Development

representations

about the structure of the world

Lesson Plan

• The idea of ​​the ancients about the structure of the world
• The first systems of the world.
• The first scientific system of the structure of the world Ptolemy
• World building system according to Copernicus
• Discoveries of scientists in the field of astronomy.
• A modern view of the structure of the world.

Representation of the ancients

about the structure of the world

Plan statements themes

• Introduction.
• The Ancient East
• ancient egyptians
• In ancient China

Introduction

• It is difficult to say exactly when astronomy was born: almost no information related to prehistoric times has reached us.
• The first ideas about the universe were very naive, they were closely intertwined with religious beliefs, which were based on the division of the world into two parts - earthly and heavenly.

The Ancient East

• In Babylon, there were views according to which the Earth looks like a convex island surrounded by an ocean. Inside the Earth, as if there is a "kingdom of the dead."
• The sky is a solid dome resting on the earth's surface and separating the "lower waters" (the ocean flowing around the earth's island) from the "upper" (rain) waters. Celestial bodies are attached to this dome, as if the gods live above the sky. The sun rises in the morning through the east gate and sets through the west gate, and at night it moves under the earth.

Ancient Egypt

• According to the ideas of the ancient Egyptians, the Universe looks like a large valley, elongated from north to south, in the center of which is Egypt.
• The sky was likened to a large iron roof, which is supported on pillars, on which stars are suspended in the form of lamps.

In ancient China

• In ancient China, there was an idea according to which the Earth has the shape of a flat rectangle, above which a round, convex sky is supported on pillars.
• The enraged dragon seemed to bend the central pillar, as a result of which the Earth leaned towards the east. Therefore, all rivers in China flow to the east.
• The sky tilted to the west, so all the heavenly bodies move from east to west .

The first systems of the world

Topic outline

• Heraclitus of Ephesus
• Pythagoras of Samos
• Eudoxus of Knidos
• Plato
• Aristotle
• Hipparchus.

Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 530 - 470 BC).

• One of the outstanding ancient Greek thinkers was Heraclitus of Ephesus.
• These are his words:

• “The world, one of everything, was not created by any of the gods and by any of the people, but was, is and will be an eternally living fire, naturally igniting and naturally extinguishing ...”

Pythagoras of Samos (c. 580 - 500 BC)

• He expressed the idea that the Earth, like other celestial bodies, has the shape of a ball.
• The Universe was presented to Pythagoras in the form of concentric transparent crystal spheres embedded in each other, to which the planets were supposedly attached.
• In this model, the Earth was placed in the center of the world, the spheres of the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn revolved around it.
• Furthest away was the sphere of the fixed stars.

Eudoxus of Knidos (c. 408 - 355 BC).

• He suggested that each planet has not one but several spheres attached to each other. One of them makes one revolution per day around the axis of the celestial sphere in the direction from east to west. The time of revolution of the other (in the opposite direction) was assumed to be equal to the period of revolution of the planet. This explained the motion of the planet along the ecliptic.
• Eudoxus placed the stars on one sphere containing all the others.
• Thus, all the visible movement of the heavenly bodies Eudoxus reduced to rotation 27 spheres.

Plato (428 or 427 BC - 348 or 347), ancient Greek philosopher

• It is appropriate to recall that the idea of ​​a uniform, circular, perfectly regular movement of celestial bodies was expressed by the philosopher Plato.

• He also suggested that the Earth is in the center of the world, that the Moon, the Sun revolve around it, then the morning star Venus, the star of Hermes, the stars of Ares, Zeus and Kronos.
• Plato set the task of constructing a geometric model of the world, in the center of which, of course, the Earth should have been.

This is how Aristotle himself describes his understanding of the universe (384 - 322 BC).

• Aristotle suggested the existence four "elements": earth, water, air and fire, from the mixture of which all the bodies found on Earth allegedly originated.
• According to Aristotle, the elements water and earth tend to move towards the center of the world ("down"), while fire and air move "up". Therefore, in the center of the world is the Earth, above it are water, air and fire.

• Plato's student Aristotle

• According to Aristotle, the Universe is limited in space, although its movement is eternal, it has neither end nor beginning. This is possible just because, in addition to the four elements mentioned, there is also a fifth, indestructible matter, which Aristotle called ether.

• It is as if all celestial bodies consist of ether, for which perpetual circular motion is a natural state. The "zone of ether" begins near the moon and extends upward, while below the moon is the world of the four elements.

Hipparchus (c. 180 or 190-125 BC), ancient Greek astronomer

• The formation of astronomy as an exact science began thanks to the work of the outstanding Greek scientist Hipparchus.
• He was the first to start systematic astronomical observations and their comprehensive mathematical analysis, laid the foundations of spherical astronomy and trigonometry, developed the theory of the motion of the Sun and Moon and, on its basis, methods for predicting eclipses.

• Hipparchus discovered that the apparent movement of the Sun and Moon in the sky is uneven. Therefore, he took the point of view that these luminaries move uniformly in circular orbits, but the center of the circle is displaced with respect to the center of the Earth. Such orbits are called eccentrics .
• Hipparchus compiled tables by which it was possible to determine the position of the sun and moon in the sky on any day of the year.

Geocentric

world system

The first system of the structure of the world according to Ptolemy

Ptolemy Claudius

(c. 90 - c. 160), ancient Greek scholar.

Ptolemy's discoveries

• He developed a mathematical theory of the motion of the planets around the motionless Earth, which made it possible to predict their position in the sky.
• Together with the theory of the motion of the Sun and Moon, it amounted to the so-called. Ptolemaic system of the world.
• Ptolemy's system is set forth in his main work "Almagest" - an encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge of the ancients.

heliocentric

world system

World building system

according to Copernicus

Copernicus Nicholas (1473-1543), Polish astronomer,

World of Copernicus.

• Creator of the heliocentric system of the world.

• The book of Copernicus, published in the year of his death, in 1543, had a modest title:

"On the rotation of the celestial spheres".

But it was a complete overthrow of Aristotle's view of the world. Since that time, a new era has begun in our understanding of the Universe. It continues to this day.

• Thanks to Copernicus, we have learned that the Sun occupies its proper position in the center of the planetary system.
• The earth is not the center of the world, but one of the ordinary planets revolving around the sun.
• So everything fell into place. The structure of the solar system was finally unraveled.

• But the solar system is not the entire universe. We can say that this is just our little world.
• What about distant stars? About them Copernicus did not dare to express any definite opinion. He simply left them in their original place, not the distant sphere where Aristotle had them, and only said, and quite rightly, that the distance to the stars is many times greater than the size of the planetary orbits.
• Like ancient scientists, he represented the Universe as a closed space, limited by this sphere.

The contribution of scientists to

further development

astronomy

Discoveries of scientists in the field of astronomy

Sun and Stars

• On a clear moonless night, when nothing interferes with observation, a person with keen eyesight will see no more than two or three thousand flickering dots.
• The list compiled in the 2nd century BC by the famous ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus and later supplemented by Ptolemy includes 1022 stars.

• Hevelius, the last astronomer who made such calculations without the help of a telescope, brought their number to 1533.

Giordano Bruno

BRUNO Giordano ( 1548-1600 ),

Italian philosopher, pantheist and poet. Accused of heresy and burned by the Inquisition in Rome.

Ideas by Giordano Bruno

• Developing the ideas of Nicholas of Cusa and the heliocentric cosmology of Copernicus, Bruno defended the concept of the infinity of the Universe and countless worlds.

• Bruno put forward the idea that our Sun is one of the stars of the Universe. Only one of the great many, and not the center of the entire universe. But then any other star could also have its own planetary system.

galaxies

Major writings :

• "On the Cause, the Beginning and the One",
• "About infinity, the Universe and the worlds",
• "On Heroic Enthusiasm".
• Author of the anti-clerical satirical poem "Noah's Ark", the comedy "Candlestick", philosophical sonnets.

• If Copernicus indicated the place of the Earth by no means in the center of the world, then Bruno and the Sun deprived of this privilege.
• Bruno's idea gave rise to many striking consequences. From it followed an estimate of the distances to the stars.
• Really, The sun is a star like the others, but only the closest to us . That's why it's so big and bright. And how far should the luminary be moved so that it looks like, for example, Sirius?
• The answer to this question was given by the Dutch astronomer Huygens (1629 - 1695). He compared the brilliance of these two celestial bodies, and this is what turned out: Sirius is hundreds of times farther from us than the Sun.

Distances to the stars

• To get a better idea of ​​how large the distance to the star is, let's say that a ray of light that travels 300,000 kilometers in one second , takes several years to travel from Sirius to us. Astronomers speak in this case of a distance of several light years.
• Of course, different stars differ from each other. Therefore, determining the distances to them even now often remains a very difficult, and sometimes simply unsolvable task for astronomers. 1sv year = 10^13 km

8 light minutes

8,7 light years.

Sirius

sun

Earth

• Bruno's remarkable idea and Huygens' calculation based on it became a decisive step towards mastering the secrets of the Universe.

• Thanks to this, the boundaries of our knowledge about the world have greatly expanded, they have gone beyond the solar system and reached the stars.

Galileo Galilei

GALILEO (Galilei) Galileo , Italian physicist, mechanic and astronomer, one of the founders of natural science; poet, philologist, critic.

• In 1633, Galileo appeared before the court of the Inquisition.
• The elderly scientist was forced to sign a "renunciation" of his views and was kept under the supervision of the Inquisition until the end of his life.
• Only in 1992 did the church finally justify Galileo.

Discoveries of Galileo

The first pointed a telescope to the sky and made discoveries that clearly confirm the teachings of Copernicus.

• On the moon he saw mountains
• Discovered four moons of Jupiter
• He discovered that Venus, like the Moon, changes its phases.
• He proved that Venus moves near the Sun, and not near the Earth.
• He discovered spots on the Sun and, observing them, found that the Sun rotates about its axis.
• He discovered that the Milky Way is a lot of faint stars that are not visible to the naked eye.

Mountains on the moon

Galilean satellites

Ganymede

Europe

Callisto

Venus in one of its phases

Venus revolves around the sun

Sun spots on the sun

Galileo discovered that the Milky Way is a collection of faint stars that are not visible to the naked eye.

Disputes about the structure of the Milky Way

• But already in antiquity, the existence of a large number of stars invisible to the eye was suspected.
• Democritus, the great scientist of antiquity, said that the whitish strip that stretches across the entire sky, which we call the Milky Way, is in reality a combination of the light of many stars invisible individually.
• Disputes about the structure of the Milky Way have continued for centuries. The decision - in favor of Democritus' conjecture - came in 1610, when Galileo reported the first discoveries made in the sky with a telescope.
• He wrote with understandable excitement and pride that now it was possible to "make available to the eye stars that have never been visible before and whose number is at least ten times greater than the number of stars known from ancient times."

Johannes Kepler

German astronomer

Was born - 1571

Died – 1630

Kepler's discoveries

One of the creators of modern astronomy.

• He discovered the laws of planetary motion (Kepler's laws), on the basis of which he compiled planetary tables (the so-called Rudolf tables).

• Laid the foundations of the theory of eclipses.
• Invented a telescope in which the objective and eyepiece are biconvex lenses.

Mikhail Lomonosov

Russian scientist

Was born - 1711

Died – 1765

He was buried in St. Petersburg in the Necropolis of the 18th century.

LOMONOSOV Mikhail Vasilievich - the first Russian scientist - naturalist of world importance

• The largest Russian poet-educator 18th century The poet who laid the foundations of the modern Russian literary language.

• Artist, He revived the art of mosaics and the production of smalt, created mosaic paintings with his students. Member of the Academy of Arts (1763).
• Historian , champion of the development of domestic education, science and economics.

Brief biography of the scientist

• Born on November 8 (19) in the village of Denisovka (now the village of Lomonosovo) in a Pomor family.

• At the age of 19 he left to study (from 1731 at the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow, from 1735 at the Academic University in St. Petersburg, in 1736-41 in Germany).

• From 1742 adjunct, from 1745 academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.

• In 1748 he founded the first chemical laboratory in Russia at the Academy of Sciences.

• On the initiative of Lomonosov, Moscow University was founded (1755).

Lomonosov's discoveries

Lomonosov's discoveries have enriched many branches of knowledge.

• Discovered the atmosphere on Venus.

• Describe the structure of the earth

• Defended the idea of ​​a plurality of inhabited worlds.

• In witty poems, he ridiculed the supporters of geocentrism.

Modern painting

world structures

A modern view of the structure of the solar system

• Now we understand that we live on a small planet that looks like a ball.

• The earth revolves around the sun in an orbit that is not too different from a circle.

• The radius of this circle is close to 150 million kilometers.

D=150,000,000 km

• Further discoveries of astronomers added to the family of large planets.
• There are nine of them: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto.
• In this order, they occupy their orbits around the Sun.

• Many small bodies of the solar system - asteroids and comets - have been discovered.
• But this did not change the new Copernican picture of the world. On the contrary, all these discoveries only confirm and refine it.

Metagalaxy

Our galaxy

solar system

Presentation on the topic "Heliocentric system of the world" in astronomy in powerpoint format. This presentation for schoolchildren tells about the heliocentric system of the world and its creator.

Fragments from the presentation

The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) developed the heliocentric system of the world. He made a revolution in natural science, abandoning the doctrine of the central position of the Earth, accepted for many centuries. Copernicus explained the visible movements of the heavenly bodies by the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the revolution of the planets, including the Earth, around the Sun.

Historical information about N. Copernicus

• The famous astronomer, the transformer of this science and laid the foundation for the modern idea of ​​​​the world system. They argued a lot about whether K. was a Pole or a German; now his nationality is not in doubt, since a list of students at the University of Padua has been found, in which K. is recorded among the Poles who studied there. Born in Thorn, in a merchant family.
• In 1491 he entered the University of Krakow, where he studied mathematics, medicine and theology with equal zeal. At the end of the course K. traveled to Germany and Italy, listened to lectures on various universities, and at one time even he himself was a professor in Rome; in 1503 he returned to Krakow and lived there for seven whole years, being a university professor and doing astronomical observations. However, the noisy life of university corporations was not to K.'s liking, and in 1510 he moved to Frauenburg, a small town on the banks of the Vistula, where he spent the rest of his life, being a canon of a Catholic church and devoting his leisure time to astronomy and gratuitous treatment of patients

Heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus

• The sun is at the center of the world. Only the Moon moves around the Earth. The Earth is the third planet farthest from the Sun. It revolves around the Sun and rotates around its own axis. At a very great distance from the Sun, Copernicus placed the "sphere of the fixed stars."
• Copernicus simply and naturally explained the loop-like motion of the planets by the fact that we observe planets revolving around the Sun not from a stationary Earth, but from an Earth that also moves around the Sun.
• The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) outlined his system of the world in the book "On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres", published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the Universe is not organized at all as religion has claimed for many centuries.
• In all countries, for almost a millennium and a half, the false teaching of Ptolemy, who claimed that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the Universe, dominated the minds of people. The followers of Ptolemy, for the sake of the church, came up with more and more new “explanations” and “proofs” of the movement of the planets around the Earth in order to preserve the “truth” and “holiness” of his false teaching. But from this, the Ptolemaic system became more and more far-fetched and artificial.
• Long before Ptolemy, the Greek scientist Aristarchus argued that the Earth moves around the Sun. Later, in the Middle Ages, advanced scientists shared the point of view of Aristarchus on the structure of the world and rejected the false teachings of Ptolemy. Shortly before Copernicus, the great Italian scientists Nicholas of Cusa and Leonardo da Vinci argued that the Earth moves, that it is not at all in the center of the Universe and does not occupy an exceptional position in it.
• Why, in spite of this, did the Ptolemaic system continue to dominate? This was done only by Nicolaus Copernicus. After thirty years of hard work, long reflections and complex mathematical calculations, he showed that the Earth is only one of the planets, and all the planets revolve around the Sun. With his book, he challenged church authorities, exposing their complete ignorance in matters of the universe.
• Copernicus did not live to see the time when his book spread throughout the world, revealing to people the truth about the universe. He was near death when friends brought and put the first copy of the book into his cold hands.
• Copernicus was born in 1473 in the Polish city of Torun. He lived in a difficult time, when Poland and its neighbor - the Russian state - continued the centuries-old struggle against the invaders - the Teutonic knights and the Tatar-Mongols, who sought to enslave the Slavic peoples.
• Copernicus lost his parents early. He was raised by his maternal uncle Lukasz Watzelrode, an outstanding public and political figure of that time. The thirst for knowledge possessed Copernicus from childhood. At first he studied at home. Then he continued his education at Italian universities. Of course, astronomy was studied there according to Ptolemy, but Copernicus carefully studied all the surviving works of great mathematicians and astronomy of antiquity.
• Even then, he had thoughts about the correctness of Aristarchus' guesses, about the falsity of Ptolemy's system. But Copernicus was not engaged in a single astronomy. He studied philosophy, law, medicine and returned to his homeland a comprehensively educated man for his time.
• What does the book of Copernicus “On the rotation of the celestial spheres” contain and why did it deal such a crushing blow to the Ptolemaic system, which, with all its flaws, had been kept for fourteen centuries under the auspices of the omnipotent church authority in that era? In this book, Nicolaus Copernicus argued that the Earth and other planets are satellites of the sun.He showed that it is the movement of the Earth around the sun and its daily rotation around its axis that explains the apparent movement of the Sun, the strange entanglement in the movement of the planets and the apparent rotation of the firmament.
• Brilliantly simple, Copernicus explained that we perceive the movement of distant celestial bodies in the same way as the movement of various objects on Earth when we ourselves are in motion.
• We slide in a boat along a calmly flowing river, and it seems to us that the boat and we are motionless in it, and the banks “float” in the opposite direction. In the same way, it only seems to us that the Sun is moving around the Earth. But in fact, the Earth with everything What is on it moves around the Sun and during the year makes a complete revolution in its orbit.
• And in the same way, when the Earth overtakes another planet in its movement around the Sun, it seems to us that the planet is moving backward, describing a loop in the sky. In reality, the planets move around the Sun in regular, although not perfectly circular orbits, without making any loops. Copernicus, like the ancient Greek scientists, that the orbits along which the planets move can only be circular.

Becoming heliocentric
world systems
Anikeeva G.A.,
Physics teacher
GBOU secondary school №87
Petersburg
900game.net

The first ideas of people about
Universe
In ancient Russia
believed that the earth
flat and holding
on three whales
who swim in
boundless ocean.

Ancient Greece
Ancient Greeks
imagine the earth
flat disk surrounded by
inaccessible to man
sea, from which each
evening go out and at which
every morning the stars set.
From the eastern sea to the golden
the chariot went up
sun god every morning
Helios and made his way
across the sky

ancient india
earth in the form
hemispheres hold
four elephants.
Elephants stand on
giant turtle,
and a turtle on a snake,
which,
curled up
ring, closes
near-Earth
space.

Geocentric system of the world
Claudius Ptolemy
(87-165 AD)

The looping motion of the planets
Every planet moves
evenly around the circle - the epicycle,
whose center is evenly
moving around in circles
radius - to the deferent. In the center
the deferent is Earth.

Heliocentric system of the world
Nicholas Copernicus
1473 – 1543

Heliocentric system of the world of Copernicus
At the center of the world is
The sun. Around the Earth
only the moon moves.
Earth is the third
distance from the sun
planet. She is drawn
around the sun and revolves
around its axis.
On a very large
distance from the sun
Copernicus placed the "sphere
fixed stars."

The looping motion of the planets
Copernicus explained the loop-like motion of the planets by the fact that we
we observe planets revolving around the sun not from a fixed
Earth, but from the Earth, also moving around the Sun.

Development and philosophical reflection
heliocentric system
Giordano Bruno developed
heliocentric theory
Copernicus, stating:
about the multiplicity of worlds, about
the limitlessness of the universe,
that the stars are distant suns,
around which they revolve
planets,
Giordano Bruno
1548 – 1600

Accused of heresy by the Inquisition, Bruno refused to admit that
main of his theories and was sentenced by the Catholic Church to
the death penalty, and then burned at the stake in Campo di Fiore
Rome in February 1600.
Bruno's last words were: "To burn is not to refute."

Proof

Thanks to the invention of the telescope (1609)
Galileo was able to make very interesting
discoveries and prove justice
heliocentric system.
Galileo Galilei
1564 – 1642

Discoveries of Galileo

scientific explanation
heliocentric system of the world
Isaac Newton discovered the law
universal gravitation, gave
theory of celestial motion
bodies, creating the foundations of the heavenly
mechanics.
Isaac Newton
1643 – 1727

Subject . The evolution of ideas about the system of the world: from the geocentric systems of the world of ancient Greek philosophers to the heliocentric system of Copernicus.

Lesson Objectives . Using the example of creating a world system, show students:

1) the path of scientific knowledge: facts - hypothesis - facts - new hypothesis - ... - theory;

2) the relativity of truth;

3) the possibility of interpreting the same phenomena in different frames of reference;

Basic concepts . Geocentric system of the world, heliocentric system of the world.

Demo Material . Illustrations. Models.

Independent activity of students. Performing search tasks, creating presentations, organizing material in the form of a table.

Worldview aspect of the lesson. To develop students' logical thinking skills and a scientific approach to studying the world. Analysis of the accumulation of knowledge in astronomy has been going on since ancient civilizations. models of the universe.

Time, min

Techniques and methods

1. Preparation of a report, presentation

Illustrations, models

Completing search tasks

2. Introductory speech of the teacher

Conversation with students

3. Student performance

Illustrations, models

Student performances

4. Comparison of geocentric and heliocentric theories. Reflection

5. Homework

Preparing for the lesson.

The students' choice of the topic of the report. Preparation of oral communication, presentation to illustrate the report and A5 newspaper.

Literature

Eric Rogers "Physics for the Curious", vol. 2, M .: "Mir", 1970. , "Planet Earth. The development of ideas and ideas" textbook. Moscow: Interpaks, 1994.

Message topics

The universe according to Thales. Pythagorean system of the world. Philolaus' system of the world. Eudoxia's system of the world. Aristotle's system of the world. The world system of Aristarchus. Hipparchus' system of the world. The Ptolemaic system of the world. Copernican system of the world.

Lesson outline.

The accumulation of knowledge in astronomy has been going on since the time of ancient civilizations, from simple registration of certain facts to systematic observations. From these facts, legends arose that taught children or calmed the common people. In these legends, the Sun was considered a deity, the planet Venus was worshiped, it was told about the "abode of bliss" located above the crystal arch of the stars. But the legends themselves were not just superstitious myths. These were the forerunners of scientific theory, their connection with the facts was weak, rather fantastic, but they created the basis for the "explanation" of these facts. When the Greek civilization was born, its thinkers founded new methods in science: they began to look for general explanation schemes that would appeal to human curiosity. They were no longer content with mere myths to satisfy the curiosity of the crowd. They set themselves the task of "anticipating the phenomenon," that is, creating a scheme that could explain the facts. It was much more important than simply collecting facts or creating a description of each new fact of a separate theory. It was an intellectual progress, the beginning of the creation of a scientific theory.

The first Greek scientists drew a simple picture of the universe, but as data accumulated, they complicated the schemes to explain the details of certain phenomena: first, simple facts about the Earth, then more detailed diagrams explaining the movement of the sky as a whole, as well as the Sun, Moon and planets. separately.

At each stage, scientists have tried, on the basis of a few simple assumptions or general principles, to create the most logical and complete "explanation" or description of the observed phenomenon as possible. Such an explanation should have contributed to the systematization of the accumulated facts and to obtaining further predictions. But, first of all, it was supposed to strengthen faith in the existence of a system that unites various phenomena, in the rational structure of nature. Although the search for a schema was sometimes dictated by practical necessity, such as the need to create a calendar, the satisfaction derived by scientists from a clear explanation of various phenomena went far beyond this. Forced by the need to ask a question why, Greek philosophers sought and created scientific theories. Although our modern aspirations to test everything through experiment and the wealth of scientific equipment have led to tremendous changes in our ideas, we still share the Greeks' enthusiasm for a theory that "anticipates phenomena." Let's see how their theories were created.

Assignment for students. Listening to the speeches of classmates, fill in the following columns of the table:

2) facts that did not fit into the previous model of the structure of the universe and explained (or tried to explain) this system of the world;

3) a diagram and a brief description of the model of the world.

600 BC e.	Daily movement of stars, annual and daily movement of the Sun and Moon	The Earth is a flat disk, the stars are attached to a rotating sphere, the ecliptic plane is inclined relative to the trajectory of the stars (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2)
530 BC e.	Moving planets, sun and moon against the background of stars with different speeds.	Earth - the ball is surrounded by concentric transparent spheres, each of which contains celestial bodies: the closest to the Earth is the Moon, then Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. The outer sphere contained stars and made a full revolution in a day, the rest rotated more slowly. The general principle is that "spheres" are "perfect" shapes and uniform rotations are "perfect" movements. (Fig. 3, 4)
	Sun, Moon, Venus, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn move slowly among the stars from west to east. The stars move from east to west.	The center of the Universe is not the Earth, but the central fire - the "watchtower of the gods"; The earth revolves around this fire, making a complete revolution in a small orbit in a day, and its habitable part is always turned in the opposite direction from this central fire. This movement of the Earth explained the daily movement of the stars in the sky: the outer crystal sphere could then be at rest. (Fig. 5)
Evdoksiy 370 BC e.	The planet does not move unevenly in a loop-like trajectory. The Sun and Moon move along their annual and monthly trajectories with variable speeds.	The system consists of 27 concentric spheres, like the husk of an onion. Each planet corresponded to several spheres located one inside the other and rotating around different axes: three spheres for the Sun and the Moon, four for each planet, and one outer sphere for all the stars. Each sphere is fixed on an axis that passes through a hole in the next sphere, and is located outside, and the axes of rotation have different directions. Combined motions with appropriately chosen directions of rotation are consistent with the observations. (Fig. 6, 7)
Aristotle 340 BC e.	The system of the world of Eudoxia was not consistent with more accurate observations of the movement of the planets.	Increase the number of spheres to 55. He systematized knowledge and gave evidence of the sphericity of the Earth.
Aristarch 240 BC e.	The complexity of Aristotle's system led to an attempt to simplify the scheme	1) The earth rotates, and this rotation explains the daily movement of the stars; 2) The Earth moves around the Sun, making a complete revolution in orbit during the year; other planets move in a similar way - this explains the apparent movements of the Sun and planets relative to the stars.
140 BC e.	Uneven motion of the Sun and Moon, loop-like motion of the planets	The planet moves uniformly along a circle (epicycle), the center of which moves uniformly along another circle (deferent), the center of which is already the Earth (Fig. 8, 9)
Ptolemy 120 BC e.	Determined the exact positions of the planets, the Sun and the Moon in relation to the fixed stars	The starry sky is a sphere rotating around a fixed axis and making a complete revolution in 24 hours. The sun moves around the earth according to Hipparchus' epicyclic scheme; The moon moves along a more complex epicycloid. To explain the movement of the planets, Ptolemy created a scheme of epicycles in which the Earth is not in the center of the main circle, but would be slightly shifted relative to it, i.e., located eccentrically. But even this was not enough, and Ptolemy built a scheme in which he not only placed the Earth eccentrically, but also shifted the center of uniform rotation in the opposite direction. (Fig. 10) It was a complex system of main and auxiliary circles with different radii, speeds, inclinations and eccentricities of various sizes and directions. This system, which worked like a complex transmission mechanism, made it possible to accurately predict the positions of the planets year after year and determine these positions in the past. Like a good machine system, it was based on simple principles: circles with constant radii, rotation at a constant speed.
Copernicus	The movements of all the planets in one way or another agreed with the movement of the Sun, for example, the periods of circulation of Venus and Mercury along the deferents and the periods of circulation of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn along epicycles were exactly equal to one year - the period of revolution of the Sun around the Earth.	All the planets move in orbits around the fixed Sun, the Earth goes around the Sun in a year, while rotating around its axis and making a complete revolution in 24 hours. The "fixed stars" and the Sun rest in the sky. The complex movement of the planet along the epicycloid consists of the planet's own movement in a circle and the movement of the Earth around the Sun. To eliminate discrepancies between the calculated and observed movements of the planets in the sky, Copernicus was forced to introduce epicycles.

The movements of the planets observed in the earthly sky could equally well be described within the framework of each of the models of the Universe: both Ptolemy and Copernicus. Let us consider this in more detail on the example of the motion of the inner planets.

1 In the heliocentric model (Fig. 11), which corresponds to the real picture, Venus makes a revolution around the Sun in 225 days, and the Earth in a year. Since Venus moves around the Sun faster than the Earth, the relative positions of these three bodies change all the time. There are several characteristic configurations: connections (lower and upper), when all three bodies are on the same line, and elongation (western and eastern), when the angle from the Earth to the Sun and Venus is maximum, and reaches 48 °. Identical configurations (for example, inferior conjunction) are repeated for Venus every 584 days.

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Rice. 11. Heliocentric model: the period of revolution of Venus around the Sun is 225 days; Earth around the Sun - 1 year.

Rice. 12 The geocentric system of the world of Ptolemy: the period of revolution of Venus along the deferent is 1 year; according to the epicycle - 584 days; the period of revolution of the sun around the earth is 1 year

b) The movement of Venus in the Ptolemy model (Fig. 12) is represented as the result of movement along the epicycle, which coincides with the orbit of Venus around the Sun, and movement along the deferent, which coincides with the orbit of the Sun around the Earth. If we leave the orbit of the Sun unchanged, but proportionally reduce both the deferent and the epicycle of Venus, then we will thereby pass to the Ptolemaic model. An earthly observer will not notice this change, since the direction to Venus and the Sun will be the same as in the heliocentric one.

Thus, both the Ptolemy model and the Copernican model were completely interchangeable in geometric terms, so attempts to prove the advantages of one of them are obviously doomed to failure. The truth had to be sought in the discrepancies between the models and the real picture of the motion of the planets, the reason for which in fact was that the planets have not circular, but elliptical orbits. Johannes Kepler managed to understand this.

Initially, Kepler focused almost all of his efforts on studying the motion of Mars. He began his research as a convinced Copernican, but in order to harmonize the available high-precision astronomical data with this model, more and more new epicycles had to be introduced into it. The Copernican model eventually became almost as unwieldy as the Ptolemaic model, and the calculated movement of Mars across the sky still did not match exactly what was observed.

After many years of hard work, Johannes Kepler found a solution to this problem - he rejected the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe movement of celestial bodies in circles and postulated that Mars and other planets (including the Earth) revolve around the Sun in elliptical orbits. It was a real scientific revolution: with one blow, not only the idea of ​​​​perfect circular orbits was rejected, but also the model of the Universe with a stationary Earth at the center! Kepler was able to describe the movements of the planets in the sky with amazing accuracy and formulate the three laws of motion of celestial bodies, which earned him the name “legislator of the sky” decades later. The modern heliocentric system is usually called the Copernican system, although it would be more correct to call it the Kepler system.

Kepler's conclusions were so radically at odds with the traditional worldview that for some time they were simply ignored. But around the same years, another event takes place in the Italian city of Pisa, the famous physicist and mechanic Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) used the newly invented "spotting scope" to study the starry sky. Of course, he was not the first to look at the stars through a telescopic tube, but he was the first who managed to see the phases of Venus, the nature of the change of which could not be explained in any way within the framework of the ancient geocentric model.

In the geocentric model of Claudius Ptolemy, Venus is always between the Earth and the Sun, and therefore faces the Earth with its shaded side. In this model, only the narrow crescent of Venus would have to be observed from Earth. In Ptolemy's model, Venus in any of its positions could not be observed in the form of a crescent and fuller phases.

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Model "Rotation of Venus"

Questions for students

1. All statements except one characterize the geocentric system of the world. Specify an exception.

a) The earth is at or near the center of the world.

b) The planets revolve around the earth.

C) The daily movement of the Sun occurs around the Earth.

D) The moon moves around the sun.

E) The daily movement of stars occurs around the Earth.

2. According to ancient astronomers, planets differ from stars in that

A) move in circular orbits

B) unlike the Earth in their composition;

C) sometimes move in the direction opposite to the movement of stars;

D) move around the sun

D) are closer to the Earth than the Sun.

3. Which of the observed phenomena can be explained within the geocentric theory? 1) Daily sunrise in the east and sunset in the west.

2) Rotation of the starry sky around the pole of the world.

3) Occasional solar eclipses.

A) 1 and 2.

B) 2 and 3.

B) 1 and 3.

D) everything.

D) none.

4. The heliocentric system of the world explains the loop-like motion of the planets:

A) the difference in the velocities of the Earth and the planet in orbits;

B) the daily rotation of the Earth;

C) a combination of the movement of the Sun along the ecliptic and the movement of the planets around the Sun;

D) a change in the speed of the planet in orbit;

D) the mutual attraction of the planets.

5. Without which of the following statements is the heliocentric theory inconceivable?

a) The planets revolve around the sun.

b) The sun is spherical.

C) The earth is spherical.

D) The planets revolve around the earth.

D) The earth rotates on its axis.

6. Indicate which of the following facts refutes the hypothesis of the immobility of the Earth and the movement of the Sun around it:

A) the daily climax of the Sun.

B) the movement of stars observed during the night.

C) the movement of the Sun against the background of stars, which occurs during the year.

D) daily sunrise and sunset.

D) none of these facts.

Answers on questions

Tasks 1-6 are taken from the book, Astronomy Didactic Material. M., Enlightenment, 1979

Shaka Alesya

The emergence of judgments about the structure of the universe. Supporters and opponents of systems. Scientific justification.

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Geocentric and heliocentric systems of the world Supporters and opponents The work was done by a student of the 7th grade of the State Budgetary Educational Institution Secondary School No. 1465 Shaka Alesei Physics teacher L.Yu. Kruglova

Geocentric system

Geocentric system “People from ancient times tried to explain the structure of the world, to understand the place of mankind in the Universe. The earliest theory was the geocentric system of the world. Geocentric system of the world. (from the Greek "geo" - earth) The geocentric system of the world, also known as the Ptolemaic system, is a theory that was developed by philosophers in ancient Greece and named after the philosopher Claudius Ptolemy, who lived from about 90 to 168 AD. It was designed to explain how the planets, the Sun, and even the stars orbit the Earth. The geocentric system of the world existed even before Ptolemy. This model was described in various ancient Greek manuscripts, and even in the 4th century BC. Plato and Aristotle wrote about the geocentric system of the world.

Geocentric system Since ancient times, the Earth was considered the center of the universe, and at different times it was believed that the earth was held by some kind of mythical creature. Thales of Miletus saw a natural object as this support - the oceans. Anaximander of Miletus suggested that the Universe is centrally symmetrical and does not have any preferred direction. Therefore, the Earth, located in the center of the Cosmos, has no reason to move in any direction, that is, it rests freely in the center of the Universe without support. Anaximander's student Anaximenes did not follow his teacher, believing that the Earth was kept from falling by compressed air. Anaxagoras was of the same opinion. Anaximander's point of view was shared by the Pythagoreans, Parmenides and Ptolemy. The position of Democritus is not clear: according to various testimonies, he followed Anaximander or Anaximenes.

In the II century BC. The ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus, observing the movement of the planets, discovered a phenomenon called precession - the reverse movement of the planets. He drew attention to the fact that the planets, during their movement, seem to describe loops in the sky. Such a movement of planets across the sky is due to the fact that we observe the planets from the Earth, which itself moves around the Sun. When the Earth “catches up” with another planet, it seems that the planet seems to stop and then move in the opposite direction.

The ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy (100-165) put forward his own system of the universe, called geocentric. His reasoning was as follows. Since the Universe has a center, i.e. the place where all bodies with weight aspire, then, consequently, the Earth must be together with these bodies. Otherwise, the Earth, being heavier than all other bodies, would fall towards the center of the world, overtaking in its movement all objects on its surface: people, animals, trees, utensils - which would soar in the air. And since the Earth does not fall, it means that it is the motionless center of the Universe. Ptolemy introduced well-known improvements - the concepts of epicycle and deferent. He assumed that the planet moves along a small circle - the epicycle at a constant speed, and the center of the epicycle, in turn, along a large circle - the deferent. Thus, he reasoned that each of the planets does not move around the Earth, but around a certain point, which, in turn, moves in a circle (deferent), in the center of which is the Earth.

Ptolemy added another element to his system - an equant, thanks to which the planets could already make uneven movement in a circle, but subject to the existence of a certain point from where this movement would seem uniform. Despite all the complexity and initial theoretical incorrectness of the concept, Ptolemy, painstakingly selecting for each planet the combination of deferents, epicycles and equants inherent only to it, ensured that his system of the world predicted the position of the planets quite accurately. That was the genius of his time. The calculations made by Ptolemy were very important for contemporaries, they made it possible to draw up calendars, helped travelers navigate along the way, and served as a schedule of agricultural work for farmers. Such a system of the universe was considered correct for almost one and a half thousand years. After some time, astronomers discovered discrepancies between the observed positions of the planets and previously calculated ones, but over the centuries they thought that the geocentric system of the Ptolemaic world was simply not perfect enough and made attempts to improve it - they introduced more and more new combinations of circular motions for each planet.

heliocentric system

Heliocentric system In turn, the geocentric system of the world was replaced by the heliocentric system. Heliocentric system of the world. (from the Greek "helio" - the Sun) The heliocentric system of the world is a theory that places the Sun at the center of the universe, and the planets in orbits around it. The heliocentric system of the world replaced geocentrism (the geocentric system of the world), which was the belief that the Earth was the center of the universe. The geocentric system of the world was the dominant theory in ancient Greece, throughout Europe, and in other parts of the world for centuries. It wasn't until the 16th century that the heliocentric system of the world began to catch on, because technology had advanced enough to have more evidence in its favor. Although heliocentrism did not gain popularity until the 1500s, the idea has been around for centuries around the world.

The great Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) outlined his system of the world in his book On the Rotations of the Celestial Spheres, published in the year of his death. In this book, he proved that the universe is not arranged in the way that religion has claimed for many centuries. In all countries, for almost a millennium and a half, the false teaching of Ptolemy, who claimed that the Earth rests motionless in the center of the Universe, dominated the minds of people. The followers of Ptolemy, for the sake of the church, came up with more and more "explanations" and "proofs" of the movement of the planets around the Earth in order to preserve the "truth" and "holiness" of his false teaching. But from this, the Ptolemaic system became more and more far-fetched and artificial.

An outstanding contribution to the development of heliocentric concepts was made by the German astronomer Johannes Kepler. Since his student years (at the end of the 16th century), he was convinced of the validity of heliocentrism in view of the ability of this doctrine to give a natural explanation for the backward movements of the planets and the ability to calculate the scale of the planetary system on its basis. For several years, Kepler worked with Tycho Brahe, the greatest observational astronomer, and subsequently took possession of his archive of observational data.

At the same time as Kepler, at the other end of Europe, in Italy, Galileo Galilei worked, providing dual support for the heliocentric theory. Firstly, with the help of the telescope he invented, Galileo made a number of discoveries, either indirectly confirming the theory of Copernicus, or knocking the ground out from under the feet of his opponents - supporters of Aristotle