Plan
Introduction
1. Scientific and technical inventions
2. Structural changes in industry
3. The impact of the scientific and technological revolution on the world economy
Bibliography
Introduction
The development of world productive forces in the late XIX - early XX centuries. occurred at an unusually high pace (for example, the total steel production from 1870 to 1900 increased 20 times), as a result of which the volume of world industrial production increased. Quantitative changes were accompanied by the rapid development of technology, the innovations of which covered various areas of production, transport, and everyday life. Radical changes have taken place in the organization of industrial production and its technology. Many new industries emerged that the world had not known before. Significant shifts have taken place in the distribution of productive forces both between countries and within individual states.
Such a leap in the development of the world industrial potential is associated with the scientific and technological revolution that took place during the period under review.
The relevance of the topic "Scientific and technological discoveries (the end of the 19th-beginning of the 20th century), their impact on the economic development of the world" is that, thanks to the introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, the development of industry over the past two centuries has led to fundamental changes in the conditions and lifestyle of all humanity.
The object of research is scientific and technical discoveries, and its subject is their impact of discoveries on the economic world development
The purpose of the study is to consider scientific and technical discoveries (late XIX - early XX century), their impact on the economic development of the world.
Research objectives to consider:
Scientific and technical inventions;
Structural changes in industry;
The impact of the scientific and technological revolution on the world economy
1. Scientific and technical inventions
On the basis of electricity, a new energy basis for industry and transport was created, i.e. solved the biggest technical problem. In 1867 in Germany, W. Siemens invented an electromagnetic generator with self-excitation, which can receive and generate electric current by rotating a conductor in a magnetic field. In the 70s. The dynamo was invented, which could be used not only as a generator of electricity, but also as an engine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In 1883 T. Edison (USA) created the first modern generator. The next successfully solved problem was the transmission of electricity through wires over long distances (in 1891 Edison created a transformer). Thus, a modern technical chain was formed: receiving - transmitting - receiving electricity, thanks to which industrial enterprises could be located far from energy bases. The production of electricity was organized at special enterprises - power plants.
At first, electricity was sent to the workplaces through an electric drive, which was common to the entire machine complex. Then he became a group and, finally, an individual. From that moment on, each car had a separate engine. The equipment of machines with electric motors increased the speed of machine tools, increased labor productivity and created the prerequisites for the subsequent automation of the production process.
As the need for electricity grew steadily, technical thought was busy looking for new types of prime movers: more powerful, faster, more compact, economical. The most successful invention was the multi-stage steam turbine by the English engineer C. Parsons (1884), which played a significant role in the development of energy - it made it possible to increase the rotation speed many times over.
Along with thermal turbines, hydraulic turbines were being developed; they were first installed at the Niagara hydroelectric plant in 1896, one of the largest power plants of the time.
Of particular importance are internal combustion engines. Models of such engines running on liquid fuel (gasoline) were created in the mid-80s by German engineers. Daimler and K. Benz. These engines were used by motorized trackless vehicles.
In 1896-1987. German engineer R. Diesel invented an internal combustion engine with a high efficiency. Then it was adapted to work on heavy liquid fuel and was extremely widely used in all branches of industry and transport. In 1906, tractors with internal combustion engines appeared in the USA. Their use in agriculture began in 1907. Mass production of such tractors was mastered during the First World War.
Electrical engineering is becoming one of the leading industries, its sub-sectors are developing. Thus, electric lighting is becoming widespread due to the construction of large industrial enterprises, the growth of large cities, and the increased production of electricity.
The invention of the incandescent lamp belongs to Russian scientists: A.N. Lodygin (an incandescent lamp with a carbon rod in a glass bulb, 1873) and P.N. Yablochkov (design of an electric arc lamp, "electric candle", 1875).
In 1879, the American inventor T. Edison proposed a vacuum incandescent lamp with a carbon filament. Subsequently, improvements were made to the design of incandescent lamps by the inventors of various countries. So, A. N. Lodygin developed lamps with metal filaments, including tungsten filaments, which are still used today. Although in many countries of the world gas lighting was preserved for a long time, it could no longer resist the spread of electric lighting systems.
The second scientific and technological revolution is a period of wide development of such a branch of electrical engineering as communication technology. At the end of the XIX century. the wire telegraph equipment was significantly improved, and by the beginning of the 1980s, extensive work had been done on the design and practical use of telephone equipment. The inventor of the telephone is the American A.G. Bell, who received the first patent in 1876. The microphone, which was absent in Bell's apparatus, was invented by T. Edison and independently by the Englishman D. Hughes. Thanks to the microphone, the range of the telephone set increased. Telephone communication began to spread rapidly in all countries of the world. The first telephone exchange in the United States was built in 1877.
Two years later, a telephone exchange was put into operation in Paris, in 1881 - in Ber. line, Petersburg, Moscow, Odessa, Riga and Warsaw. The automatic telephone exchange was patented by the American A. B. Strowger in 1889.
One of the most important achievements of the second scientific and technological revolution is the invention of radio - wireless telecommunications based on the use of electromagnetic waves (radio waves). These waves were first discovered by the German physicist G. Hertz. The practical creation of such a connection was carried out by the outstanding Russian scientist AS. Popov, who demonstrated the world's first radio receiver on May 7, 1885. This was followed by the transmission of a radiogram to a distance, in 1897 a radiotelegraph connection was made between the ships at a distance of 5 km. In 1899, stable long-term transmission of radiograms over a distance of 43 km was achieved.
The Italian engineer G. Marconi in 1896 patented a method for transmitting electrical impulses without wires. Significant material support from British capitalist circles enabled him in 1899 to carry out transmissions across the English Channel, and in 1901 across the Atlantic Ocean.
At the beginning of the XX century. Another branch of electrical engineering was born - electronics. In 1904, the English scientist J. A. Fleming developed a two-electrode lamp (diode), which could be used to convert the frequencies of electrical oscillations. In 1907, the American designer Lee de Forest proposed a three-electrode lamp (triode), with which it was possible not only to convert the frequency of electrical oscillations, but also to amplify weak oscillations. The beginnings of industrial electronics were laid by the introduction of mercury rectifiers to convert alternating current to direct current.
Thus, the industrial application of electrical energy, the construction of power plants, the expansion of electric lighting in cities, the development of telephone communications, etc. led to the rapid development of the electrical industry.
The second scientific and technological revolution was marked not only by the creation of new industries, but also affected the old industries, primarily metallurgy. The rapid development of productive forces - mechanical engineering, shipbuilding, military production, railway transport - created a demand for ferrous metals. Technical innovations were introduced in metallurgy, and metallurgy technology achieved tremendous success. Significantly changed the design and increased the volume of blast furnaces. New methods of steel production were introduced due to the redistribution of cast iron in a converter under strong blast (G. Bessemer, England, patent 1856) and in a special furnace - cast steel (P. Martin, France, 1864). The English metallurgist S. Thomas in 1878 proposed the use of iron ore with large impurities of phosphorus for steel smelting. This method made it possible to free the metal from impurities of sulfur and phosphorus.
In the 80s, an electrolytic method for producing aluminum was introduced, which made it possible to develop non-ferrous metallurgy. The electrolytic method was also used to obtain copper (1878). These methods formed the basis of modern steel production, although the Thomas method in the second half of the 20th century. was superseded by the oxygen-converter process.
The most important direction of the second scientific and technological revolution was transport - new modes of transport appeared and the existing means of communication were improved.
Such practical needs as the growth of volumes and speed of transportation contributed to the improvement of railway technology. In the last decades of the XIX century. completed the transition to steel railroad rails. Increasingly, steel was widely used in the construction of bridges. "Erustal Bridges" opened an arch bridge built in the USA in 1874 across the river. Mississippi near the city of St. Louis. Its author is J. Yde. The carriageway of the suspension Brooklyn Bridge (near New York) with a central span of 486 m was supported by steel ropes. The Hall Gate Arch Bridge in New York was built in 1917 entirely from alloyed steel (high carbon). The largest steel bridges were built in Russia across the Volga (1879) and the Yenisei (1896) under the guidance of an NA engineer. Bogolyubsky. Since the 1980s, reinforced concrete has been widely used in the construction of bridges along with steel. On the railways laid in the Alps, the largest tunnels were dug: Saint Gotthard (1880), Simplonsky (1905). The most significant of the underwater tunnels was the seven-kilometer Severn Tunnel in England (1885).
In the same years, tunnels were also built in Russia: through the Suramsky mountain range in the Caucasus, the Yablonovy Range in the Far East, etc.
The rolling stock on the railways was improved - the power, traction force, speed, weight and size of steam locomotives, and the carrying capacity of wagons increased sharply. Since 1872, automatic brakes have been introduced in railway transport; in 1876, the design of an automatic coupling was developed.
At the end of the XIX century. in Germany, Russia, and the United States, experiments were conducted on the introduction of electric traction on railways. The first electric city tram line was opened in Germany in 1881. In Russia, the construction of tram lines began in 1892. In the 1990s, suburban and intercity electric railways appeared in a number of countries. However, this was actively opposed by railway, coal, and oil companies.
The fleet developed. Since the 1960s, reciprocating steam engines with multiple steam expansion have been used on ships. In 1894-1895. The first experiments were carried out to replace piston engines with steam turbines. They also sought to increase the power and speed of sea and ocean steam ships: the crossing of the Atlantic Ocean was now possible in seven to five days. We started building ships with internal combustion engines - motor ships. The first motor ship - the oil tanker "Vandal" was built by Russian designers in 1903. In Western Europe, the construction of motor ships began in 1912. The largest event in the development of maritime transport was the construction in 1914 of the Panama Canal, which had not only economic, but also political and military value.
A new type of transport, born in the era of the second scientific and technological revolution, is automobile. The first cars were designed by German engineers K. Benz and G. Daimler. Industrial production of cars began in the 90s, and in several countries. The invention of rubber tires in 1895 by Irish engineer J. Danlop contributed to the success of cars. The high pace of development of the automotive industry led to the construction of highways.
A new type of transport at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. - air It is subdivided into devices lighter than air - airships and heavier than air - airplanes (airplanes). In 1896, the German designer G. Selfert used an internal combustion engine running on liquid fuel for airships, which contributed to the development of airship building in many countries. But aircraft played a decisive role in the development of air transport.
Russian scientists and inventors, the founders of modern hydro- and aerodynamics, D.I. Mendeleev, L.M. Pomortsev, S.K. Dzhevetsky, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, and especially N. E. Zhukovsky. A great merit in the development of flight technology belongs to the German engineer O. Lilienthal.
The first experiments in the design of aircraft with steam engines were carried out by A. F. Mozhaisky (1882-1885, Russia), K. Ader (1890-1893, France) X. Maxim (1892-1894, USA). The wide development of aviation became possible after the establishment of light and compact gasoline engines. In 1903, in the United States, brothers W. and O. Wright made four flights in an airplane with an internal combustion engine. At first, the aircraft had a sporting value, then they began to be used in military affairs, and then - for the transport of passengers.
The second scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the penetration and organization of chemical methods of processing raw materials in almost all branches of production. In such industries as mechanical engineering, electrical production, and the textile industry, the chemistry of synthetic fibers - plastics, insulating materials, artificial fibers, etc. - began to be widely used. In 1869, the American chemist J. Hyatt obtained cellulolide. In 1906, L. Baekeland produced bakelite, then carbolite and other plastic masses were lubricated. Developed by the French engineer G. Chardonnay in 1884, the method of manufacturing artificial fiber became the basis for arbitrary nitro silk, and since 1903 - artificial silk and viscose.
In 1899-1900. the works of the Russian scientist I. L. Kond made it possible to obtain synthetic rubber from carbohydrates. A method has been proposed for the manufacture of ammonia, which serves as the starting material for nitric acid, and other nitrogen compounds necessary in the production of dyes, fertilizers, and explosives. The best method was the method of the German scientists F. Haber and K. Bosch.
The achievement of the second STR is the cracking process - a method of oil decomposition at high pressures and temperatures. It made it possible to provide an increased yield of gasoline, since the need for light liquid fuel increased sharply. The foundations of the method were laid down by D. I. Mendeleev and developed by Russian scientists and engineers, in particular V. G. Shukhov. Similar studies were carried out in the USA, where in 1916 this process was mastered in industrial production.
Before the First World War, synthetic gasoline was obtained. Back in 1903-1904. Russian chemists of the school of A. E. Favorsky discovered a method for the production of liquid fuel from solid fuel, but this greatest achievement of Russian technical thought was not used. The industrial method for the manufacture of light fuel from coal was carried out by the German engineer F. Bergius, which was of great economic and military importance for Germany, which did not have natural oil resources.
The scientific and technological revolution has introduced a lot of new things to improve the technical sphere of the light, printing and other industries. These are automatic weaving machine, bottle making machine, mechanical typesetting machine, etc.
At the end of the XIX century. the production of standardized products created the prerequisites for the development of a flow system. The mass production system requires a rational organization of labor, processing machines and jobs are located along the technological process. The manufacturing process is divided into a large number of simple operations and is performed non-stop, continuously. Initially, such a system was introduced in canning, match production, and then spread to many industries. She played a particularly important role in the automotive industry. This was explained, on the one hand, by the need to rapidly increase the production of cars due to a sharp increase in demand for them, and on the other hand, by the peculiarities of automotive production, built on the principles of interchangeability and normalization (standardization) of parts and assemblies. At the automobile factories of G. Ford in the USA, mass production for the first time acquired a finished form (using conveyors). In 1914, the assembly speed of one car was increased to one and a half hours.
The introduction of in-line production has changed the nature of factory equipment in mechanical engineering. Specialized machines began to be introduced for the manufacture of parts - screws, washers, nuts, bolts, etc. In the textile industry in 1890, an automatic loom by the English designer J. Northrop appeared.
Scientific and technological progress of military equipment was significant. The main directions of its development included:
small arms automation. The easel machine guns of an American engineer were adopted. X. Maxima (1883), Maxim and Hotchkiss heavy machine guns, Lewis light machine guns. Several types of automatic rifles have been created;
artillery automation. Before the First World War and during it, new rapid-fire guns were designed - semi-automatic and automatic. The firing distance increased from 16-18 km to 120 km. (for example, the unique German gun "Big Bertha"). A number of tractors with internal combustion engines were introduced to move heavy artillery. Anti-aircraft artillery appeared to combat enemy air raids. Tanks and armored vehicles were created, armed with machine guns and small-caliber guns;
production of explosives. Their output has grown exponentially. New inventions were made (smokeless powder), the production of bound nitrogen from the air (raw material for explosives) was developed. The use of poisonous substances during the First World War required means of protection against them - in 1915, the Russian engineer N. D. Zelinsky developed a coal gas mask. The construction of gas shelters began;
wide use of means of aeronautics and aviation. Aircraft performed the functions of not only military intelligence, but also fighters. From the summer of 1915, aircraft began to be armed with machine guns. The speed of fighter aircraft was increased to 190-220 km per hour. There were bomber planes. Even before the war (in 1913), the aircraft designer I. Sikorsky built the first four-engine aircraft "Russian Knight" in Russia. During the war, the belligerents improved their bomber aircraft;
the creation of large surface ships - battleships, dreadnoughts. Scuba diving has become a reality. In the last years of the XIX century. submarines were built in various countries. In the surface position, they were driven by internal combustion engines, and in the underwater position, by electric motors. Germany paid particular attention to the construction of submarines, having established their production by the beginning of the First World War.
2. Structural changes in the industry
In a relatively short time (since the beginning of the 19th century) of the establishment of machine production, more tangible results were achieved in the economic progress of society than in its entire previous history.
The dynamism of needs, which are a powerful engine for the development of production, combined with the desire of capital to increase profits, and hence to master new technological principles, greatly accelerated the progress of production, brought to life a whole series of technical revolutions.
The rapid development of science, starting from the end of the 19th century, led to a significant number of discoveries of a fundamental nature, which laid the foundation for new directions in scientific and technological progress. This is the rapid development and practical use of electrical energy (electric motors, three-phase power transmission lines); creation of an internal combustion engine; the rapid growth of the chemical and petrochemical industry based on the widespread use of oil as a fuel and raw material; introduction of new technologies in metallurgy. The progress of science, technology and production has increased the interpenetration, integration of science and technology in various areas
The development of industry over the past two centuries has led to fundamental changes in the conditions and lifestyle of all mankind. Thanks to the introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, the scale of output in absolute terms in all industries of the world continues to increase.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries, the leading industries were: the production of electricity, products of organic and inorganic chemistry, mining, metallurgical, machine-building, and transport industries.
New industries developed: steel, oil production, oil refining, electrical engineering, aluminum, automotive.
The leading place in the organization and management of production belonged to joint stock companies, collective property. The growth of banking and industrial capital led to the formation of a financial oligarchy. Free competition capitalism has grown into monopoly capitalism.
3. The impact of the scientific and technological revolution on the world economy
By the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. fundamentally changed the foundations of scientific thinking; natural science is flourishing, a unified system of sciences is being created. This was facilitated by the discovery of the electron and radioactivity
A new scientific revolution took place, which began in physics and covered all the main branches of science. It is represented by M. Planck, who created the quantum theory, and A. Einstein, who created the theory of relativity, which marked a breakthrough into the microworld.
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. the connection between science and production has become more stable and systematic; a close relationship between science and technology is established, which determines the gradual transformation of science into the direct productive force of society. If until the end of the nineteenth century. science remained “small” (a small number of people were employed in this area, then at the turn of the 20th century the method of organizing science changed - large scientific institutes, laboratories equipped with a powerful technical base arose. This area has increased, special links of research activities have arisen, the task of which was to bring theoretical solutions to technical implementation as soon as possible, including experimental design, industrial research, technological, experimental, etc.
The process of revolutionary transformations in the field of science then embraced technique and technology.
The First World War caused a huge development of military technology. Thus, the second scientific and technological revolution covered various areas of industrial production. It surpassed the previous era in terms of the pace of technological progress. At the beginning of the XIX century. the order of inventions was calculated in two-digit numbers, in the era of the second scientific and technological revolution - four-digit, i.e., in thousands. The largest number of inventions was patented by the American T. Edison (more than 1000).
By its nature, the second scientific and technological revolution differed from the industrial revolution of the 18th-19th centuries. If the industrial revolution led to the formation of the machine industry and a change in the social structure of society (the formation of two new classes - the bourgeoisie and the working class) and the establishment of the domination of the bourgeoisie, then the second scientific and technological revolution did not affect the type of production and the social structure and the nature of socio-economic relations. Its results are changes in engineering and production technology, the reconstruction of the machine industry, the transformation of science from small to large. Therefore, it is called not the industrial revolution, but the scientific and technological one.
There was not only diversification of industries, but also sub-sectors. This can be seen on the structure, for example, mechanical engineering. The transport engineering (production of locomotives, automobiles, aircraft, river and sea vessels, trams, etc.) declared itself in full force. During these years, such a branch of mechanical engineering as the automotive industry developed most dynamically. The first cars with a gasoline engine began to be created in Germany by K. Benz and G. Daimler (November 1886). but soon they had foreign competitors. If the first car at the G. Ford plant in the USA was produced in 1892, then by the beginning of the 20th century this enterprise was producing 4 thousand cars a year.
The rapid development of new branches of engineering caused a change in the structure of ferrous metallurgy - the demand for steel increased and the rate of its smelting significantly exceeded the increase in pig iron production.
Technical shifts of the late XIX-early XX centuries. and the outstripping development of new industries predetermined the change in the structure of world industrial production. If BEFORE the start of the second scientific and technological revolution, the share of industries of group “B” (production of consumer goods) dominated in the total volume of output, then as a result of the second scientific and technological revolution, the share of industries of group “A” (production of means of production, industries of heavy industry) increased. This led to the fact that the concentration of production increased, large enterprises began to predominate. In turn, large-scale production needed large capital investments and necessitated the pooling of private capital, which was carried out by the formation of joint-stock companies. The completion of this chain of changes was the creation, the formation of monopolistic unions, i.e. monopolies both in the field of production and in the field of capital (financial sources).
Thus, as a result of the changes in technology and production technology and the development of the productive forces caused by the second scientific and technological revolution, material prerequisites were created for the formation of monopolies and the transition of capitalism from the industrial stage and free competition to the monopolistic stage. Contributed to the process of monopolization and economic crises that regularly occurred at the end of the XIX century, as well as the beginning of the XX century. (1873,1883,1893, 1901-1902, etc.). Since it was primarily small and medium-sized enterprises that perished during crises, this contributed to the concentration and centralization of production and capital.
Monopoly as a form of organization of production and capital in the late XIX - early XX centuries. took a dominant position in the socio-economic life of the leading countries of the world, although the degree of concentration and monopolization by country was not the same; were different prevailing forms of monopolies. As a result of the second scientific and technological revolution, instead of an individual form of ownership, the main one becomes joint-stock, in agriculture - farming; develops cooperative, as well as municipal.
At this historical stage, the leading place in the world in terms of industrial development is occupied by the young capitalist countries - the USA and Germany, Japan is advancing significantly, while the former leaders - England and France are lagging behind. The center of world economic development, in the transition to the monopoly stage of capitalism, shifts from Europe to North America. The first power in the world in terms of economic development was the United States of America.
Conclusion
The rapid development of science, starting from the end of the 19th century, led to a significant number of discoveries of a fundamental nature, which laid the foundation for new directions in scientific and technological progress.
In 1867 in Germany, W. Siemens invented an electromagnetic generator with self-excitation, which can receive and generate electric current by rotating a conductor in a magnetic field. In the 70s. The dynamo was invented, which could be used not only as a generator of electricity, but also as an engine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. In 1883 T. Edison (USA) created the first modern generator. In 1891, Edison created a transformer. The most successful invention was the multi-stage steam turbine by the English engineer C. Parsons (1884)
Of particular importance are internal combustion engines. Models of such engines running on liquid fuel (gasoline) were created in the mid-80s by German engineers Daimler and K. Benz. These engines were used by motorized trackless vehicles. In 1896-1987. German engineer R. Diesel invented an internal combustion engine with a high efficiency.
The invention of the incandescent lamp belongs to Russian scientists: A.N. Lodygin (an incandescent lamp with a carbon rod in a glass flask.
The inventor of the telephone was the American A. G. Bell, who received the first patent in 1876. One of the most important achievements of the second scientific and technological revolution was the invention of the radio.
At the beginning of the XX century. Another branch of electrical engineering was born - electronics. Technical innovations were introduced in metallurgy, and metallurgy technology achieved tremendous success.
Characteristic is the penetration and organization of chemical methods of processing raw materials in almost all branches of production.
Before the First World War, synthetic gasoline was obtained
Among the most important inventions of this time are the Singer sewing machine, rotary printing machine, Morse telegraph, revolving, grinding, milling machine, McCormick's mower, and Heirem's combined threshing machine.
At the end of the XIX-beginning of the XX centuries. there have been structural changes in the industry:
Structural changes in the economies of individual countries: the creation of large-scale machine production, predominantly heavy industry over light industry, giving the advantage of industry over agriculture;
New branches of industry are emerging, old ones are being modernized;
The share of enterprises in the production of gross national product (GNP) and national income is increasing;
There is a concentration of production - there are monopolistic associations;
The formation of the world market is completed at the end of the 19th - at the beginning of the 20th century;
The unevenness in the development of individual countries is deepening;
Interstate contradictions are sharpened.
Scientific and technological revolution led to the emergence of many new branches of industrial production, which history did not know. These are electrical, chemical, oil, oil refining and petrochemical, automotive industry, aircraft construction, production of Portland cement and reinforced concrete, etc.
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The modern scientific and technological revolution, which began at the beginning of the 20th century, is a set of fundamental qualitative changes in the means, technology, organization and management of production based on new scientific principles. This revolution has been prepared not only by the development of science and productive forces, but also by the social changes that have taken place in society as a result of the world revolutionary process.
Unlike the industrial revolution of the 18th century, which marked the transition from manufactory to large-scale machine production, the modern scientific and technological revolution is a transition to a qualitatively new higher level of machine production - to large-scale automated machine production.
In contrast to the system of machines of the 19th century, which consisted of three elements: a machine-tool, a machine-motor and a transmission mechanism, the modern automatic system of machines includes, in addition to these three links, a qualitatively new one - a control link. In recent decades, on the basis of the control link, a fundamentally new machine has been created - the control one, which is gradually turning into an independent type of machine system. The transition to a four-link structure of machines containing an automatic device that simulates some of the mental and logical functions of a person is the starting point of the modern scientific and technological revolution.
The scientific and technological revolution is characterized by the restructuring of the technical and sectoral structure of the national economy. In the process of this restructuring, material and material prerequisites are created for the next stage - large-scale automated machine production. Restructuring is taking place in all elements of material production - in the system of machines, in production technology, in the structure of the entire national economy.
The role of science in the development of production has increased immeasurably. Science turns into a direct productive force, becomes a specific component of the productive forces of society.
The basis of the modern scientific and technological revolution is the electrification and electronization of all parts of the production process. Consequently, the most important changes in the development of production are directly related to the development of energy, electrical engineering, and electronics. The creation of large-scale automated machine production, complex automated control systems, the introduction of electronic computers in production, transport, construction, research, design, and planning organizations cannot be carried out without huge expenditures of electricity, without the creation of new electrical and electronic devices.
The most general qualitative indicator of the level of technological development is labor productivity. This indicator is directly related to others - the productivity of the machine, expressed in the amount of product produced by it per unit of time.
The productivity of machines, and with it the productivity of technology as a whole, is constantly growing. The quality of a machine can be judged by its performance. But productivity, in turn, is a consequence of a number of factors, the most significant of which are the intensity and intensity of work. The intensity of the work of machines is achieved by increasing the speed of movement, concentration and intensification of mechanical, physical and chemical processes. As an example of the intensification of processes in an electrical device, one can refer to significant voltage increases in power lines - from tens and hundreds to hundreds of thousands of volts.
Another qualitative indicator of the development of technology is the coefficient of efficiency, which makes it possible to evaluate the perfection of machines. We can say that the efficiency of machines tends to increase. As a rule, after reaching 95%, the increase in efficiency slows down, although individual jumps can occur.
However, in modern conditions of development of scientific and technological progress, the qualitative progress of technology can by no means be assessed only by the values of efficiency and other economic indicators.
Penetrating more and more into the secrets of nature, man, as already noted, has learned to create such powerful technical objects that the powers they develop turn out to be commensurate with geophysical and cosmic ones.
When developing such facilities, an integrated systematic approach is required, taking into account not only the technical and economic, but also the social and environmental consequences of their activities. A modern specialist should always remember that our society should be focused primarily on a person, on creating conditions for his healthy, creative life, for his all-round development.
In the creative activity of an engineer or scientist, not only the ability to see the sprouts of the new is of great importance, but also the ability to correctly evaluate the old. In the process of technological development, there are constant replacements of one type of technical objects with others that are more appropriate for new needs. During their inception, these objects accelerated industrial progress, but over time they began to slow down its further development, despite the fact that they were constantly improved. For example, steam locomotives, which were widely used in the first half of our century, were many times more powerful, faster and more economical than Stephenson's or Cherepanov's steam locomotives. But if the first steam locomotives were a new step in the development of transport technology, then they have long looked like an anachronism.
Consequently, in contrast to living beings, technical objects give way to more modern ones at their peak. This is also one of the laws of technology. Understanding this process makes it easier to overcome the old traditions in relation to technical objects, which are sometimes given over many years of creative activity, it makes it easier to abandon them if they do not have prospects for development in the future.
And when evaluating the contribution of this or that figure in science and technology, one must first of all keep in mind what he has done that is new in comparison with his predecessors.
An important feature of the development of technology is the return to old ideas based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress. So, the first three-phase transformers of M. O. Dolivo-Dobrovolsky had a spatial magnetic circuit, but due to the complexity of their manufacturing technology, they were not used. More than 75 years have passed. The technical level of transformer engineering has increased significantly, the development of the production of cold-rolled steel coils and the use of aluminum foil and tape for windings have made it possible to establish mass production of powerful transformers with a spatial magnetic circuit.
Another characteristic feature of the development of technology should be borne in mind: the new is often created in old constructive forms, which seem to scientists and inventors to be the most perfect. For example, one of the first electric motors of the XIX century. (Bourbuz engine) in its external forms almost exactly repeated the steam engine: the reciprocating movement of the pistons was replaced by a similar movement of the magnets in the solenoids, the switching was carried out by changing the polarity, the rotational movement of the shaft was achieved using a crank mechanism. The possibility of using a linear motor at that time was not yet thought of.
When developing new devices, one always has to deal with the actual technical contradictory requirements for the object, for example, the requirements for reliability and intensity of work, speed and strength.
Veselovsky O. N. Shneiberg A. Ya "Essays on the history of electrical engineering"
§ 22. Scientific and technological progress
Transport development
Humanity entered the 20th century with steamboats, trains, trams, and cars. In 1903, the brothers W. and O. Wright made the first airplane flight in the USA. New modes of transport have conquered the world and linked it into a single network of communications. During the XX - early XXI century. vehicles were improved. On the railroad, steam locomotives were replaced by diesel locomotives, which, in turn, gave way to electric locomotives. The first electrified railway line Baku-Sabunchi in the USSR was put into operation in 1924. High-speed railways appeared in the second half of the century. In Japan, they connect Tokyo with the south of Hokkaido, in France - Paris with Marseille. Many major cities around the world have metro lines that often go to suburban areas. This allows millions of people to move quickly within metropolitan areas. The growth of cities in the process of urbanization requires constant improvement of transport links.
Already at the beginning of the XX century. steamships began to be replaced by steamships. The carrying capacity of ships increased. By the end of the century, comfortable ocean liners, giant oil tankers, technically equipped fishing fleets had mastered the sea.
Japanese high-speed train Tokyo - Kyoto
A dense network of highways with a total length of several tens of millions of kilometers covered the planet. After the First World War, the automobile became one of the main vehicles. In 1924, the first one and a half ton trucks were produced in the USSR at the AMO plant (now ZIL). After the Second World War, the car conquered the whole world, turned into one of the symbols of the 20th century.
The aircraft industry, like the automotive industry, began to develop rapidly after the First World War. The creation of new types of aircraft is associated with the names of talented designers: W. Messerschmitt and E. Heinkel in Germany, I. I. Sikorsky in the USA, A. Griffith in the UK, S. V. Ilyushin, A. N. Tupolev and A. S. Yakovlev in the USSR. The second half of the century was characterized by the rapid development of jet aviation. In 1947, an American aircraft broke the supersonic barrier for the first time. In the 1950s jet passenger airliners (the American Boeing and the Soviet Tu-104) appeared in the sky. In 1968, the first demonstration flight of the Tu-144 supersonic passenger liner took place. On long-distance routes, turboprops were replaced by jet aircraft. Along with aircraft, in the second half of the 20th century. Helicopters are widely used. The first successful flight in 1939 was made by a helicopter created by the American designer of Russian origin I. I. Sikorsky.
In 1927, the American pilot C. Lindbergh made a non-stop flight from New York to Paris in 33.5 hours; at the end of the century, the supersonic Concorde delivered passengers from America to Europe in 3.5 hours.
Museum of Science and Technology. Valencia, Spain
By the beginning of the XXI century. the world turned out to be covered by a system of passenger routes accessible to every inhabitant of the planet. Local flights deliver to places where mountains, sands, deserts or lakes and swamps create formidable obstacles to movement on land. Transcontinental and transoceanic flights can deliver a person from one end of the Earth to another in no more than half a day.
Nuclear weapons and nuclear power
By the end of the 1930s. the development of microparticle physics led to the creation of technical prerequisites for the use of atomic energy. A year before the outbreak of World War II, German physicists O. Hahn and F. Strassmann split the uranium atom. But the first country where nuclear reactors appeared and the atomic bomb was created was the United States. To varying degrees, the largest physicists from many countries who emigrated to America were involved in its creation: the Italian E. Fermi, who built the first nuclear reactor in Chicago, the Hungarians E. Teller and L. Szilard, and the Dane N. Bohr. The laboratory at Los Alamos, where these scientists worked, was headed by the American physicist R. Oppenheimer. On July 16, 1945, the first atomic bomb was detonated in the desert of New Mexico.
The USSR became the second nuclear power. The first Soviet nuclear reactor was launched in 1946, and three years later the atomic bomb was tested. This was the result of the work of a team of scientists, which included I. V. Kurchatov, Ya. B. Zeldovich and Yu. B. Khariton, who jointly calculated the chain reaction of uranium.
In 1953, the atomic bomb was tested in England, the first hydrogen bombs - American, created by a group of scientists led by Teller, and Soviet. In the USSR, the theoretical foundations for creating a bomb, as well as for a controlled thermonuclear reaction, were developed by I. E. Tamm and A. D. Sakharov. Later, France joined the ranks of the nuclear powers, and then China. At the very end of the XX century. India and Pakistan acquired nuclear weapons. At present, the question of imposing restrictions on the further spread of nuclear weapons has become acute.
The first nuclear submarine "Nautilus". USA 1954
The use of atomic energy for military purposes led to the creation of nuclear-powered submarines. The first of these, the Nautilus, was launched in the USA in 1954, and in 1960 an American nuclear submarine, without rising to the surface, circumnavigated the world in 84 days. Similar multi-day voyages, including under the ice of the Arctic Ocean, were made by Soviet submarines.
Britain's first nuclear power plant. calder hall
Thanks to the development of a controlled thermonuclear reaction, it became possible to use atomic energy for peaceful purposes. In 1954, in the USSR, in the city of Obninsk, the world's first experimental nuclear power plant began to operate, and in 1956, the first industrial nuclear power plant came into operation in England. There are hundreds of nuclear power plants in operation around the world today.
Rocketry and astronautics
By the first decades of the XX century. the theoretical (physical, mathematical and technical) substantiation of the possibility of space flights. The founder of scientific cosmonautics in Russia was K. E. Tsiolkovsky, a physics teacher from Kaluga, who developed engineering solutions for the design of rockets and a liquid-propellant rocket engine. G. Oberth, who worked in Germany, Italy and the USA, who wrote the first fundamental work in Western Europe devoted to space flights, can also be attributed to the founders of rocket science and astronautics.
The most significant achievements in rocket science are associated with the names of S. P. Korolev and W. von Braun. Both conducted successful missile tests as early as the 1930s. Korolev since 1945 became the leading designer and organizer of rocket science in the USSR. Under the leadership of Korolev, and then his associates and successors V.N. Chelomey and M.K. Yangel, various types of rockets were created that launched artificial satellites and spacecraft into Earth orbit. Brown was one of the leaders of the German military missile research center, the chief designer of the V-2 ballistic guided missile, which was launched from the mainland and caused considerable damage to British cities. Later, from 1945, Brown worked in the United States as a leading designer of launch vehicles.
On October 4, 1957, the first artificial Earth satellite was launched in the Soviet Union, and a month later, the second, with the dog Laika on board. In the autumn of 1959, Lunnik-3 photographed the far side of the Moon and transmitted these images to Earth. Following the Soviet satellites, American ones also appeared in near-Earth orbits. But the next decisive breakthrough into space also belonged to Soviet scientists and designers. On April 12, 1961, Yu. A. Gagarin circled the Earth in 108 minutes on the Vostok spacecraft. Soon, on May 5, a ship with astronaut A. Shepard was launched into low Earth orbit in the USA. In August, the Vostok-2 piloted by G. S. Titov made 17 orbits around our planet.
In the 1960s in orbit, the first docking of two spacecraft took place, automatic interplanetary stations were launched: the Soviet one to Mars and the American one to Venus. The Soviet cosmonaut A. A. Leonov, and then the American astronaut E. White, went out into outer space. The spacecraft of the superpowers landed on the surface of the Moon, took soil samples and reported information about its composition to Earth. The Soviet apparatus descended to the surface of Venus; The American manned spacecraft Apollo 8 circled the moon. Chronicle of space achievements in the 1960s. completed the landing in 1969 of the Americans N. Armstrong and E. Aldrin from the Apollo 11 spacecraft to the moon and landing on it in 1970 of the Soviet self-propelled apparatus Lunokhod-1.
The last third of the 20th century was marked by the implementation of international space exploration projects, the creation of American space shuttles and Soviet long-term space stations. The Russian orbital research complex Mir (1986–2001) worked the longest time in near-Earth space, on which all records for the duration of a person's stay in space were set.
Information and computer technology
Even in the last decades of the XIX century. such methods of transmitting information as the telegraph and telephone began to enter life. A new revolutionary step in the development of communications was the use of radio. Its inventors were the Russian scientist A. S. Popov and the Italian G. Marconi. With the advent of wireless room radios, the individual information field has expanded immeasurably. Now it was possible, using different ranges of radio waves, to listen to dozens of programs, both domestic and foreign. In science, technology, medicine, new areas of application of radio waves and other electromagnetic oscillations began to appear: radio physics, radio astronomy, radio biology, radiology, radar, radio navigation. Radio telemechanics arose - a field of knowledge associated with the development of remote control of machines and mechanisms (unmanned aircraft, remotely controlled research vehicles, robots, etc.).
In the first decades of the XX century. sound-reproducing devices - gramophones and gramophones - were widely used. Thanks to the improvement of sound recording in the 1930s. a new era in cinema has come: silent films have been replaced by sound ones.
Another information revolution was the emergence of television. A significant contribution to the development of visual means of information transmission was made by the scientist and inventor V.K. Zworykin, who emigrated from Russia to the United States. The practical development of television began in the 1930s. In the USSR, regular television broadcasting began after the Great Patriotic War.
One of the first radio receivers. 1923
Second half of the 20th century - the time of birth and flourishing of cybernetics - the science of the general laws of obtaining, storing, transmitting and processing information that underlies the creation of automatic regulators in technology, automation systems for intellectual work (computers), control systems. The father of information science is the American scientist N. Wiener, who developed its foundations and gave the name "Cybernetics" to his book, published in 1948. At the turn of the 1940s-1950s. transistors were invented almost simultaneously in the USA and the USSR. This created the theoretical and practical conditions for the birth of computer technology.
The first electronic computers (computers) appeared in the post-war decade, and since then one generation of computers has periodically replaced another. The improvement of technology led to the creation in the 1970s. personal computers. Their wide distribution, as well as the introduction of robots and automation of production, marked a technological revolution based on microelectronics, the transition of the community of Western countries to the post-industrial stage. Appearance at the end of the XX century. The global computer network Internet makes it possible to accumulate, store and distribute any information (scientific, technical, economic, political, artistic, etc.) around the world. Mobile satellite telephone communication allows you to have a conversation from anywhere in the world. At the same time, cheaper cable communications continue to play an important role in human communication. It is no coincidence that in the 1990s a transoceanic submarine cable was laid from England to Japan with a length of 25 thousand miles. In 2000, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to the American scientists G. Kremer and J. Kilby, as well as the Russian academician Zh. and led to the creation of integrated transistor circuits, solar batteries at space stations, and the development of laser technology.
Development of medicine
Medicine has changed tremendously in over a hundred years. Gone is the image of a doctor listening to a patient with a tube attached to his chest. Whatever specialized medical office you go to today, computers are working everywhere and there is sophisticated medical equipment. And it all started at the very end of the 19th century, when radiography of the lungs, stomach, and bone disorders appeared. Since the middle of the XX century. ultrasound diagnostic methods were introduced (images of internal organs, detection of disorders in the brain - echoencephalography). In the 1960s A computerized X-ray scanning tomograph appeared, which allows to display layer-by-layer images of the internal organs of a person. Currently, blood composition studies, the results of studying internal organs using medical equipment, and complex biochemical analyzes provide a fairly accurate picture of a person’s health status.
No less significant than in diagnostics are achievements in the field of surgery. During the Great Patriotic War, thanks to surgeons, more than 72% of the wounded Red Army soldiers returned to duty. In the second half of the XX century. such a promising direction as transplantation developed, i.e., transplantation of internal organs (kidneys, liver, heart, bone marrow) from one person to another. A particularly difficult operation was a heart transplant, first performed by the South African surgeon K. Barnard in 1967. Later, he managed to transplant a second heart into the patient and connect the hearts so that they began to work together. Recent advances in the field of transplantation are associated with the cultivation of new human organs intended for transplantation from cellular material. In cardiology, heart bypass surgery has become widely used.
Cardiac surgeons have learned to replace damaged areas of the heart with healthy patient muscle tissue. In vascular surgery, clogged blood vessels are replaced with artificial ones. A technique for performing operations to remove tissue from the cornea of the eye using a laser has been developed. With the help of metal-plastic structures, limb mobility is restored to disabled people.
By the end of the XX century. local anesthesia and technical advances in dentistry have relieved patients of the acute pain of dental treatment.
Great strides have been made in the treatment of many diseases. For example, the life of people with diabetes is preserved by a medical drug - insulin. Such dangerous diseases as leprosy and tuberculosis are cured. Health is maintained through vaccination against a number of diseases, immune protection is provided by the use of artificially manufactured vitamins, hormones, and antiviral drugs.
Never before have scientific achievements invaded people's lives so quickly, so often and so significantly as in the 20th century. For a century, thanks to continuous revolutionary discoveries and inventions, scientific and technological progress has dramatically changed the face of the world and people's lives.
Questions and tasks
1. What new areas of scientific and technological progress are characteristic of the 20th - early 21st centuries? What factors contributed to the implementation of the achievements of scientists?
2. How did the development of science in the XX century. was connected with the problems of world politics?
3. Why are the indicators of state power in the late XX - early XXI century. were not the volumes of extracted natural resources and the production of steel, aluminum, various alloys, metalworking machine tools, etc., but the development and mass use of new high technologies, primarily information?
4. As soon as they didn’t call the 20th century: both “nuclear”, since man mastered the energy of the atom, and “nylon”, meaning the creation of synthetic materials, and “the society of new nomads”, given the unprecedented mobility of man. Which of these names do you think is the most accurate? Try to come up with your own definition. Make a list of the ten most significant, in your opinion, scientific and technological achievements of the 20th century.
5. Describe the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution, which allow a person to realize himself as a citizen of the world in the socio-cultural sense. Is each of us responsible for the fate of mankind?
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL ADVANCES AND PROGRESS OF THE INDUSTRY AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 20TH CENTURY. PRESENTATION ON HISTORY.11 CLASS. A BASIC LEVEL OF.
THEME QUESTIONS REASONS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT TECHNICAL PROGRESS IN THE FIRST DECADES OF THE 20TH CENTURY. TRANSITION TO MODERN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTIONTRANSITION TO MODERN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION. QUESTIONS AND TASKS FOR THE LESSON.
THE PROBLEM THE KEY WORDS OF THE LESSON ARE THREE TERMS: WHAT? SCIENCE TECHNOLOGYPROGRESS WHY.. SCIENCE TECHNOLOGYPROGRESS LET'S TRY TO SELECT THE TOPIC OF THE LESSON:…………….. GOALS.. OBJECTIVES..
WORK PLANNING DEVELOPING A WORK PLAN: 1. IDENTIFICATION OF THE REASONS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT. 2. WORK ON THE TABLE “Scientific and technological progress at the beginning of the 20th century…page Organization of industrial production. Selection of new forms. WORK IN GROUPS AND IN PAIRS OF CHOICE
REASONS FOR THE ACCELERATION OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL PROGRESS. REASONS CONTENT FIRSTLY THE ACCUMULATION OF HUGE FACTUAL MATERIAL, PREPARATION OF THE SOIL FOR A QUALITATIVE BREAK IN THE KNOWLEDGE OF NATURE SECONDLY SCIENCE BECOMES INTERNATIONAL. SCIENTISTS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES GET THE OPPORTUNITY TO USE EACH OTHER'S SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS. C - THIRD SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AT THE JOINTS OF SCIENCES, THE EMISSION OF NEW SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINES C - FOURTH APPROXIMATION OF SCIENTIFIC PROGRESS WITH TECHNICAL PROGRESS. IMPLEMENTATION OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES IN PRODUCTION. ORIGIN OF LABORATORIES IN PRODUCTION WHAT CONCLUSIONS CAN BE DONE ... 1. 2.
TECHNICAL PROGRESS IN THE FIRST DECADES OF THE 20TH CENTURY. Fields of activity Achievements Results of their implementation Production Transport Energy. Communication Structural materials WHAT CONCLUSIONS CAN BE DONE ... 1. 2.
TRANSITION TO MODERN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION. FEATURES OF IPSCONTENT 1. NEW LABOR ORGANIZATION. THE TAYLOR SYSTEM 2. NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR COST DECREASE. DEVELOPMENT OF TRANSPORT AND ENERGY ALLOWED TO LOCATE ENTERPRISES WHERE THE FAVORABLE .. 3. DIVISION OF LABOR BETWEEN SHOPS. THIS WAS ASSOCIATED WITH THE CREATION OF GIANT INDUSTRIAL COMPLEXES 4. CONNECTION OF IP WITH STP. 5. NEW WAYS TO INCREASE COMPETITION. ADOPTION OF LAWS ON WAGES AND WORKING DAYS; THE USE OF PERFECT MACHINES AND TOOLS 6. INCREASE IN LABOR PRODUCTIVITY ONLY IN THE PERIOD 1900-1913 LABOR PRODUCTIVITY INCREASED BY 40%
Question 01. What were the reasons for the acceleration of scientific and technological development at the beginning of the 20th century?
Answer. Causes:
1) the scientific achievements of the twentieth century are based on all previous centuries of the development of science, the accumulated knowledge and developed methods that made it possible to make a breakthrough;
2) by the beginning of the 20th century, there existed (as in the Middle Ages) a single scientific world, within which the same ideas circulated, which was not so much hindered by national borders - science to some extent (although not completely) became international;
3) many discoveries were made at the intersection of sciences, new scientific disciplines emerged (biochemistry, geochemistry, petrochemistry, chemical physics, etc.);
4) thanks to the glorification of progress, the career of a scientist became prestigious, it was elected by many more young people;
5) fundamental science moved closer to technological progress, began to bring improvements in production, weapons, etc., therefore it began to be financed by business and governments interested in further progress.
Question 02. How are the transition to large-scale industrial production and scientific and technological progress related?
Answer. Scientific and technological progress made it possible to develop a new generation of machine tools, thanks to which qualitatively new production facilities were opened. New types of engines - electric and internal combustion - helped to make a particularly big step. It is noteworthy that the first internal combustion engines were not developed for moving mechanisms, but for stationary machines, as they ran on natural gas, therefore they had to be connected to pipes that supplied this gas.
Question 03 Compare them with ways to increase labor productivity in previous historical periods.
Answer. Labor productivity increased significantly due to the improvement of its organization (for example, the introduction of a conveyor belt). In this way, labor productivity has been increased before, the most famous example being the transition to manufactory. But scientific and technological progress has opened up another possibility: due to the increase in the efficiency of engines. More powerful motors made it possible to produce more products, while using the labor of a smaller number of workers and at lower costs (due to which investments in the purchase of new equipment quickly paid off).
Question 04. What is the impact on public life in the first half of the XX century. had the development of transport?
Answer. The development of transport has made the world "closer", due to the fact that it has reduced the time of travel even between distant points. It is not for nothing that one of the novels by J. Verne about the triumph of progress is called “Around the World in 80 Days”. This made the workforce more mobile. In addition, this improved the connection between the metropolises and the colonies, and made it possible to use the latter more widely and more efficiently.
Question 05. What was the role of Russians in the scientific and technological progress of the early 20th century?
Answer. Russians in science:
1) P.N. Lebedev discovered the patterns of wave processes;
2) N.E. Zhukovsky and S.A. Chaplygin made discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction;
3) K.E. Tsiolkovsky made theoretical calculations for the achievement and exploration of space;
4) A.S. Popov is considered by many to be the inventor of the radio (although others give this honor to G. Marconi or N. Tesla);
5) I.P. Pavlov received the Nobel Prize for research on the physiology of digestion;
6) I.I. Mechnikov received the Nobel Prize for research in the field of immunology and infectious diseases
