The language, like the document, is multifunctional. In the definition of functions (a function is a performed role), there is no unity language. In works on general linguistics, stylistics, culture of speech, the following functions are distinguished:
1) informational;
2) nominative (naming);
3) communicative;
4) contact (phatic, contact-setting);
5) thought-forming (thinking);
6) cumulative (accumulative);
7) cognitive (cognitive);
8) voluntarily (regulatory, imperative);
9) aesthetic;
10) emotional (emotive);
11) magical.
1) Message function, or informational, lies in the fact that language serves as a means of cognition, collection and registration of all the knowledge that people have accumulated in the process of their conscious activity. The transmission and storage of all this information, the study of this wealth is carried out through oral and predominantly written texts, i.e. through speech, speech activity.
The information function is performed by scientific and scientific-educational texts, it also manifests itself in official business documents: information letters, summaries, certificates, etc.
2) nominative, or denomination - one of the most important functions of language, which allows a person to navigate in space and time. The whole system of concepts that a person possesses is based on a system of names. Names are not only proper names, but also common nouns. The objects surrounding a person, necessary for him in his life and activity, necessarily receive names that are fixed in the language. In order for an object to receive a name, it is necessary for it to enter into public use, to become significant. Up to a point, you can get by with a descriptive name, but then it will need a separate name.
Over time, the name is inextricably linked with the subject itself, becoming its "deputy". In ancient times, many peoples had a ban, a taboo, on the use of the names of close relatives, since it was believed that a name spoken aloud could harm a person. However, you can not put an equal sign between the name, the name, and the thing, the subject. It is a common misconception that many of our misfortunes stem from wrong names, and that as soon as the name is changed, everything will immediately change for the better. The desire for wholesale renaming is especially noticeable during periods of social upheaval. Cities and streets are renamed, instead of some military ranks others are introduced, the police become the police, technical schools and colleges - colleges and lyceums, institutes - academies and universities.
3) The main purpose of the language is to serve as the main means of information exchange, that is, a means of communication. Therefore, the most important function of language is communicative function, which lies in the ability of language to serve as a means of communication between people. Without communication, society could not exist, since it is communication that creates this society as a society.
The communicative function of language can act as a self-expression of a person. Many writers, poets create their creations for themselves, and their literary works are a self-disclosure of the spiritual world of the writer.
The language has the units necessary for constructing messages, the rules for their organization. In addition, the language also has special means of establishing and maintaining contact between the participants in communication.
This function is manifested most often in colloquial speech, in business conversations, negotiations, and is also characteristic of the written texts of some official documents: letters of inquiry, letters of response, etc.
4)Contact (phatic, contact-setting) the function provides a link between times and generations, the transfer of cultural values.
Ancient knowledge, culture, which have come down to us in the form of written texts (chronicles, chronicles, memoirs, official documents, etc.) record historical and cultural events, the life of individuals and peoples. In the forms of speech in different languages, contact is made with peoples whose culture, mentality and language itself are very far from ours. Today hypotheses of the language of interplanetary contacts are put forward and developed, the term space linguistics .
5) The function of forming and expressing thoughts - thought-forming (thinking)- can be recognized as the most important, since without its implementation informational, communicative, emotive, etc. can not be realized. A person's thought works almost continuously, with varying degrees of tension. These are memories, and reflections, and preparation for oral presentations, and the formation of a written text, and creative activity, etc.
6) The function of accumulating and saving information - cumulative (accumulative), it is realized primarily in written monuments - chronicles, memoirs, fiction, in works of oral folk art, in newspapers, documents, etc. The most valuable written sources from historical, scientific, practical and other points of view are kept in state archives; moreover, it is quite likely that some part of the storage materials will never be claimed by anyone; but all documents must be kept: protocols, correspondence, diaries, memoirs, etc.
7) Cognitive(or cognitive - from lat. sogpitio: "knowledge", epistemological) a function is a form of reflection of the reality surrounding a person and oneself, as well as a means of obtaining new knowledge about reality.
8) Impact function, or voluntarily (regulatory, imperative), manifested in the ability of the language to influence the recipient of information, induce him to action, to a response. A voluntarily function is a priority function for many official documents - administrative (order, resolution, decision, instruction, etc.), organizational (regulations, charter, regulations, rules, instructions, etc.).
The voluntative function of the language is manifested in speech by special lexical means, morphological forms (inclination plays a special role here), as well as intonation, word order, and syntactic constructions. Voluntary function is aimed at creating, maintaining and regulating relations in human society.
A variation of the impact function is propaganda .
9) aesthetic function suggests that speech itself and its fragments can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, that is, as an aesthetic object. The aesthetic function turns the text into a work of art: this is the sphere of creativity, fiction. The aesthetic function is characteristic primarily for poetic speech, but not only for it - journalistic, scientific, and everyday colloquial speech can be aesthetically perfect.
10) Emotional (emotional-expressive, expressive), or emotive, a function is a function of expressing the internal state of a person, a means of expressing his feelings and emotions. It is realized in fiction, oratory, in debatable speech - dispute, polemic, friendly conversation, song, opera, dramatic art - in the theater.
In written official business speech, this function is typical only for electoral documents: for example, in the diplomatic context - in personal and verbal notes when referring to the addressee and in the complimentary part of the text, in Russian record keeping practice - in some letters (letter of gratitude, apology, invitation, etc.).
11) magical(or incantatory) the function is realized in special situations when the language is endowed with a kind of inhuman, "otherworldly" power. Examples are incantations, oaths, prayers, curses, and some other types of ritual texts.
All these functions are united by the fact that the language is intended and exists not for an individual, but for a certain society in which this language acts as a common code with which people are able to understand each other. In speech, all the functions of language are manifested.
Questions for self-examination:
What language features are characteristic of the texts of an official document?
How does the nominative function appear in official documents? Give examples.
What functions are not characteristic of the text of an official document? What is the reason for this?
What function of the language is a priority for the texts of official documents?
In what documents can an emotional function take place? Is it possible to express emotions in all official documents without exception?
What kind of function is the agitation function? What kind of documents does this feature apply to?
How is the communicative function manifested in oral and written business communication?
Read:
|
Emotion Signaling Function lies in the fact that they signal the usefulness or harmfulness of this impact, the success or failure of the action being performed. The adaptive role of this mechanism consists in an immediate reaction to a sudden impact of external stimulus, since the emotional state instantly causes pronounced experiences of a certain color. This leads to the rapid mobilization of all body systems to the implementation of a response, the nature of which depends on whether a given stimulus serves as a signal of a beneficial or harmful effect on the body. Thus, influences emanating both from the external environment and from the organism itself lead to the emergence of emotional experiences that give a general qualitative characteristic of the influencing factor, ahead of its fuller, more detailed perception.
Regulatory function of emotions manifests itself in the formation of activity aimed at satisfying the needs that have arisen, as well as at strengthening or stopping the action of stimuli, i.e., in the implementation of the mechanisms of adaptation of the organism to continuously changing environmental conditions.
Mobilization function. The mobilizing function of emotions manifests itself, first of all, at the physiological level: the release of adrenaline into the blood during the emotion of fear increases the ability to escape (although an excessive dose of adrenaline can lead to the opposite effect - stupor), and lowering the threshold of sensation, as a component of the emotion of anxiety, helps to recognize threatening stimuli. In addition, the phenomenon of “narrowing of consciousness”, which is observed during intense emotional states, forces the body to focus all its efforts on overcoming the negative situation.
Trace function. Emotion often arises after an event has ended, i.e. when it's too late to act. (as a result of affect)
Function Communication. The expressive (expressive) component of emotions makes them "transparent" to the social environment. The expression of certain emotions, such as pain, causes the awakening of altruistic motivation in other people.
Protective Function It is expressed in the fact that, arising as an instantaneous, quick reaction of the body, it can protect a person from dangers. It has been established that the more complex a living being is organized, the higher the step on the evolutionary ladder it occupies, the richer and more diverse the range of emotions that it is able to experience.
Communicative Function lies in the fact that emotions, more precisely, the ways of their external expression, carry information about the mental and physical state of a person. Thanks to emotions, we understand each other better.
Speech has a socio-historical nature. People have always lived and live collectively, in society. Public life and the collective work of people make it necessary to constantly communicate, establish contact with each other, influence each other. This communication is done through speech. Thanks to speech, people exchange thoughts and knowledge, talk about their feelings, experiences, intentions.
Communicating with each other, people use words and use the grammatical rules of a particular language. Language is a system of verbal signs, a means by which communication is carried out between people. Speech is the process of using language to communicate between people. Language and speech are inextricably linked, they represent a unity, which is expressed in the fact that historically the language of any nation was created and developed in the process of speech communication of people. The connection between language and speech is also expressed in the fact that language as an instrument of communication exists historically as long as people speak it. As soon as people stop using this or that language in speech communication, it becomes a dead language. Such a dead language has become, for example, Latin.
Cognition of the laws of the surrounding world, the mental development of a person is accomplished through the assimilation of knowledge developed by mankind in the process of socio-historical development and fixed with the help of language, with the help of written speech. Language In this sense is a means of consolidating and transmitting from generation to generation the achievements of human culture, science and art. Each person in the learning process assimilates the knowledge acquired by all mankind and accumulated historically.
Thus, speech performs certain functions:
Impact;
Messages;
expressions;
Notation.
The function of influence lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to certain actions or to refuse them. The function of influence in human speech is one of its primary, most basic functions. A person speaks in order to influence, if not directly on behavior, then on thoughts or feelings, on the consciousness of other people. Speech has a social purpose, it is a means of communication, and it performs this function in the first place, since it serves as a means of influence. And this function of influence in human speech is specific. The sounds made by animals as "expressive" ones also perform a signal function, but human speech, speech in the true sense of the word, is fundamentally different from those sound signals that animals make. The call made by a sentinel animal or the leader of a pack, herd, etc., can serve as a signal for other animals to take flight or attack. These signals are instinctive or conditioned reflex reactions in animals. An animal, uttering such a signal cry, does not emit it in order to notify others of impending danger, but because this cry breaks out of it in a certain situation. When other animals take flight at a given signal, they also do so not because they “understood” the signal, understood what it means, but because after such a cry the leader usually takes flight and the animal is in danger. situation; thus, a conditioned reflex connection was created between screaming and running; it is a connection between running and screaming, not what it stands for.
The function of the message is to exchange information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases.
The function of expression lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication. The expressive function in itself does not determine speech: speech is not identical with any expressive reaction. Speech exists only where there is semantics, a meaning that has a material carrier in the form of sound, gesture, visual image, etc. But in man the most expressive moments pass into semantics. Every speech speaks about something, i.e. has some object; any speech at the same time refers to someone - to a real or possible interlocutor or listener, and any speech at the same time expresses something - this or that attitude of the speaker to what he is talking about, and to those to whom he is speaking. actually or mentally drawn. The core or outline of the semantic content of speech is what it means. But living speech usually expresses immeasurably more than it actually means. Thanks to the expressive moments contained in it, it very often goes beyond the limits of the abstract system of meanings. At the same time, the true concrete meaning of speech is revealed to a large extent through these expressive moments (intonation, stylistic, etc.). Genuine understanding of speech is achieved not only by knowing the verbal meaning of the words used in it; the most important role in it is played by the interpretation, the interpretation of these expressive moments, revealing that more or less secret inner meaning that the speaker puts into it. The emotional-expressive function of speech as such is fundamentally different from the involuntary and meaningless expressive reaction. The expressive function, being included in human speech, is rebuilt, entering into its semantic content. In this form, emotionality plays a significant role in human speech. It would be wrong to completely intellectualize speech, turning it only into an instrument of thinking. It has emotional and expressive moments that appear in rhythm, pauses, intonations, in voice modulations and other expressive, expressive moments that are always present to a greater or lesser extent in speech, especially in oral speech, affecting, however, in writing. speech - in the rhythm and arrangement of words; expressive moments of speech appear further in the stylistic features of speech, in various nuances and shades.
The functions of expression and influence can be combined into communication function, which includes means of expression and influence. As a means of expression, speech is combined with a number of expressive movements - with gestures, facial expressions. Animals also have sound as an expressive movement, but it becomes speech only when it ceases to accompany the affected state of a person and begins to designate it.
The designation function (significative) consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality names that are unique to them. Significant function distinguishes human speech from animal communication. A person's idea of an object or phenomenon is associated with a word. Mutual understanding in the process of communication is based, therefore, on the unity of the designation of objects and phenomena, perceiving and speaking.
Figure 2 - Speech functions
We can also highlight another function of speech - generalization function, which is connected with the fact that the word denotes not only a separate, given object, but also a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features.
So in human speech can be identified by psychological analysis different functions, but they are not aspects external to each other; they are included in the unity within which they determine and mediate each other. Thus, speech performs its message function on the basis of its semantic, semantic, denoting function. But not to a lesser, but to an even greater extent, and vice versa - the semantic function of designation is formed on the basis of the communicative function of speech. Essentially social life, communication gives the cry a function of meaning. Expressive movement from emotional discharge can become speech, acquire meaning only because the subject notices the effect that it has on others. The child first makes a cry because he is hungry, and then uses it to be fed. Sound first performs the functions of designation objectively, serving as a signal for another. It is only due to the fact that he performs this function in relation to another that he is realized by us in his significance, acquires significance for us. Initially reflected in the mind of another person, speech acquires meaning for ourselves. And so in the future - from the use of the word we establish more and more precisely its meaning, at first little realized, according to the meaning in which it is understood by others. Understanding is one of the constituent moments of speech. The emergence of speech outside of society is impossible, speech is a social product; intended for communication, it arises in communication. Moreover, the social purpose of speech determines not only its genesis; it is also reflected in the internal, semantic content of speech. The two main functions of speech - communicative and significative, due to which speech is a means of communication and a form of existence of thought, consciousness, are formed one through the other and function one in the other. The social nature of speech as a means of communication and its denoting character are inextricably linked. In speech, in unity and internal interpenetration, the social nature of man and his inherent consciousness are represented.
Speech is a combination of spoken and perceived sounds.
Speech is the main means of human communication, with the help of which a person receives and transmits a large amount of information, in particular, one that carries a large semantic load or captures in itself what cannot be perceived with the help of the senses (abstract concepts, not directly perceived phenomena, laws , rules, etc.). Speech also contributes to the transmission of experience in time (between generations) and space (through writing).
Speech is a psychological process of forming and transmitting thoughts by means of language. Speech without language acquisition is impossible.
Speech functions:
The generalization function is related to the fact that the word denotes not only a separate, given object, but a whole group of similar objects and is always the bearer of their essential features;
The function of influence lies in the ability of a person through speech to induce people to certain actions or to refuse them;
The function of a message is to exchange information (thoughts) between people through words, phrases;
The function of expression lies in the fact that, on the one hand, thanks to speech, a person can more fully convey his feelings, experiences, relationships, and, on the other hand, the expressiveness of speech, its emotionality significantly expand the possibilities of communication;
The function of designation consists in the ability of a person through speech to give objects and phenomena of the surrounding reality their own names.
Planning function - speech helps a person to plan his actions.
In psychology, there are two main types of speech: external and internal. External speech includes oral ( dialogic and monologue) and writing.
External speech:
Dialogic speech is supported speech; dialogue is a direct communication of two or more people; the interlocutor puts clarifying questions during her, giving remarks, can help complete the thought (or reorient it). A kind of dialogic communication is a conversation, in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.
Monologue speech is a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person. It also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication here is different: the monologue is uninterrupted, so the speaker has an active, expressive-mimic and gestural influence. In monologic speech, in comparison with dialogic speech, the semantic side changes most significantly. Monologue speech is coherent, contextual. Its content must first of all satisfy the requirements of consistency and evidence in the presentation. Another condition, inextricably linked with the first, is the grammatically correct construction of sentences. The monologue does not tolerate incorrect construction of phrases. He makes a number of demands on the pace and sound of speech.
The content side of the monologue should be combined with the expressive side. Expressiveness is created both by linguistic means (the ability to use a word, phrase, syntactic construction, which most accurately convey the speaker's intention), and by non-linguistic means of communication (intonation, a system of pauses, dismemberment of the pronunciation of a word or several words, which performs the function peculiar underlining, facial expressions and gestures).
Written speech is a kind of monologue speech. It is more developed than oral monologue speech. This is due to the fact that written speech implies a lack of feedback from the interlocutor. In addition, written speech has no additional means of influencing the perceiver, except for the words themselves, their order and the punctuation marks that organize the sentence.
inner speech is a special kind of speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, internal speech, on the one hand, is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation. On the other hand, misunderstandings in the perception of the situation are excluded here. Therefore, inner speech is extremely situational, in this it is close to dialogic. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.
This function indicates that when communicating with other people, a person seeks to exert some influence on them.
For example,
Pay attention to something.
Influence the way people think.
Get them to do something.
Speech, as an activity of communication carried out through language - an activity that has a semantic content that is addressed to someone, it expresses the emotional and value attitude of the speaker to this content and through it other people have a certain impact.
The main types of speech:
1. Verbal speech,
those. speech through the traditional language. The main type of speech.
2. Non-verbal speech.
It is carried out through a certain language of facial expressions and gestures.
3. Speech happens oral and written .
4. Speech can be in the form of a monologue or dialogue .
5. Speech happens external and internal.
Inner speech takes place hidden in the inner plane.
Combinations of these types can give some variations.
31. The meaning of the word as a unit of the study of speech thinking. Stages of development of word meanings (L.S. Vygotsky). The technique of "double stimulation". The meaning and meaning of the word.
Question 2. Ideas about verbal thinking and its development in the works of Vygotsky.
If we take by and large the most eminent authors in the section of thinking, then two figures of equal value are Piaget and Vygotsky. These are two classics of world psychology. Vygotsky started working later, and it is clear that he has a completely different concept. But they must be considered together. They saw the same reality, but from different angles.
The world famous monograph Thinking and speech ”, where all the main results with which we will become acquainted are presented.
Speech thinking is often called conceptual thinking.
Or, as Rubinstein says, verbal-logical thinking.
From Vygotsky's point of view the main unit of analysis of speech thinking should become a psychological phenomenon that is both speech and thinking.
Such a phenomenon is meaning of the word .
Because on the one hand meaning of the word - is the essential characteristic of the word . The word always means something.
On the other hand, meaning of the word - it is a generalized representation of reality, which is specific to thought.
From the point of view of Vygotsky, it is in the meaning of the word that thinking and speech are combined into a single holistic phenomenon.
According to Vygotsky, before the appearance of man in the animal world, speech and thinking evolved separately and independently of each other.
The unification of thinking and speech into a single mental function first occurred only in humans. And this became possible due to the fact that such a reality as language arose in human society.
Since animals do not have a language, they cannot have verbal thinking either. This is the specificity of speech thinking.
In the ontogenesis of speech thinking, we observe in children connection of these two functions at the age of two years. Until this age, speech and thinking develop in parallel and independently of each other.
The first known study of Vygotsky was devoted to ontogenesis of speech thinking.
The basic unit of analysis of verbal thinking was for him meaning of the word . How does verbal thinking develop? How does the meaning of words develop?
This was an empirical study that used method of formation of artificial concepts. It was created by Vygotsky himself and his collaborator Sakharov.
This technique was a modified version of the technique of the same name, which was first developed by Narcissus Ah. In order for us to understand what this modification consisted of, let's consider the option that was developed by the author himself.
Methodology. The general idea of this technique was to simulate the natural conditions in which a person masters natural concepts. What are these conditions?
1 . Firstly, a person in the world around him always encounters numerous objects that may be similar or differ from each other in some way.
2 . Secondly, a person in the surrounding world is faced with the words that denote these objects.
Imagine a child who, at the age of one and a half, has mastered the outer space, encounters objects that differ in various characteristics and at the same time he hears words. Many words that denote these objects. Under these conditions, it becomes possible for a person to form concepts.
Why? Because he has the possibility of correlating these words that he hears with those objects that they designate.
The subjects were presented with 48 objects of geometric shapes, which could be similar or differ from each other in a number of features from 1 to 4.
What are these signs:
- Colour,
- value,
- the form
- heaviness.
Geometric shapes varied by color:
12 red geometric shapes,
12 blue geometric shapes,
12 yellow geometric shapes,
· 12 green geometric shapes.
Each group of these 12 objects was divided into different forms:
4 pyramids,
· 4 cylinders.
Each shape is different height:
- two large (for example, pyramids)
- two small ones (for example, pyramids).
Each size large or small differed in weight:
- Heavy
- Easy.
All these objects were designated by artificially invented four words. These words were written on tablets and attached to the figures.
- "Gazun", which means large and heavy geometric shapes.
- "Tarot" is small and heavy.
- "Ras" - big and light.
- "Pao" - small and light.
Research Procedure .
Usually consisted of three stages.
1. Training stage.
At the first stage, the subjects raised the figures and called out the word aloud.
2. Search stage.
At the second stage, the subjects must select only those figures that are indicated by some one word.
At the same time, it is important to note that now there are no tablets with words on these figures. They must do it from memory.
3. And at the third stage, a survey of the subjects was conducted, aimed at the content of the meanings of words formed in them.
They were asked the following questions: “What is the difference between gatsun and taro?”
Or “How are these words similar?”
And from the answers it was possible to get an idea of what was going on in the head of the subject.
What specific content does the subject put into the meaning of one or another word. This technique allows you to penetrate the mystery of how a person forms these concepts.
Vygotsky-Sakharov Method .
The stimulus material of the method was set of 20-30 geometric shapes, which could be similar or differ from each other in an equal number of features. 1 to 4.
Five objects were used colors:
- yellow,
- red,
- green,
- black
- White color.
They differed in form:
- parallelograms,
- pyramids
- cylinders.
These objects may vary height:
- tall
- short.
The fourth sign is the planar size, i.e. the size of that support on which the figurines stood:
- Large
- small.
We also used four artificial words .
- "Baht" - small and low.
- Dec means small and tall.
- "Turnip" - large and low.
- "Mup" - big and tall.
What is the difference from the Aha method?
These words were written based on geometric figures, and the subjects never saw which words meant each particular figure.
Research Procedure .
1. The experimenter took one of the figures, which belonged to baht, and said: “This is baht. You need to select all the figures related to baht.
2. Then the subject was asked why he selected these figures, and why these figures are called bats.
In addition, the experimenter had, in addition to asking the subject about the content of the words, objective data, which figures were selected by the subject and in what order.
Selection is being made.
But it can be done right or wrong.
When the subject said: "That's it, I took it away," then another figure was opened, and the experimenter said: "Look, here's another baht."
And the subject started all over again according to two samples.
The main difference between the Vygotsky-Sakharov method and the Ach method was that that the subjects could not initially know about all the objects denoted by artificial words.
Against, the content of the meanings of these words was revealed gradually in the process of selecting objects. The procedure becomes closer to reality.
Why? A person never encounters such a situation in real conditions, when he immediately learns everything about all the objects denoted by certain words. A person gets acquainted with these objects gradually , so the meaning of words is gradually filled with specific content .
Vygotsky was interested in the question of development of the meaning of words in ontogenesis .
Children from 3 to 12 years old participated in his methods. And they all went through this testing technique.
Consider the results that allowed Vygotsky to identify three main stages in the development of the meaning of words.
1. Syncretic stage .
The peculiarity of the stage is that it is impossible to establish any objective connections between the geometric figures, which, according to the children, are designated by the same word.
The subject conscientiously follows the instructions, but when the experimenter begins to analyze, then it is impossible to establish any connections between this set of objects. One gets the impression that children select objects for the word randomly or at random.
If we translate into language the meanings of words, then at the stage of syncretes it is difficult to reveal any objective content of the meanings of words, used by children.
It is interesting to note that Piaget came to a similar conclusion, pointing out that at the first stage of the development of conceptual intelligence, children from 1.5 to 4 years old use words in accordance with their understanding of their meanings.
Piaget says: "This is the stage of assimilation."
Vygotsky says: "This is the stage of syncretism."
2. Stage of complexes .
At this stage, when selecting geometric shapes, children begin focus on their objective characteristics. But at the same time, none of these signs is common to all these figures denoted by the same word.
Piaget also says that stages of intuitive visual thinking , children grasp the objective content of the concept, but this is not yet a concept.
And Vygotsky says: “We see objectively that there is an objective connection between the figurines. But we do not see a single common feature that is characteristic of all the figures at the same time, as it should be for the concept.
What are complexes?
The method is clear.
And what are the complexes as the content of the meaning of words for everyday life? The real meaning of the word used by children of one age or another. Nevertheless, based on the results of the methodology, we can get an idea of what a complex is.
Based on his results, Vygotsky singles out 5 types of complexes, which he considers as reflecting 5 different stages of word development .
1. Associative complex.
The most genetic early.
Characterized by the fact that children select figures to the sample, which the experimenter designates as "bat" immediately on several interchangeable grounds.
Say, at first the child can choose similar in color, then in shape, then in size.
Objectively, there is a logic of selection, but each time the sign on which the selection is made changes.
2. Collection .
In this case, the children select figures to the sample according to several different criteria, but unlike the previous complex not by the principle of similarity, but by the principle of complementarity.
For example, a child may first match shapes to a sample by color, for example, to match all available colors. It is clear that selects all different colors.
3. chain complex.
It is characteristic of this species that children always begin to match figures to the sample only on some one basis, for example, on color.
And at some point they change this sign and begin to select figures according to another sign, but not a sample, but the last figure that has just been selected.
4. diffuse complex.
Children select figures on the basis of some feature common to all, but this feature indicates some kind of global similarity that is hardly guessed. For example, in some cases it is possible to single out a feature as the sharpness of an object, but it is not clear whether this is true or not.
5.Pseudo-concept.
The pseudo-concept occupies a certain intermediate position.
Some intermediate stage that separates complexes and concepts. On the one hand, the pseudo-concept refers to complexes, but on the other hand, this type of complexes resembles concepts.
In a sense, this is the last stage in the development of complexes and the initial stage in the development of a concept.
What are pseudo-concepts in the language of methodology? The peculiarity of pseudo-concepts is that the figures selected by the children always have at least one common feature.
Why does Vygotsky attribute this formation of figurines to complexes, and not to concepts?
This formation could be attributed to the concept only if the common feature that was found in the figures selected by the children would also be conscious. Then education could be attributed to the category of concepts.
As long as there is no such awareness, we cannot say with complete certainty that children have concepts.
It is by this criterion that degree of awareness of the sign , Vygotsky conducts boundary between pseudo-concepts and concepts in the truest sense of the word.
End of work -
This topic belongs to:
Psychology as a science
Three classes of unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions automatisms of installation unconscious .. basic concepts and provisions of gestalt psychology .. gestalt holistic form structure holistic organization is a whole irreducible to the sum of parts ..
If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:
What will we do with the received material:
If this material turned out to be useful for you, you can save it to your page on social networks:
| tweet |
All topics in this section:
Psychology as a science
Scientific knowledge: Popper - identifying the problem, hypothesis, verification, conclusion. Methods: experiment, diagnostics, observation, conversation. The science of the psyche, the object merges and
Consciousness as a subject of psychology
It so happened historically that consciousness became the first subject of psychology. The first version of the psychology of consciousness is the structural psychology of consciousness (Wundt and Titchener). Postulates of Descartes: existence with
Behavior as a subject of psychology
Watson (1913 article scathingly critical of introspectionism): a science of consciousness is impossible. You need objectivity. Phenomena must be externally observable, repeatable and reproducible in
Unconscious mechanisms of conscious actions (automatisms, attitudes, unconscious accompaniment of conscious actions)
1.1. Unconscious automatisms are actions that are performed by themselves without the participation of consciousness. Primary (automatic actions) - congenital, or early formed; secondary - automation
Unconscious stimuli of conscious actions
Early model (topographic): consciousness, preconscious, unconscious. Preconsciousness - hidden or latent knowledge, knowledge that he possesses, but they are not present in his mind.
The emergence of the psyche in phylogenesis
Leontiev: poses 2 questions: who has a psyche? 4 points of view: panpsychism (all objects of the material world have a psyche), biopsychism (only wildlife has a psyche), neuropsychism
Émile Durkheim was the first to suggest the social conditioning of the psyche.
Prerequisites for Vygotsky's theory: in the transition from animals to humans, a fundamental change occurred in the relationship of the subject with the environment, that is, a person
The mental development of the child occurs through the appropriation of historically developed forms and methods of activity.
The development of HMF in ontogenesis occurs in 2 stages: Any HMF arises as an interpsychic one. It exists as a form of interaction with others. With the help of interpsychic signs
The main provisions of the psychological theory of activity
Leontiev: Activity is a system, it is a molar, non-additive unit (non-summative) unit of life of a bodily, material subject, mediated
Correlation of concepts subject, individual, individuality, personality
The subject is a basic psychological category. Rubinstein said that this is an internal condition of activity, and activity is the interaction of internal and external conditions. Properties
The concept of abilities, the problem of their diagnosis and development
Abilities are those individual characteristics that are not limited to available skills, abilities or knowledge, but some can explain the ease and speed of acquiring these
General idea of intelligence and its measurement
A. Binet, T. Simon - 1905 the first Stanford-Bine test - a test developed at Stanford University. 1972 test - a set of tasks for determining IQ in children from 2 to 18 years old. Questions on
Emotional dullness
1.2. Impulsivity - the speed of transition from experienced emotions to subsequent actions. Reflexivity - before acting, people
Neurophysiological theories
Features of temperament are due to the properties and types of the nervous system. I.P. Pavlov singled out three main properties of the nervous system:
Individual style of activity (Klimov)
An individual style of activity is an individually unique system of mental means to which a person consciously or spontaneously resorts in order to best balance
sense of community
Ways to achieve goals
abnormal personality
Correlation between the concepts of temperament and character
Criterion Temperament Character The level of analysis of a person, with which these concepts correspond.
The relationship between body features and a person's predisposition to certain mental illnesses
Working in a psychiatric hospital, Kretschmer studied the physique of people with two types of diseases: Cyclothymia (manic-depressive psychosis) Schizophrenia
Cerebrotonic component
restraint in posture and movements stiffness super fast reactions love of solitude shyness social phobia emotional restraint
Conformal type
This type does not exist in psychopathy Constant orientations to the norms and values of one's social environment Accentuations can:
The first criterion for distinguishing people into two general psychological types
- These are the objects to which human life is mainly directed. This means that the objects that a person considers the most significant and valuable in his life, with which
Criteria for distinguishing people by functional types
Jung uses the main and auxiliary mental functions that a person is mainly guided in his life. Jung experientially by mouth
Definition and typology of social character by Erich Fromm
Social character is the core of the character structure inherent in most representatives of a given culture, as opposed to the individual character, thanks to which people belong to
Social character is a set of personal characteristics that are desirable for the culture in which a person lives.
The social character performs two main functions in the life of an individual and in the life of society as a whole: 1. adaptation of each person to life in a certain
Definition and functions of emotions
Emotions (according to Rubinstein) are experiences that reflect the attitude of the subject to the world. The outside world is meant; are the processes and events
The nature of human expressive movements
It was first presented in the works of Charles Darwin. He believed that human expressive movements are inherited from evolutionary ancestors and are innate. Facts (based on
Experiments by K. Landis
He asked to depict the emotional experiences that he experienced in the last experiment. Result: the similarity of facial expressions when experiencing certain emotions in all subjects.
Generalized worldview feelings
For example, a sense of humor, irony, sarcasm this is a special kind of emotional phenomena that do not arise situationally, but characterize a stable worldview position
James-Lange theory
Thus: "we are upset because we cry"
Theory of W. Cannon and F. Bard
There is no clear and obligatory connection between the various emotions experienced by a person and the characteristics of autonomous excitation. If so, then autonomous excitation and response cannot be considered as
Experiment D.Dutton, A.Eron
Suspension bridge (1.5 - 1.5 m) over a mountain stream 70 meters high. When a person walked across the bridge, it evoked the emotion of fear. The second bridge is small and stable. H
Evolutionary theories
The answer is given: why did emotions arise in the process of biological evolution? Emotions are expedient reactions that have adaptive
Information approach
P.V.Simonov Emotions are a reflection by the human and animal brain of any actual need and the probability of its satisfaction, which the brain evaluates on the basis of the gene
passion commitment
infatuation naive love empty love Triangular love theory: 7 types of love depending on the combination of components Sympathy
Melancholy
Pierre Janet (1859-1947) Melancholy is a general pessimistic attitude towards life. The focus is on the attitude of patients to their own actions. They perceive
Diagnostics of affective traces
Research related to the diagnosis of affective traces is based on the assertion that memories, traces can be preserved in a person’s memory ... K. Jung developed an associative exp
Technique of coupled motor reactions
During the associative experiment, the subject, simultaneously with the answer, must carry out a certain motor reaction (press the rubber bulb), which is recorded on the recorder.
frustration
Obstacles that arise on the way to achieving the goal. Obstacles can be of various kinds. For example, physical. Frustration is an emotional state that occurs
Physiological reactions
- General adaptation syndrome Hans Selye (1907-1982) Stress is a general non-specific physiological reaction of the body to the action of stimuli at the very same time
Behavioral responses
They are aimed at reducing or enduring the demands placed on a person in a stressful situation. The consequences of stress: negative effects
Anxiety
Types of anxiety as a state (situational anxiety) - an emotional state that occurs in a situation of threat. This refers to any threat (life, turnip
Unintended action
the action is carried out by force the action is carried out in addition to the desire of the person and the conscious goal Example: instinctive action, emotional action
Discussion and struggle of motives
Occurs in the case of a situation of motivational conflict. The desire to carry out an action encounters a certain obstacle (this is not the case in a simple volitional action) Volitional processes
Insert about Leontiev (see Question 8)
William Mac Dougall (1871-1938) Introduced the concept of motivational dispositions or inclinations According to his data, based on observations, 18 dispositions can be distinguished
Henry Murray (1893-1988)
He believed that many needs arise and are formed under the influence of the environment. Primary needs are physiological needs Secondary needs are not
Concentration of attention
Attention is completely concentrated on the activity performed and the person thinks of nothing else. Motives are divided into: External motives (extrinsic
Optimum motivation. Yorkes-Dodson law
This law establishes a relationship between the effectiveness of the activity performed by the subject and the amount of motivation that prompts him to perform this activity Experiment: m
Human feature
Levin refers to the main features of a person that he has: True needs Quasi-needs True needs: in
Environment Features
The environment is the specific situation in which a person is at a given moment in time. Levin has in mind not the physical, not the socially objective environment, but only ps
Human features influence the features of the environment
When a person has certain true needs or quasi-needs, certain objects of situations or events of the surrounding world begin to be perceived by a person as biased.
Features of the environment affect the features of a person
The list of facts of the psychological environment includes only those that have a positive or negative valence. i.e. facts that are significant
Situational memorization by a person of certain material
B.V. Zeigarnik (1900-1988) History in the restaurant: the waiter remembered the incomplete order, because he had the intention of remembering it in order to carry it out and get the calculation. Situational
The true needs of the subjects
The subjects were motivated to varying degrees by participation in the experiment. Many came out of a sense of duty; there was no strong motivation There were also ambitious
Situational forgetting of intentions
Levin: a phenomenon - a person, being in a certain situation, is able to remember his intention and perform a certain action For example: a person leaves the house with the intention of lowering his
Claim level
F. Hoppe Completion of the task: to be able to throw the rings on the hooks that were attached to the moving belt. The subjects, when achieving the same results, reacted to this
Achievement motivation
Murray - his TAT McClelland, Atkinson was used for diagnosis. Heckhausen test: a six-picture test for measuring achievement motivation Atkinson: M
One can talk in this question about the Yerkes-Dodson law (see previous question)
Cognitive Conflicts: The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance Leon Festinger (1919-1982) All human cognitive experience is
The existence of dissonance gives rise to the desire of a person to reduce (and if possible completely eliminate) dissonance.
The higher the degree of dissonance, the more the person expressed the desire to reduce it. Human activity to reduce dissonance can have two directions:
Theoretical and methodological problems of studying the structure and development of the psyche
Classifications of personality theories: homeostatic theories with a focus on conflict (Freud's theory) a person must solve the conf set by nature all his life
The idea of the structure and development of personality in the psychology of consciousness
William James (the theory was developed over 100 years ago, but is still relevant). James builds his ideas about personality based on the four properties he described.
Hierarchy of structures I
The central concept of personality development is the concept of hierarchy. Leontiev's personality development is closely connected with the hierarchy, the significance of the various components of his "I". Personal development according to J
The instance of the Super-I is not innate in man. Formed in early childhood
The place of the Superego is initially replaced by the child's parents. In the future, the process of identification with the Super-I of the parents takes place, then this Super-I becomes the internal of this child.
Normal and abnormal personality
Personality is determined by 3 features: The degree of tension of the conflict between the Super-I and the It The position of the “I” instance, occupied in relation to this conflict
The structure of personality in analytical psychology
Carl Jung distinguishes 5 main structures, denoting them: Ego (I) is given to a person directly in his self-observation as an object and subject of consciousness.
Self
This concept is associated with the idea of a normal person. The content of the self is best explained by the contrast of the anomalous personality. The abnormal personality is characterized by a high degree
sense of community
This feeling contributes to the unity of people with each other and encourages them to live together. Forms of manifestation: Tenderness Caring for neighbor Friendship Love
Ways to achieve goals
Relatively stable, but for each person individually original. Ways are formed under the influence of: Social environment Education Life pros
abnormal personality
The dominant life orientation is the desire to achieve excellence. This blocks the development of a sense of community. The general orientation of the personality is to always seek advantages over time.
Epigenetic theory of E. Erickson
Erickson shared Freud's ideas about the structure of personality (three-part structure), but notes a flaw in his theory in limiting personality development to adolescence. He pr
Ideas about personality and its development in humanistic psychology (Allport, Maslow, Rogers)
Personality - character deprived of evaluation Allport and H. Otbert analyzed the English dictionary and found 18,000 words that characterize personality traits,
Central dispositions
A set of individual traits that initiate and direct the basic forms characteristic of each person's behavior. According to the central dispositions characterize the individuality of a person
The idea of the structure and development of personality in the activity approach
Leontiev - Personality is born twice: first within a social individual, then - as an independent subject. The individual appropriates experience, and the personality transforms it. Personality: su
Theory of D.B. Elkonin
The systematization of the empirical material known in developmental psychology is carried out from the standpoint of the activity approach. The central concept is the leading activity that was proposed
Early childhood (1-3 years)
Leading activity is object-manipulative activity. The child learns the properties of objects, learns to navigate in space. 3. Doshk
General characteristics of the cognitive sphere of man
Cognition is the process of searching, preserving and reproducing knowledge. Cognition is in knowledge, that is, the generation of knowledge. Cognitive processes (Petukhov): 1) Own
Interaction between int.and af. sphere
The problem of the unity of affect and int. - dynamic, not stable connection. Thinking and affect are parts of a single whole (consciousness). 1. Affect and int. interact with each other throughout
Definition, types, properties of sensory processes
Sensory processes are processes that take place in the human sense organs (analyzers) and certain areas of the cerebral cortex associated with them, and which are the basis for
Thresholds of sensations. Sensitivity. Threshold measurement methods. Indirect measurement of sensations. Fechner's law
Fechner was the first in the history of psychology to raise the issue of measuring sensations. Psychophysics is the exact science of the functional relationship between mind and body. Deciding
Methods of direct measurement of sensations. Stevens law. Scale types
Stanley Stevens - American, author of the second psychophysical law
It is always the same and does not change.
Variable sensation is called so because its intensity can be varied, changed. It is also caused by a certain stimulus, which can be denoted as p
Definition, properties, types of perceptual processes and their experimental study
Question 1: General definition of perception Perception is the process of generating images that occurs when stimuli are applied to the senses
General characteristics of the perception process
The two groups of theories differ in their approaches to the description of the process of perception. These two approaches can be roughly labeled as: Object Oriented
Configuration
This property indicates that the images of perception, as a rule, are not reduced to sensory qualities, but are integral structures, some parts of which are perceived as figures, and others
Constancy of perception
Constancy is the property of a perceptual image to maintain the relative constancy of its characteristics when the conditions for perceiving the same objects change.
Reference system
This property points to the fact that the subject has a certain frame of reference, which allows him to carry out quantitative assessments of his images of perception.
objectivity
There are two main aspects to this property. 1. The first aspect is that the subject's images of perception correlate with his knowledge
Installation
This property indicates that perception is always selective. The subject does not perceive all the influences to which his sense organs are exposed, but only those that correspond to his
Representation of a stimulus in the psychology of perception
Two types of stimuli should be distinguished: Distal Proximal Distal stimulus is a volume
Structuralist theory of perception
Consideration of theories, we will begin with the historically earliest theory, which was proposed by Titchner. He proposed a structuralist theory of perception. The main essence of this theory can be
Gestalt theory of perception
M. Wertheimer, W. Keller, K. Koffka. the main essence of the Gestalt theory of perception in the form of a brief thesis: the image of perception is a holistic
Ecological theory of perception
The author of the ecological theory is the famous American psychologist James Gibson. The term "ecological" indicates that this theory is closely related to the environment
Touch quality is its only property
Unlike the image of perception, the primary image does not have such properties of images of perception as configuration, constancy and objectivity. If you try to imagine it
Theory of categorization
The author of this theory is the American psychologist Jerome Bruner. In Bruner's theory, the focus is on explaining the property of object perception in aspe
Perceptual cycle theory
The author of this theory is the very famous American psychologist Neisser. Neisser's theory as a whole can be seen as complementary to Gibson's theory. For now
The problem of innate and acquired in perception. Experimental studies
Studies on the problem of innate and acquired in perception were carried out mainly in relation to two main properties of perception: The first property of this
Studies conducted with newborn animals
One of the most famous studies with newborn animals is the study that was conducted by the American psychologist R. Fanz (female). Her test subjects were just howled
Research done with newborn babies
With newborn babies, a lot of research was also carried out by the American psychologist T. Bauer. form perception. In this experiment
Studies with the blind
These results are presented in a review work compiled by the researcher M. Zenden (an article by this author can be found in the texts of the reader). This review shows that immediately
Constancy of perception
Now we turn to the results of research on the constancy of perception. I will begin by presenting the results of a very famous experiment conducted by Bauer.
Perceptual images develop in the course of the subject's life
The development of perception images occurs mainly in two main directions. James and Eleanor Gibson in their articles designated these two directions as O
The main factors that determine the development of images of perception
The main factor determining the development of images of sensation and perception is the practical activity of the subject. The main factor influencing
Definition of thinking, types and functions
General definition of thinking. As well as in relation to perception in psychology, there are many definitions of "thinking", which yes
One can speak about human thoughts as special empirical phenomena of consciousness with the same certainty as about sensory impressions.
A thought is also a certain content of consciousness, but these are special contents of consciousness that differ from images of perception. The second definition of thinking.
Experimental studies of factors influencing the process of solving mental problems
Question 1. The theory of thinking as a process of solving problems. Paragraph 1. The theory of thinking as a process of replenishment of the complex.
Productive Thinking
Selz also describes the process of productive thinking. Here the question is raised whether this explanatory principle (reproductive thinking) can be extended to the process of productive mice.
Main case
A new task can often be solved with the help of operations already known to the subject in his past experience of operations that were once successfully used by him to solve other problems. General spec
Main case
A new task is solved by the subject with the help of private operations, which are contained in his current or past experience only as potential operations. For example, in experience
Main case
The new task is solved by the subject with the help of private operations that were once isolated by him from his cognitive experience through the general operation of abstraction of means, but for some reason
If all 4 criteria are met, we are dealing with creative thinking. If some individual criteria are met, we are dealing with an approximation of the think
Development of thinking
Let me remind you that in topic 17, when we considered the issue of the main types of thinking, we got acquainted with the genetic classification, which represents one very famous and popular
The stage of completion of the formation of sensorimotor intelligence
From 18 to 24 months. At this stage, the interiorization of practical actions begins, as a result of which sensorimotor intelligence appears in children as a system of mental operations.
Stage of intuitive (visual thinking)
Preparation for accommodation. At this stage, children already master the objective content of the meanings of words to a greater extent. This is manifested in the fact that they
Development of accommodation
At this stage, concepts appear in children, and they can already operate with them in accordance with their objective content. Using Piaget's terminology, we can say that in this
Completion of adaptation
At this stage, the development of conceptual intelligence is completed, and children have a system of operations that allows them to adequately use concepts in their judgments, regardless
Concept stage
At this stage, at least one common feature is always found in the objects selected by the children. Children who have reached this stage recognize this sign as a general one and name it. understood
Inner Speech Plan
According to Vygotsky, since inner speech is speech for itself, and it is not used to convey thoughts to other people, it has specific characteristics that distinguish it from
Definition of memory and basic mnemonic processes
Question 1. General definition of memory. Basic contents, processes, types and functions of memory. As always, a single common
Declarative Knowledge
The name comes from the English word "declare" - "declare, declare." It is very difficult to determine. You can use understanding through the translation of this word. It can be said that, unlike
emotional experiences
The existence of these contents is indicated by numerous cases of the acquisition by a person or animals of certain conditioned emotional reactions. Example. If we remember the experiment
The processes of arbitrary memorization
They are characterized by the fact that they always assume that a person has a conscious goal to remember certain contents. These processes are very heterogeneous. Their distinguishing features are
Korsakov's syndrome
Korsakov's syndrome was described by our domestic psychiatrist S.S. Korsakov (1854-1900). He described this syndrome on the material of patients with multiple neuritis, who have inflammation and perspiration.
Associations by contrast
It is not clear what the nature of these associations is. But no one disputes that they exist. Empirical facts testify to the real existence of such associations.
Anticipation method
When using it, subjects are presented one or more times in a row with a sequence of meaningless syllables. Then they are asked to reproduce all this material, observing the order in which these words are
For individual syllables,
10 - 12 for numbers. This result shows that the capacity of short-term memory is limited and depends on the material a person is trying to remember.
Order of presentation of elements
The influence of the position of the elements on the memorization of a series of 10 three-digit numbers. There were 8 rows and 11 subjects in total. The curves marked with numbers 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 refer to 1, 5, 9, 13, respectively.
Memory as the highest mental function (L.S. Vygotsky) and its experimental studies (A.N. Leontiev)
Question No. 5. Ideas about the subject of the psychology of memory in the works of Frederick Bartlett. An experiment using sequential memorization procedures.
Research by K. Cherry
The first thing Cherry did was develop various ways of presenting stimulus material to subjects. As a stimulus material, he, like p
Second series
The subjects were also dichotically presented with 3 pairs of numbers, but only with an interval of 0.5 seconds (with an interval where low reproduction productivity was obtained in the previous series). test subjects
An experimental critique of Broadbent's models of attention. Attention Model Anna Treisman
Anna Treisman is an American psychologist now living and working. In this question, we will get acquainted with the results of three studies that, on the one hand, put
Kahneman's empirical rationale
The study was conducted by Kahneman themselves. He made an attempt to obtain empirical support for the central theoretical position that underlies this model, and according to
His experimental critique of models of selection and distribution of attention resources
Kahneman has just convinced us that the amount of attention resources is limited, but Neisser says: "I will present you with a result that casts doubt on these studies." We will start with the definition
Imagination and creativity
Universal mental process (like memory and attention) Definition: Mental transformation of reality or ideas about it Memory and imagination - the past
D. Gibson
Despite the external closeness of perception (perceptual activity with a product that always has an objective analogue) and imagination (also figurative reality, but without an objective source)
Imagination and thinking
Vygotsky: signs are needed for imagination to distance itself from reality To distinguish imagination from thinking: The difference between a sign and a symbol. Thinking is operating with signs!
Exploring Creative Imagination
T. Ribot: "Creative imagination". In many ways, he anticipated the results of the study of the 20th century. Imagination belongs to Emotz, the volitional sphere ... At the forefront, he puts d
intellectual factor
For creative imagination, a previous association is needed - dissociation = distraction from the material, analysis of the material, separation into parts. Associated with the word division. Divide the object (usually with
emotional factor
-All forms of creative imagination contain affective elements. Example: invention (as a result of a restructuring of the details). Driving force - this or that desire and
Main characteristics of a creative product
Subjective characteristics (sees the subject himself) Objective characteristics (sees the scientific researcher) open
