes. They existed from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries.

Procurement- in Ancient Rus' smerds (see. Smerdy), who worked in the household of the feudal lord for a "kupa" - a loan. After paying off the debt, they were released. In contrast to the serfs (cf. serfs), had their own farm.

Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the nineteenth century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society "from above". They constantly argued with the Slavophiles on the problems of the ways of Russia's development.

"Reserved Summers"- at the end of the XVI century. this was the name of the years in which the peasants were forbidden to move from one landowner to another on St. George's Day. They were an important stage in the enslavement of the peasants.

Land redistribution- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by a rural gathering on the basis of leveling land use.

Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government, created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. The zemstvo hut consisted of the zemstvo elder, the deacon, and kissers, who were elected by the taxable population of the city or volost, who headed it. At the end of the XVI-XVII century. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the XVIII century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.

Zemsky Sobors- Central state-wide estate-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral headed by the metropolitan (from 1589 patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who had the right of the boyar court by virtue of their position. In addition, zemstvo sobors included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants elected from the nobility and the top citizens. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.

Zemstvo movement- liberal opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the nineteenth - early twentieth centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of the rights of the zemstvo and the spread of the principles of zemstvo self-government to the highest state institutions.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with a center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. It had its own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.

Zubatovshchina- the policy of "police socialism", introduced by S.V. Zubatov - head of the Moscow Security Department (since 1896) and the Special Department of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under the control of the police (for example, the organization of G.A. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

AND

Elected Rada- a narrow circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makary, A.M. Kurbsky and others, in fact, an unofficial government in 1546–1560. The elected council united supporters of reaching a compromise between various groups and strata of the feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region, the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local state apparatus and carried them out.

"The Chosen Thousand"- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, roundabouts, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were supposed to receive an increment to their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.

Sharecropping- a type of land lease, in which the rent is paid to the owner of the land in shares of the crop (sometimes up to half or more).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. It was carried out in Russia at the end of the 19th century. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the lag behind the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen the defense capability. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.

International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Association of Workers), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876, its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international association. III International (Communist International, or Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and was a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for realizing the idea of ​​a world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "had fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and religious trend in the Russian state (late XV - mid-XVI century). The name was given by the name of the hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky. In the struggle against non-possessors, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogma, and the inviolability of the church's possessions. They were supported by the grand ducal authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory "Moscow is the third Rome." In the second half of the XVI century. lost their influence in ecclesiastical and political affairs.

Usefulness- a type of sharecropping in which the rent for the land is half the crop.

TO

Cadets (Constitutional Democrats)- "Party of People's Freedom" - one of the largest political parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. It existed from October 1905 to November 1917. It represented the left wing in Russian liberalism. She advocated a constitutional monarchy, democratic reforms, the transfer of landlord lands to peasants for redemption, and the expansion of labor legislation. They headed the party of cadets P.P. Milyukov, A.I. Shingarev, V.D. Nabokov and others dominated the I and II Dumas, supported tsarism in the First World War, in August 1915 created the Progressive Bloc to achieve victory in the war and prevent revolutionary uprisings, demanded participation in the government and liberal reforms. The party was banned after the October Revolution of 1917

Cossacks- the military class in Russia, which included the population of a number of southern regions of Russia. The Cossacks enjoyed special rights and privileges on the terms of compulsory and universal military service. It develops from the 14th century, when free people settled on the outskirts of the Russian principalities, carrying out guard and border service for hire. In the XV-XVI centuries. self-governing communities of the so-called free Cossacks arise and develop, the bulk of which were fugitives and townspeople. The government sought to use the Cossacks to protect the borders, in wars, and by the end of the 18th century. totally subjugated him. The Cossacks turned into a privileged military class. In 1920, the Cossacks were abolished as an estate.

State factories- in Russia, state-owned, most often military and mining and metallurgical enterprises. They emerged in the 17th century. as manufactories, they became widespread from the beginning of the 18th century, especially in the Urals. The workers of state-owned factories were mainly state peasants. After the peasant reform of 1861, they became hired workers.

Cartel- a form of monopoly in which participants retain production independence, but at the same time jointly resolve issues of production volume, sales of products, etc. Profits in cartels are distributed according to their share in production and sales of products. Cartels appeared in Russia at the end of the 19th century.

Cyrillic- the ancient Slavic alphabet, named after the Slavic enlightener Cyril. Until the XI-XII centuries. used in parallel with the Glagolitic. Later it replaced the Glagolitic alphabet and became the basis of modern systems of Slavic writing.

Princess- the name of the descendants of Russian specific princes (Rurikovich and Gediminovich). By the beginning of the XVII century. in terms of economic and political situation, most of the princes equaled other service people. Since the 18th century became a titled part of the Russian nobility.

Boards- central state institutions formed by Peter I in the course of public administration reforms in 1717–1722. and existed until the beginning of the nineteenth century. The collegial principle of discussing and solving cases, as well as the uniformity of the organizational structure, was put at the basis of the activities of the collegiums; competence is more clearly defined than in orders.

Collectivization- the transfer by the state of formal ownership of the means of production to groups of citizens or collective farms controlled by it. In the USSR, collectivization was called the mass creation of collective farms (collective farms), carried out in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Collectivization was accompanied by the elimination of individual farms and the widespread use of violent methods. Terror fell on all sections of the peasantry - kulaks, middle peasants and even poor peasants. Collectivization changed the fundamental way of life of the bulk of the population of Russia.

Committees of the poor (combeds)- organizations of the rural poor in the European part of Russia, created by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars in June 1918. In many areas, they actually performed the functions of state power. Disbanded in late 1918 - early 1919.

Conditions- the conditions for the accession to the throne of Anna Ioannovna, drawn up in 1730 by members of the Supreme Privy Council in order to limit the monarchy in favor of the aristocracy.

Contribution- monetary payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state.

Counter-reforms in Russia- the name of the events of the government of Alexander III in the 1880s, the revision of the reforms of the 1860s. Preliminary censorship was restored, class principles were introduced in primary and secondary schools, the autonomy of universities was abolished, and bureaucratic guardianship over zemstvo and city self-government was established.

Concern- one of the forms of monopolies, a diversified association (finance, industry, transport, trade, etc.) with the preservation of independence in management, but with the complete financial dependence of the enterprises included in the concern from the dominant group of monopolists.

Concession- an agreement on the lease to foreign firms of enterprises or plots of land owned by the state, with the right to production activities.

Cooperation- a form of organization of labor and production, based on the group ownership of the members of the cooperative. The main forms of cooperation: consumer, supply and marketing, credit, production.

Feeding- the system of maintaining officials (governors, volostels, etc.) at the expense of the local population in Rus'. It was used by the great and specific princes as a way to reward princes, boyars and other close associates for their service. "Feed" was levied two or three times a year in the form of food, fodder, part of various duties from auctions and shops. Initially, feeding was not limited to anything. Only from the end of the 15th century. their sizes and terms began to be regulated. They were liquidated in the 16th century. Ivan the Terrible.

Kornilovshchina- rebellion on August 25–31, 1917 with the aim of establishing the dictatorship of General L.G. Kornilov, who in July 1917 was appointed Supreme Commander. He sent troops to Petrograd, demanded the resignation of the Provisional Government, left A.F. Kerensky, head of government. The rebellion was liquidated by the revolutionary troops, detachments of the Red Guard. The Bolsheviks played an active role in the suppression of the Kornilov region.

Cosmopolitanism- the ideology of world citizenship, the denial of the narrow framework of national patriotism and the praise of their originality, the isolation of their national culture. The term was used by the Stalinist regime to bait "rootless cosmopolitans" who were accused of "groveling" before the West. In 1949, a wave of denigration of cultural figures resulted in a struggle for "communist ideology", persecution, repression, rampant nationalism, etc., intensified.

Red Guard- armed detachments, which were formed from March 1917 and consisted mainly of workers from the industrial cities of Russia. It became the military force of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution, numbered up to 200 thousand people, in March 1918 joined the Red Army (Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army - RKKA, the official name of the Soviet Armed Forces from 1918 to 1943).

Serfdom- a form of feudal dependence of the peasants: attaching them to the land and subordinating the administrative and judicial power of the feudal lord. In Russia, on a nationwide scale, serfdom was formalized by the Sudebnik of 1497, decrees on "reserved" and "lesson" years, and finally enshrined in the Cathedral Code of 1649. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. all categories of the dependent population merged into the serfs. Abolished by the peasant reform of 1861

Peasants- the bulk of rural producers, farmers. The word “chrestianin” (the “peasant” etymologically goes back to it) was known in Rus' from the turn of the 10th-11th centuries. It denoted a person professing the Christian faith. From the end of the fourteenth century the content of the word expanded, and by the 16th century. the whole taxed population of the village, the community members, was already called peasants.

Cult of personality- admiration for someone, veneration, exaltation of someone. In the USSR in 1929-1953. existed is defined as a cult of personality I.V. Stalin. A dictatorial regime was established, democracy was abolished, Stalin during his lifetime was credited with a decisive influence on the course of historical development. Elements of the cult of personality were preserved under N.S. Khrushchev and L.I. Brezhnev.

cultural revolution- a series of measures carried out in the 20-30s in the USSR, aimed at changing the social composition of the post-revolutionary intelligentsia and at breaking with the traditions of the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage through the ideologization of culture. The main task was considered to be the creation of the so-called proletarian culture based on the Marxist-class ideology, "communist education", mass culture. It provided for the elimination of illiteracy, the creation of a new Soviet school, the training of personnel for the "people's intelligentsia", the restructuring of life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control. Along with positive results (elimination of illiteracy, development of education, etc.), it contributed to the strengthening of the dictatorial regime of I.V. Stalin.

L

Left communists- a group of members of the RSDLP (b) headed by N.I. Bukharin, who actively opposed the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918.

life guard- personal protection of the monarch and the name of selected military units. In Russia, it was established by Peter I at the end of the 17th century. Later, many guards units of the Russian army were called the Life Guards.

lendlease(English) lend and lease) is a policy pursued by the United States during World War II. It included the transfer on loan and lease of weapons, ammunition, strategic raw materials, food to the allied countries in the anti-Hitler coalition. Lend-lease deliveries to the USSR amounted to $9.8 billion.

Livonian Order- Catholic state and military organization of German crusader knights in the Baltics. Arose in 1237. Actively waged wars of conquest. It was destroyed during the Livonian War and liquidated in 1561.

The League of nations- International Organization for the Cooperation of Peoples for Peace and Security (1919-1946). In 1934, the USSR joined the League of Nations, but in 1939, due to the Soviet-Finnish war, it was excluded from it. She pursued a policy of connivance towards the countries of the fascist bloc. In fact, it ceased to exist since the beginning of the Second World War. The dissolution was officially announced in 1946.

M

Manufactory- a large enterprise based on the division of labor and predominantly manual production. It appeared in Russia in the 17th century.

Menshevism- a trend in Russian social democracy, which was formed at the II Congress of the RSDLP (1903) from a part of the delegates who received a minority during the elections of governing bodies. Leaders - G.V. Plekhanov, Yu.O. Martov, I.O. Axelrod and others. The Mensheviks denied the strict centralism of the party and the vesting of the Central Committee with great powers, in the bourgeois-democratic revolution they considered the liberal bourgeoisie an ally of the proletariat, did not recognize the revolutionary role of the peasantry, advocated legal methods of struggle, and opposed the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry. In 1908–1910 split into liquidators (in favor of legal work and liquidation of the illegal party) and Menshevik Party members (in favor of illegal struggle). During the First World War, three currents arose - defencists, internationalists and mezhrayontsy. After the February Revolution, they supported the Provisional Government, did not recognize the October Revolution, believing that Russia was not ripe for socialism. Part of the Mensheviks became Bolsheviks.

Localism- a special procedure for appointment to military, administrative and court service, taking into account the nobility of origin and personal merits of ancestors. It arose at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. and abolished in 1682.

month- in Russia in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries. a six-day corvée of serfs, primarily yard people, deprived of land allotments. Remuneration for work was carried out in kind, issued monthly. The most severe form of serfdom.

ministries(lat. serve, manage) - the central government bodies in charge of individual sectors of the economy and life of the state. The first ministries were formed in 1802 and existed until 1917. In 1946 the name "ministry" was restored.

Monopoly- the exclusive right to produce or sell something. With the introduction at the end of the XIX century. capitalism into the monopoly stage, the unions of capitalists seized the exclusive right to produce and sell certain goods in order to dominate the market. The main forms of monopolies: cartel, syndicate, trust, concern. Monopolies arose in Russia in the 1980s. Syndicates were the most common here. "Society for the sale of products of Russian metallurgical plants" ("Prodamet") by 1908 sold 90% of the metallurgical products of the South and 45% of the entire production of the empire. Syndicates were created in the coal industry (Produgol in 1904), in the car building and oil industries.

H

Viceroy- in the Russian state in the XII century. governors - officials who ruled individual territories. Appointed by the princes for "feeding". They were in charge of the administrative-territorial units of the empire, consisting of two or three provinces. In the 19th century Viceroyalty existed in the Kingdom of Poland and in the Caucasus.

Populism- the leading direction in the liberation movement of post-reform Russia of the XIX century. It was based on a system of views on the original path of development of Russia, capable, bypassing the stage of capitalism, to create, relying on the peasant community, a socialist society. This ideology is a social utopia. At the end of the 60s of the XIX century. three currents are formed in populism: rebellious, or anarchist (M.A. Bakunin), propaganda (P.L. Lavrov), conspiratorial (P.N. Tkachev). They differed in matters of tactics. In 1860–1880 The main organizations of the populists were the "Chaikovites" (organizers of going to the people), "Land and Freedom", which split in 1879 into "Narodnaya Volya" and "Black Redistribution". Since the second half of the 80s. Populism is in crisis due to the negative reaction of society to the assassination of Alexander II by the Narodnaya Volya. The Socialist-Revolutionary Party became the successor of the populist ideology.

People's Commissariats (People's Commissariats)- in the Soviet state in 1917–1946. central government bodies of a separate branch of the national economy or a sphere of state activity. They were headed by people's commissars. Transformed into ministries.

Natural economy- a type of economy in which products and things are produced for their own use, and not for sale.

Nationalization- the transfer of private enterprises and other private property into the ownership of the state, both through expropriation and on the basis of redemption transactions.

Nonpossessors- religious and political movement in Russia at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. They preached asceticism, withdrawal from the world. They demanded that the church give up land ownership. The main ideologist of non-covetousness was the elder of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery Nil Sorsky. The Josephites opposed the nonpossessors. Non-acquisitiveness was condemned by church councils of 1503 and 1531.

New Economic Policy (NEP)- introduced by the Soviet leadership in March 1921 at the Tenth Congress of the RCP (b). It envisaged a way out of the economic and political crisis by returning to state-controlled and regulated private property in industry, replacing food appropriation with a food tax, proclaiming freedom of trade, using foreign capital in the form of concessions and the labor of farm laborers in the countryside. At the same time, the monetary reform of 1922–1924 was carried out, Soviet enterprises and cooperation developed, and the national economy was restored. However, as a result of the contradictions that arose at the end of the 1920s, the NEP was completely abandoned.

Nomenclature(lat. scroll) - a list of officials whose appointment or approval falls within the competence of a body. In the USSR, such bodies were party committees of various levels. The ruling elite in the USSR was called the nomenklatura.

"Norman Theory"- originated in the second quarter of the 18th century. Its supporters considered the Normans (Varangians) the creators of the state in Ancient Rus'. Based on the chronicle legend about the calling of the Varangians.

ABOUT

"Secularization of Culture"- the acquisition of a secular character by culture: an increasing variety of secular themes and plots in literature and art.

quitrent- a form of feudal rent. In Russia - the annual collection of money and products from serfs by landlords. The food quitrent was abolished by the reform of 1861, the cash quitrent remained until 1863.

Community- a form of association of people that arose in antiquity. The distinctive features of the community are the common ownership of the means of production, full or partial self-government. In Russia, the community was a closed class unit used for tax collection and police control. After the reform of 1861, the community became the owner of the land. It was destroyed by Stolypin's reforms.

Philistines- the official name of the class of townspeople in the Russian Empire.

Octobrists- members of the right-liberal party "Union of October 17", created after the publication of the Manifesto by Nicholas II on October 17, 1905. According to the Octobrists, this document marked Russia's transition to a constitutional monarchy. The party considered its main task to be assistance to the government, if it takes the path of social reforms. The program of the Octobrists: a constitutional monarchy, a single and indivisible Russian state, the solution of the agrarian question without the alienation of landowners' lands, a limited right to strike and an 8-hour working day. The party represented the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie, liberal-minded landlords, part of the officials and the wealthy intelligentsia. The leaders of the Octobrists - A.I. Guchkov, M.V. Rodzianko, D.N. Shipov and others.

Opposition(lat. opposition) - a party or social group that opposes the opinion of the majority or the dominant point of view, putting forward its own way of solving problems.

Oprichnina(besides- Old Russian. except) - in 1565–1572. the name of the inheritance of Ivan IV, in which a number of lands were allocated, as well as part of Moscow. The oprichnina introduced its own administration: the Boyar Duma, orders, and the army. It is also customary to call the oprichnina the entire system of measures of Ivan the Terrible - mass repressions, land confiscations, etc. - which was used by the tsar to combat alleged treason and the remnants of specific separatism.

Horde exit- tribute, dues paid by Russian princes to the khans of the Golden Horde.

buyout- the exclusive right granted by the state for a fee to private individuals (farmers), to collect taxes or sell certain types of goods (wine, salt, etc.). In Russia, the farming system existed until 1863.

Segments- plots of land cut off from the allotments that were in use by the peasants during the peasant reform of 1861 and transferred to the landowners. The sections were interspersed with peasant lands, creating a patchwork and forcing the peasants to rent them from the landowner for various working off. The cuts accounted for a total of about 20% of the pre-reform land use of the peasants.

Cut in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. a land plot allocated to a peasant in exchange for the communal lands allocated to him earlier, located in various places. The estate, however, remained within the boundaries of the village. The creation of cuts was the result of the implementation of the Stolypin agrarian reform.

"Thaw"- a common designation of changes in the social and cultural life of the USSR that emerged after the death of I.V. Stalin (1953). The term "thaw" goes back to the title of the story by I. Ehrenburg. The period of the “thaw” was characterized by a softening of the political regime, the beginning of the process of rehabilitation of victims of mass repressions of the 1930s and early 1950s, the expansion of the rights and freedoms of citizens, and some weakening of ideological control in the field of culture and science. An important role in these processes was played by the 20th Congress of the CPSU, which condemned Stalin's personality cult. "Thaw" contributed to the growth of social activity in society. However, the positive developments of the mid-1950s were not further developed.

Otkhodnichestvo- in Russia, the temporary departure of peasants to work in cities or for agricultural work in other areas. It was common among the landlord quitrent peasants.

"Official nationality theory"- the national state doctrine of the Russian Empire, put forward during the reign of Nicholas I. The main principles of the theory were formulated by the Minister of Education, Count S.S. Uvarov in 1832: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality”.

Security departments, guards- local bodies of the police department, created to protect public safety and order. They were in charge of political investigation, had secret agents sent to political parties and opposition organizations. First appeared in St. Petersburg (1866) and Moscow (1880). By 1907 they already existed in 27 industrial and cultural centers of the country. Abolished after the February Revolution of 1917

P

Patriarchate- a form of church government in Orthodoxy, in which the head of the church is the patriarch. It originated in the early Middle Ages. In the Russian Orthodox Church, the patriarchate was established in 1589, abolished in 1721, and revived in early 1917.

resettlement- the movement of the (peasant) population of the central regions of Russia to a new place of residence in sparsely populated outlying areas - Siberia, the Far East, etc. Resettlement was the main means of internal colonization and solving the problem of peasant land shortages. It was an integral part of the Stolypin agrarian reform.

"Perestroika"- transformations carried out in the USSR from the mid-1980s to 1991 under the slogan of overcoming obsolete forms of social life and methods of work. The most important direction of this policy was democratization, including the expansion of glasnost. The other side of "perestroika" was economic transformations. The system of international security and non-violent peace has been established in foreign policy. The reform of society within the framework of the existing socialist system ended unsuccessfully.

Plan "Barbarossa"- the code name of the plan of aggressive war of fascist Germany against the USSR. It began to be developed in July 1940. The plan provided for the defeat of the USSR in a quick campaign, while the main forces of the Red Army were supposed to be destroyed west of the Dnieper-Western Dvina line, preventing them from retreating into the interior of the country. In the future, it was planned to capture Moscow, Leningrad, Kyiv, Donbass and reach the Astrakhan-Volga-Arkhangelsk line. The Barbarossa plan was thwarted by the heroic struggle of the Soviet people.

Pogost- originally the center of a rural community in the north-west of Ancient Rus'. From the second half of the tenth century place of tribute collection, later - the center of the administrative tax district.

Household taxation- in Russia in the 17th - early 18th centuries. system of layout of direct taxes on taxable population. Changed the land tax. The state determined the amount of the tax, and the urban and rural communities distributed it to each household. Replaced by poll tax.

Poll tax- the main direct tax in the Russian Empire in the XVIII-XIX centuries. Replaced in 1724 household taxation. This tax was imposed on all men of taxable estates, regardless of age. Canceled in the 80-90s of the nineteenth century.

"Elderly"- in the Russian state of the XV-XVII centuries. collection of money from the peasants when they leave the landowner on St. George's Day. Introduced by the Sudebnik in 1497. Disappeared with the complete enslavement of the peasants.

"Police socialism"- the name accepted in historiography of one of the methods for implementing domestic policy, in which workers' organizations controlled by the government were created. At the beginning of the twentieth century. such organizations appeared in Russia, a gendarmerie colonel, head of the Moscow security department and the Special Department of the Police Department S.V. played an important role in their creation and distribution. Zubatov. The Russian version of "police socialism" is also called "Zubatovism" in the literature.

Regiments of the "foreign system", or regiments of the "new system"- military units formed in Russia in the 17th century. on the model of Western European armies. Used by Peter I to form a regular army.

polyudie- a detour by a Russian prince with a squad of his vassal possessions in order to collect tribute.

Estate- a form of conditional land tenure in the Russian state at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 18th centuries. The estate was not subject to sale, exchange and inheritance. In the XVI-XVII centuries. gradually approached the patrimony, and in 1714 merged with it completely.

Landowners (serfs)- peasants who belonged to the landowners before the peasant reform of 1861.

Posadnik- an elected official in the ancient Russian city, the head of the executive branch. Together with the prince, he was in charge of management and court issues, commanded the army, led the veche assembly and the boyar council.

Posad people- the commercial and industrial population of Russian cities, who carried the state tax - trade taxes, trade duties, participation in citywide works, natural duties, etc. They were divided into hundreds - the Living Room, Cloth, Black. In 1775 they were divided into merchants and philistines.

Possession peasants- in Russia of the XVIII-XIX centuries. a category of peasants who belonged to the private enterprises in which they worked. The category of possessive peasants was introduced under Peter I by a decree of 1721 on the purchase of people for factories in connection with the need to provide growing manufactories with working hands. The position of the possessive peasants was somewhat different from the position of the serfs: they were not allowed to be transferred to agricultural work, to be recruited, etc. They were released by the peasant reform of 1861.

Pososhnoe- in the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. state land tax on plows; Replaced by yard tax.

Privatization transfer of state or municipal property to private ownership.

Order control system- Established in the middle of the 16th century. a system of permanent government bodies - orders. It arose on the basis of the performance by the boyars of certain state functions on behalf (order) of the tsar. The system of orders reached its peak in the 17th century. Abolished at the beginning of the 18th century. Peter I.

Ascribed peasants- in Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. state, palace and economic peasants, instead of paying a poll tax, worked in state and private factories, that is, attached (assigned) to them. Released by the peasant reform of 1861

Tax in kind (food tax)- Introduced in 1921 to replace the surplus appraisal, marked the beginning of the NEP. The amount of the tax in kind was established before the spring sowing, depending on the prosperity of the farm, and was much less than the food requisition, the surplus was allowed to be sold, which stimulated the growth of production. Active until 1923

"Food Dictatorship"- a system of emergency measures of the Soviet government (1918–1921), taken in the context of a food crisis to supply bread to the Red Army, the population of cities, and the poor in the countryside. It provided for the centralization of the procurement and distribution of food, the steady implementation of the grain monopoly, the fight against bagging and speculation, and the suppression of the resistance of the kulaks. The Soviet government declared enemies of those who hid surpluses of grain, did not take them out to bulk points. The guilty were sentenced to imprisonment, execution, and their property was confiscated. The food dictatorship aroused the discontent of the peasants. Canceled with the introduction of the New Economic Policy.

Food detachments (food detachments)- armed detachments of workers and poor peasants in 1918–1920. They were created by the bodies of the People's Commissariat of Food, trade unions, factory committees, local Soviets. Conducted surplus appraisal in the countryside; acted jointly with the committees and local Soviets.

Prodrazverstka (food appropriation)- the system of procurement of agricultural products during the period of "war communism" (1919-1921), established after the introduction of the food dictatorship. Mandatory delivery by the peasants to the state at fixed prices of all surpluses (except for those necessary for personal and household needs) of bread and other products. It was carried out by the bodies of the People's Commissariat for Food, food detachments, committees of the poor, local Soviets. Plan assignments were distributed by counties, volosts, villages, and peasant households. Prodrazverstka caused dissatisfaction among the peasants and in 1921 was replaced by a food tax.

R

Raznochintsy- in Russia at the end of the 18th-19th centuries. inter-class category of the population, people from different classes, cut off from their class environment (clergy, petty bourgeois, merchants, petty bureaucracy). Legally, this category has not been formalized in any way. Raznochintsy were mainly engaged in mental work.

"Discharge"- a period in the relationship between the world systems of capitalism and socialism, which began at the turn of the 60-70s of the twentieth century. It arose on the basis of the military-strategic parity (equality of the sides) achieved by the USSR and the USA. It ended in 1979 with the entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.

Split- separation from the Russian Orthodox Church of part of the believers who did not accept the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1653-1656. Opponents of the official church began to be called schismatics, or Old Believers.

Revolution- deep, qualitative changes in society, the economy, worldview, science, culture, etc. Social revolution is the most acute form of struggle between new and old, obsolete social relations during sharply aggravated political processes, when the type of power changes, the winners come to the leadership revolutionary forces, new socio-economic foundations of society are being established.

Recruitment duty- a method of manning the Russian regular army in the 18th-19th centuries. The taxable estates (peasants, philistines, etc.) were obliged to provide a certain number of recruits from their communities. In 1874, it was replaced by universal military service.

"Rail War"- the name of a major operation of the Soviet partisans in August - September 1943 to disable the railways in the territories occupied by the Nazis.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth- the official name of the united Polish-Lithuanian state from the time of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin (1569) to the partition of Poland in 1795.

Russian Orthodox Church- the largest of the Orthodox churches. Founded in the tenth century. From the end of the 11th century it was headed by the Metropolitan of Kiev, from the end of the thirteenth century. - Metropolitan of Vladimir, who since 1328 lived in Moscow. Initially, it was subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1448 she became independent. The patriarchate was established in 1589 and abolished in 1721, restored in 1917.

WITH

Seimas- the body of estate representation in some states of Eastern Europe, for example, in Poland.

Secret Committees in Russia in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. temporary state institutions created by the emperor to discuss reform projects, and in 1857-1858. - to discuss the preparation of projects for the abolition of serfdom.

Secularization- the transformation of church property into state property. In Russia, large-scale secularization was carried out during the reign of Catherine II in 1764 and after 1917.

"Seven Boyars"- the government of the Russian state during the Time of Troubles (1610-1613). It was formed after the overthrow of Tsar Vasily Shuisky. Consisted of seven boyars headed by F. Miloslavsky. This government agreed to the calling to the Russian throne of the Polish prince Vladislav. It also let Polish troops into Moscow.

Senate- the highest body of state administration in the Russian Empire from 1711 to the beginning of the 19th century. After 1810 - the highest judicial and administrative body. Abolished in 1917

Separate peace- a peace treaty with the enemy, concluded by one of the states that are members of the coalition, without the knowledge and consent of the allies.

Syndicate- one of the forms of monopolistic associations. The syndicate undertakes the implementation of all commercial activities, while maintaining the industrial and legal independence of the enterprises included in it.

Synod- the highest legislative advisory administrative and judicial institution for the affairs of the Russian Orthodox Church. Existed from 1721 to 1917.

Slavophiles- representatives of one of the directions of Russian social thought of the 40-70s of the nineteenth century. A feature of their views was their commitment to the original development of Russia, the model of which was pre-Petrine Rus'.

Service people- in the Russian state of the XIV - early XVIII century. persons in public service. From the middle of the XVI century. were divided into service people "according to the fatherland" and "according to the instrument" (Cossacks, archers, gunners, etc.). Service "in the fatherland" was hereditary. "According to the instrument" was recruited, as a rule, from the townspeople. Service people were exempted from state taxes and duties.

Smerdy- the general name of the rural population of Ancient Rus'.

Adviсe- authorities that arose during the revolution of 1905-1907. According to V.I. Lenin, the Soviets were to concentrate in their hands the functions of all branches of power and become "full-powered" bodies. In fact, from the very first months of the proclamation of Soviet power in October 1917, they turned into an appendage of the Bolshevik Party.

Estate-representative monarchy- a form of the feudal state, in which the power of the monarch is combined with the organs of estate representation. In Russia, class representation existed in the form of zemstvo sobors (XVI-XVII centuries).

Land socialization- the main requirement of the agrarian program of the Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), which implied the destruction of private ownership of land and its transfer to the use of the community.

Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs)- the largest party in Russia (1901-1923). They advocated the elimination of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the transfer of land to the peasants, democratic reforms, etc. They used the tactics of terror. Leaders - V.M. Chernov, A.R. Gotz and others.

T

Totalitarianism- a form of government that is characterized by the complete subordination of the life of society to the interests of power and control over it, the actual elimination of constitutional rights and freedoms, repression against political opposition and any manifestations of dissent.

traditional society- a society in which a person does not think of himself outside of nature; age-old traditions and customs (ceremonies, prohibitions, etc.) completely dominate it. Such a society is not inclined to accept any innovations.

Trusts- one of the forms of monopolistic associations, in which participants lose their industrial, commercial and legal independence. Power in them is concentrated in the hands of the board or the parent company. Most often, trusts arose in industries that produce homogeneous products.

June 3rd Coup d'état (June 3rd Monarchy)- the dissolution of the Second State Duma on June 3, 1907 and the publication of a new electoral law in violation of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905. It was the end of the revolution of 1905–1907, after which the Third June Monarchy was established - an alliance of the tsar, nobles and the big bourgeoisie, united by the State Duma, which carried out maneuvering policy.

Trotskyism- a direction in the Russian and international revolutionary movement, named after its ideologist L.D. Trotsky. Trotsky put forward the theory of "permanent revolution" (in the revolution of 1905-1907 he advocated skipping the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution, denied the revolutionary role of the peasantry). In Soviet times, Trotsky advocated the nationalization of trade unions, questioned the possibility of building socialism in the USSR without the help of developed countries. In the conditions of an acute inner-party struggle, Trotsky's ideas were called Trotskyism. The views of Trotsky and his supporters were characterized as a "petty-bourgeois deviation" in the RCP(b) and crushed at the 15th Party Congress. In 1929 he was expelled from the USSR, in 1938 he created the Fourth International, waged a stubborn struggle in the press against Stalin, on whose instructions he was killed in 1940 in Mexico. In the USSR, the merits of Trotsky as an active participant in the October Revolution, the creator of the Red Army, the organizer of victory in the Civil War, etc., were diminished.

Trudoviks- The "Labour Group" in the 1st and 4th State Dumas of deputies-peasants and the populist intelligentsia, which acted in a bloc with leftist forces for the nationalization of the land and its transfer to the peasants according to the labor norm, for democratic freedoms (1906-1917).

Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousands") in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected at a veche and was the closest assistant to the mayor - he was in charge of trade, tax collection, and the merchant court.

tax- in the Russian state of the 15th - early 18th centuries. monetary and in-kind state duties of peasants and townspeople. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. a tax was a unit of taxation of peasants by duties in favor of the landowners.

At

Appanage, appanage principality- in Rus' in the XII-XVI centuries. an integral part of large grand principalities, ruled by a member of the grand ducal family.

Ulus- camp of nomads, settlement. In a broad sense - a tribal association with a certain territory, subject to a khan or leader among the peoples of Central and Central Asia and Siberia. After the collapse of the empire of Genghis Khan, an ulus was a country or region subordinate to one of the Genghis Khans.

"Lesson Summers"- established by royal decrees from the end of the 16th century. terms of investigation and return of fugitive peasants to their owners (from 5 to 15 years). Abolished in the middle of the 17th century, when the investigation became indefinite, by the Council Code of 1649.

constituent Assembly- a representative, parliamentary institution in Russia, first convened on the basis of universal suffrage to establish a form of government and draft a constitution. The convocation of the Constituent Assembly is a program requirement of all revolutionary, democratic, liberal parties in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, including the Bolsheviks. The government created after the February Revolution was called Provisional until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly. Elections were held in November - December 1917. The Bolsheviks received only 24% of the vote. This meant the impossibility of implementing the decisions of the Bolsheviks through this authority. The Constituent Assembly was opened on January 5 (18), 1918 in the Tauride Palace in Petrograd. The majority of the elected deputies were Socialist-Revolutionaries (59%). The assembly did not recognize the legitimacy of the Council of People's Commissars and the decrees of the Soviet government. The Bolsheviks left the meeting room, and at 5 am on January 6 (19), 1918, the Constituent Assembly was dispersed. Officially, the decree on its dissolution was adopted by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets on the night of January 6 (19) to January 7 (20), 1918.

F

feudal rent- one of the forms of land rent. It existed in the form of labor rent (corvée), food rent ( quitrent in kind) and cash rent (monetary rent).

Fiscal- in the Russian Empire in 1711-1729. a civil servant who supervised the activities of state institutions (mainly financial ones) and officials. He collected information about violations of laws, bribery, embezzlement, etc. He headed the fiscals of the chief fiscal, which was part of the Senate.

X

"Journey to the people"- a unique phenomenon in Russian history: a spontaneous mass movement of radical youth, inspired by the ideas of revolutionary populism, in 1873–1874. More than 2,000 propagandists rushed to the village in the hope of rousing the people to a "general rebellion." "Going to the people" failed. Over a thousand people were arrested, 193 of the most active participants in the movement were brought to trial.

"Cold War"- the state of confrontation between the USSR and its allies, on the one hand, and the United States with their political partners, on the other. It lasted from 1946 until the end of the 80s. It was called the "cold war" because, unlike "hot wars" (open military conflicts), it was carried out by economic, ideological and political methods.

Farm- a rural settlement, consisting most often of one yard. As a result of the agrarian reform carried out by the government of P.A. Stolypin, - a separate peasant estate, located outside the community.

H

Black Hundred organizations- extreme right socio-political associations in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. They acted under the slogans of monarchism, great-power chauvinism, anti-Semitism (“Union of the Russian people”, “Union of Michael the Archangel”, etc.).

Black-nose peasants- in the Russian state of the XIV-XVII centuries. free peasants who owned communal lands and carried state duties. In the XVIII century. became state peasants.

Pale of Settlement- in 1791-1917. limited territories of the Russian Empire, outside which Jews were forbidden to live permanently.

W

nobility- in Poland, Lithuania, the Czech Republic, the name of secular feudal lords, corresponding to the nobility.

E

Expropriation(lat. dispossession) - compulsory deprivation of property, gratuitous or paid.

I

Paganism- the general name of polytheistic religions ("polytheism").

Label- a preferential letter issued by the Golden Horde khans to secular and spiritual feudal lords of subject lands.

Trade fairs- trades and markets periodically organized in a specified place.

Yasak- in Russia XV-XX centuries. tax in kind from the peoples of the North and Siberia, which was levied mainly in furs.

1. Absolutism- a form of state in some countries of Western Europe and the East in the 16-18 centuries, in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. In a strictly centralized state, an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, a standing army, police, tax service, and courts were created. The most characteristic example of absolutism is France during the reign of King Louis XIV, who considered himself the vicar of God on Earth.

2. Autonomy- self-government, the right to independently exercise certain functions of state power or government, granted by the constitution of any part of the state.

4. Anarchy could mean the following:

• Lack of legislation and enforcement apparatus.
• Lack of centralized control.
• The theoretical social structure of a state in which there are no rulers or groups of rulers, but everyone has absolute freedom.
• Freedom, independence from rules and authorities.

5. Annals- record historical events in chronological order from year to year.

6. Annexation- a violent act of annexation by a state of all or part of the territory of another state unilaterally.

7. Entente- the military-political bloc of England, France and Russia, created as a counterweight to the "Triple Alliance"; formed mainly in 1904-1907 and completed the delimitation of the great powers on the eve of the First World War.

8. antisemitism- a form of national and religious prejudice and intolerance, a hostile attitude towards Jews.

9. Anty- an association of ancient Slavic tribes found in Byzantine and Gothic sources of the 6th and 7th centuries (until 602 AD), which settled the lands from the Dniester to the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov.

10. Assembly- a form of business communication and secular entertainment, introduced by Peter I in the course of the transformation of the social life of Russia.

11. Baroque - style of European art and architecture of the 17th and 18th centuries.

12. Corvee- the duty, which consisted in the obligation of a peasant who had his own allotment, to work on the master's field for a certain number of days a week.

13. Baskak- a Mongolian official who was in charge of collecting tribute and accounting for the population in the conquered territories. Appeared in the middle of the 13th century. until the middle of the 14th century.

14. White settlements (white lands)- lands of feudal lords in rural areas and cities of the Russian state of the 14th-17th centuries, partially or completely exempted from state taxes.

15. Airborne beekeeping, beekeeping(from the word " board"- tree hollow), the oldest form of beekeeping, in which bees live in the hollows of trees. Bortnichestvo was known in Rus' until the 19th century and was then one of the important branches of its economy.

16. Boyars- the upper class of the feudal lords. In the Old Russian state - the descendants of the tribal nobility, senior combatants - vassals and members of the princely duma. During the formation of independent principalities - the richest and most influential feudal lords.

17. Boyar Duma- the highest council of the nobility under the Grand Duke, and from the 16th century. with the king. It was abolished in 1711.

18. Bureaucracy- designation of the layer of employees in management, administration, which is characterized by hierarchy, strict regulation, division of labor and responsibility.

19. Varangians- warrior warriors from the Scandinavian peoples, who were called Vikings in Europe.

20. rope- the name of the community in Ancient Rus' and among the southern Slavs. Mentioned in Russian Pravda.

21. Supreme Privy Council- the highest advisory state institution of Russia in 1726-30 (7-8 people). Created by Catherine I as an advisory body, in fact, it resolved the most important state issues.

22. Veche - a popular assembly in medieval Rus' to discuss common affairs. It arose from the tribal assemblies of the Slavs.

23. military settlements- the system of organization of troops in Russia in 1810-1857, which combined military service with employment in productive labor, primarily agricultural.

24. war communism- a system of socio-economic relations based on the elimination of commodity-money relations and the concentration of all resources in the hands of the Bolshevik state in the context of the Civil War.

25. Free Plowmen (or Free Plowmen)- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by Decree 1803, on the basis of a voluntary agreement with the landowners.

26. Economic voluntarism- arbitrary decisions in economic practice, neglecting objective conditions and scientifically based recommendations (in this sense, this word was officially used in the USSR in 1964-1985 to assess the activities of N. S. Khrushchev).

27. East Slavs- cultural and linguistic community of the Slavs who spoke East Slavic languages. They made up the main population of Kievan Rus.

28. Votchina- the oldest type of landed property in Russia, passed by inheritance. Appeared in the 10-11 centuries.

29. Temporarily obligated peasants- a category ("category") of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom by the Regulations of February 19, 1861, but not transferred for redemption.

30. Tysyatsky- the military leader of the city militia ("thousands") in Rus' until the middle of the 15th century. In Novgorod, he was elected from the boyars at the veche and was the closest assistant to the posadnik.

31. unitary state- a form of government, in which its parts are administrative-territorial units and do not have the status of a state entity.

32. Utopian socialism- accepted in the historical and philosophical literature, the designation that preceded Marxism, the doctrine of the possibility of transforming society on socialist principles, of its fair structure. The main role in the development and implementation in society of ideas about the construction of socialist relations in a non-violent way, only by the power of propaganda and example, was played by the intelligentsia and layers close to it. The forerunners of the ideas of utopian socialism in Russia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries were A. N. Radishchev and P. I. Pestel. These ideas became especially widespread in the 1930s and 1940s.

33. Lesson summers- Fixed years, in Rus', the period during which the owners could bring a claim for the return of fugitive peasants to them.

34. Favoritism- a socio-cultural phenomenon that existed at the royal (imperial, royal) courts of the era of absolutism and aimed to exalt a specific person (or group of persons) in connection with the personal affection of the monarch for the favorite.

35. Fascism- a generalized name for specific extreme right-wing political movements, ideologies and the corresponding form of government of a dictatorial type, the characteristic features of which are the personality cult, militarism, totalitarianism.

36. Federation- a form of government in which parts of a federal state are state entities with legally defined political independence.

37. Charisma- exceptional talent; a charismatic leader is a person endowed in the eyes of his followers with authority based solely on the qualities of his personality - wisdom, heroism, holiness.

38. Censorship- system of state supervision over the press and mass media. It originated in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century.

39. Civilization- a synonym for the concept of culture; the totality of the material and spiritual achievements of society in its historical development, the level of social development and material culture achieved in a particular society; the degree and nature of the development of culture of certain eras and peoples.

40. landowner- a nobleman-landowner who owns an estate, an patrimonial in Russia in the late XV - early XX centuries.

41. Estate- type of feudal land tenure in the late 15th - early 16th centuries. It was granted for military service without the right to be inherited.

42. Posadnik- 1) Viceroy of the prince in Ancient Rus' 10-11 centuries; 2) The highest state position in Novgorod in the 12th-15th centuries. and Pskov in the 14th - early 16th centuries. He was elected from the noble boyars at the veche.

43. post-industrial society- designation of a new stage of social development, emerging from the second half of the 20th century in developed countries.

44. Possession peasants- peasants belonging to factories and plants.

45. Orders- 1) Bodies of central government in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. They mainly had a judicial function; 2) Local bodies of palace administration in the 16th-17th centuries; 3) The name of the archery regiments in the 16-17 centuries.

46. jurors- non-professional judges participating in the trial. They render a verdict (decision) on the guilt or innocence of the defendant. In Russia, the Institute of P. z. (jury trial) introduced Judicial Reform of 1864.

47. industrial revolution- this is the transition from manual labor to machine, from manufactory to factory. The transition from a predominantly agrarian economy to industrial production, which results in the transformation of an agrarian society into an industrial one.

48. Enlightened absolutism- a policy pursued in the second half of the 18th century by a number of monarchical countries of Europe and aimed at eliminating the remnants of the medieval system in favor of capitalist relations.

49. Protectionism- the policy of protecting the domestic market from foreign competition through a system of certain restrictions: import and export duties, subsidies and other measures. Such a policy contributes to the development of national production.

50. Pud- an outdated unit of measurement of the mass of the Russian system of measures. 1 pood = 16.38 kg.

51. Revolution- a radical, fundamental, deep, qualitative change, a leap in the development of society, nature, or knowledge, associated with an open break with the previous state

52. Repression- punishment, a punitive measure applied by state bodies in order to protect and preserve the existing system. Any repression is a manifestation of political violence.

53. nobility- in Russia (the time of Peter the Great), Belarus and Ukraine (gentry), the nobility in general is called the gentry.

54. Expropriation- alienation by legal means, by a court verdict or for the sake of public benefit, of property from the person to whom it belonged; in the latter case with a reward.

55. Extensification- the process and organization of the development of production, in which an increase in productivity is achieved through a quantitative increase in production capacity. That is, more labor and technology.

56. Escalation- expansion, buildup (of armaments, etc.), gradual intensification, spread (of a conflict, etc.), aggravation (of situations, etc.). The concept became widely used during the Cold War era.

57. Yuriev day- November 26, according to the old style, a church holiday dedicated to St. George (Egory, Yuri) the Victorious. According to tradition, on St. George's Day, the transition of peasants from feudal lord to feudal lord was carried out, because. by this time, the annual cycle of agricultural work was completed and there was a settlement of the monetary and natural obligations of the peasants in favor of their owners and state taxes.

58. Paganism- a term accepted in Christian theology and partly in historical literature, denoting pre-Christian and non-Christian religions. In a narrower sense, paganism is a polytheistic religion

59. Label- letter of the Tatar Khan

60. His Imperial Majesty's Own Chancellery(abbreviated Own E.I.V. office) - the personal office of the Russian emperors, eventually modified into one of the central authorities. It was created under Peter I, reformed under Catherine II, abolished by Alexander I when creating ministries; however, in 1812 it was re-established to deal with cases that required the personal participation of the sovereign.

61. Soviets of Workers' Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies- elected bodies of state power of the Soviet Republic after the victory of the October Revolution of 1917. With the adoption of the decree on the creation of the Workers 'and Peasants' Red Army on January 15 (28), 1918, they began to be called the Soviets of Workers', Peasants' and Red Army Deputies.

62. estate- social stratum; a group whose members differ in their legal status from the rest of the population.

63. Stagnation- the state of the economy, characterized by the stagnation of production and trade over a long period. Stagnation is accompanied by an increase in the number of unemployed, a decrease in wages and the standard of living of the population.

64. Old Believers- a part of Orthodox Christians who departed from the dominant Church in Russia after the reforms of the Moscow Patriarch Nikon.

65. archers- in the Russian state in the 16-18 centuries. the people who made up the standing army; infantry armed with firearms.

66. Code of Laws- the most common form of legal acts during the formation of the Russian centralized state.

67. Table of ranks ("Table of ranks of all ranks of military, civil and courtiers") - the law on the order of public service in the Russian Empire (the ratio of ranks by seniority, the sequence of rank production).

68. Totalitarianism- a form of social structure, characterized by complete (total) control of the state and the ruling party over all aspects of society.

69. Trudoviks- (labor group), a Russian political organization that existed in 1906-1917.

70. Oprichnina- the policy of Ivan the Terrible, directed against the boyar aristocracy.

71. Horde exit- a tribute that the Russian lands paid to the Golden Horde in the 13-15th centuries. The tribute was worn by the entire population, except for the clergy.

72. Cut- in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, a land plot allocated from communal land (as a result of the Stolypin agrarian reform of 1906) into individual peasant property (unlike a farm, without transferring the estate).

73. "Thaw"- a period in the life of Soviet society that began after the death of Stalin and meant a weakening of dictate in political and spiritual life.

74. Parliament- the highest representative and legislative body in states where the separation of powers is established.

75. Political Party- a special public organization (association), directly setting itself the task of seizing political power in the state or taking part in it through its representatives in state authorities and local self-government. Most parties have a program: a spokesman for the ideology of the party, a list of its goals and ways to achieve them.

76. Patriarch- the highest rank in the church hierarchy. Elected by the church council. In the Russian Orthodox Church in 1589 - 1700, restored on November 5 (18), 1917.

77. Plan "Barbarossa"- a plan for the German invasion of the USSR in the Eastern European theater of the Second World War and a military operation carried out in accordance with this plan at the initial stage of the Great Patriotic War.

78. Pogost- administrative-territorial unit in Rus'.

79. Undercut- a cut down, cleared place for arable land in the middle of the forest.

80. Poll tax- tax introduced in Russia by Peter I in 1724.

81. Elderly- a duty in Russia at the end of the 15th-17th centuries, which was paid by the peasant when leaving his owner a week before and a week after St. George's Day in autumn.

82. Polovtsy- Turkic-speaking people, in the 11th century. - in the southern Russian steppes. They raided Rus' in 1055 - the beginning of the 13th century. Defeated and subjugated by the Mongol-Tatars in the 13th century. (part went to Hungary).

83. polyudie- in Ancient Rus', initially the annual detour by the prince and the retinue of the subject population (“people”) to collect tribute.

84. Localism- in medieval Rus': the procedure for distributing official places, taking into account the origin and official position of the person's ancestors. Localism was abolished by the verdict of the Zemsky Sobor in 1682.

85. mentality- a way of thinking, a set of mental skills and spiritual attitudes inherent in an individual or a social group.

86. Modernization- the process of reconstruction of the social system, complete or partial, with the aim of accelerating development.

87. Mongol-Tatar yoke- in Rus' (1243-1480), the traditional name for the system of exploitation of Russian principalities by the Mongol conquerors. It approved the vassal dependence of the Russian princes on the Mongol Empire and the Golden Horde.

88. Monopoly- the exclusive right of production, trade, etc., belonging to one person, a certain group of persons or the state; generally the exclusive right to something.

89. Machine Tractor Station (MTS)- in the USSR, a state agricultural enterprise that provided technical and organizational assistance to collective farms with agricultural machinery.

90. People's Commissariat (people's commissariat) - in the Soviet state (in the RSFSR, in other union and autonomous republics, in the USSR) in 1917-1946 - the central executive authority in charge of managing a separate sphere of state activity or a separate branch of the national economy; analogue of the ministry.

91. Populism- ideological a trend among the intelligentsia in the second half of the 19th century, whose representatives spoke from the standpoint of "peasant socialism" against serfdom and the capitalist development of Russia, for the overthrow of the autocracy through a peasant revolution (the so-called revolutionary populists) or for the implementation of social transformations through reforms (the so-called liberal populists). Ancestors - A. I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, ideologists - M. A. Bakunin, P. L. Lavrov.

92. Nomenclature- a list of the most important positions, the appointment and removal of which was carried out by party committees of different levels. The ruling elite in the USSR.

93. Normans- the name by which the peoples of Scandinavia were known in Western Europe during their expansion in the 8th - mid-11th centuries. In Scandinavia itself, the participants in the campaigns were called Vikings.

94. quitrent- one of the duties of dependent peasants, which consists in paying tribute to the landowner in food or money.

95. OGPU (GPU) - state political department, created in 1922 under the NKVD of the RSFSR on the basis of the reorganized VChK (All-Russian Extraordinary Commission) - the political police of the Bolshevik regime.

96. Oligarchy- a political regime in which power is concentrated in the hands of a relatively small group of citizens (for example, representatives of large monopolized capital) and, at times, serves their personal and / or group interests, and not the interests of all citizens.

97. Classicism- an education system based on the predominance of the study of Latin and Greek languages ​​​​before the study of the exact sciences.

98. Collectivization- this is the process of uniting individual peasant farms into collective farms (collective farms in the USSR). It was held in the USSR in the late 1920s - early 1930s (1928-1933).

99. Consensus- decision-making in parliament and its commissions, at conferences and meetings on the basis of common consent without a vote and in the absence of formally declared objections.

100. Conservatism- ideological adherence to traditional values ​​and orders, social or religious doctrines.

101. Contribution- payments imposed on the defeated state in favor of the victorious state; during the war it is paid by the population of the occupied territory, at the end of the war - by the government of the defeated country.

102. Cooperation- an association of mutual assistance of workers, small producers, including peasants, created for the centralized acquisition and sale of products and goods. Joint performance of a number of production operations, financial mutual assistance, etc.

103. Feeding- a type of award of the great and specific princes to their officials, according to which the princely administration was maintained at the expense of the local population during the period of service.

104. Legitimation- recognition or confirmation of the legitimacy of state power, any social institution, status, authority, based on the values ​​accepted in a given society.

105. Liberalism- a philosophical, political and economic ideology based on the fact that the rights and freedoms of an individual are the legal basis of the social and economic order.

106. "People"- the population in Ancient Rus', subject to the prince, obliged to pay tribute.

107. lumpen - declassed sections of the population (tramps, beggars, etc.).

108. Manufactory- a large enterprise, where the manual labor of hired workers was mainly used and the division of labor was widely used.

109. Marginal- a person who is in an intermediate, borderline position between any social groups, who has lost his former social ties and has not adapted to new living conditions; a person who is on the periphery of society; lumpen, vagabond, vagabond.

110. freemasonry- an ethical movement that arose in the 18th century in the form of a closed organization.

111. Restalinization- a process that means "rehabilitation of Stalin and Stalinism", a return to the main provisions of his domestic and foreign policy.

113. Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate (Rabkrin, RCT) - a system of authorities that dealt with issues of state control

114. Repair- compensation for war-caused losses paid to the victorious country by the defeated state that is guilty of the war.

115. Romanticism- attitude, which is characterized by the idealization of reality, daydreaming.

116. Sacred - designation of the sphere of phenomena of objects, people related to the divine, religious, associated with them.

117. Secularization- withdrawal of something from church, spiritual knowledge and transfer to secular, civil knowledge.

118. Seven Boyars- the name of the transitional government of seven boyars accepted by historians in the summer of 1610.

119. Senate- one of the highest bodies of state power, often the upper house of the legislative assembly (parliament).

120. SENTIMENTALISM- a trend in European literature and art of the second half of the 18th century, formed within the framework of the late Enlightenment and reflecting the growth of democratic sentiments in society.

121. Separate separate, separate from others.

122. Symbolism- direction in European and Russian art of 1870-1910. Focused primarily on artistic expression through the symbol.

123. Synod- one of the highest state bodies in Russia in 1712-1917.

124. Smerd- in Ancient Rus', the category of people with no rights. The life of a smerd in Russkaya Pravda was protected by a minimum vira - 5 hryvnias. Perhaps this was the name of the inhabitants of the recently annexed territories, subject to increased tribute. There is an opinion that all farmers were called smerds, among whom were both dependent and free.

125. TROUBLES- a historical epoch in the life of Muscovite Rus'. The Time of Troubles began after the death of Fedor Ivanovich, the last tsar of the Rurik family (January 6, 1598), and continued until Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov was elected tsar (February 21, 1613).