It is difficult to draw a clear line between the expressive (expressive) means of the language and the stylistic devices of the language, although there are still differences between them.

Under the expressive means of the language, we will understand such morphological, syntactic and word-forming forms of the language that serve to emotionally or logically enhance speech. These forms of language have been worked out by social practice, understood from the point of view of their functional purpose and recorded in grammars and dictionaries.

Their use is gradually normalizing. Rules for the use of such expressive means of the language are developed.

Let's take the following phrase as an example: Never have I seen such a film. In this sentence, the inversion caused by the position of the adverb never in the first place in the sentence is a grammatical norm. (The sentence Never I have seen such a film is grammatically incorrect.)

Consequently, of the two synonymous means of expression I have never seen such a film and Never have I seen such a film, the second is a grammatically normalized means of logically highlighting a part of an utterance.

The selection of expressive means of the English language has not yet been sufficiently carried out, and the analysis of these means is still far from complete. There is still a lot of uncertainty here, since the criteria for selection and analysis have not yet been established.

All expressive means of the language (lexical, morphological, syntactic, phonetic) are the object of study of both lexicology, grammar and phonetics, and stylistics. The first three sections of the science of language consider expressive means as facts of language, clarifying their linguistic nature. Stylistics studies expressive means in terms of their use in different styles of speech, multifunctionality, and potential uses as a stylistic device.

What is meant by stylistic device? Before answering this question, let's try to define the characteristic features of this concept. The stylistic device, first of all, stands out and is thus opposed to the expressive means by the conscious literary processing of the linguistic fact. This conscious literary processing of the facts of language, including those which we have called the expressive means of language, has its own history. Even A. A. Potebnya wrote: “Starting from the ancient Greeks and Romans and with a few exceptions up to our time, the definition of a verbal figure in general (without distinguishing the path from the figure) is not complete without opposing simple speech, used in its own, natural, original meaning, and speech decorated, figurative.

The conscious processing of the facts of a language was often understood as a deviation from the generally accepted norms of linguistic communication. So Ben writes: “A figure of speech is a deviation from the usual way of speaking in order to enhance the impression.”

In this regard, it is interesting to cite the following statement by Vandries: “Artistic style is always a reaction against a common language; to a certain extent, it is slang, literary slang, which can have various varieties ... "

A similar thought is expressed by Sainsbury: "The true secret of style lies in the violation or neglect of the rules by which phrases, sentences and paragraphs are built."

There is a stylistic device known as a maxim. The essence of this technique is to reproduce the characteristic, typical features of a folk proverb, in particular its structural and semantic characteristics. The statement - the maxim has a rhythm, a rhyme, sometimes an alliteration; the maxim is figurative and epigrammatic, that is, it expresses in a concise form a generalized thought.

Here is another definition of stylistic device. A stylistic device (stylistic procedure) is a way of organizing an utterance/text that enhances its expressiveness. The totality of all stylistic devices is one of the main objects of the science of stylistics. Any language tool can become a stylistic device, if it is included in the implementation of literary, compositional and aesthetic functions.

Some researchers understand a figure as a stylistic device. Figures are syntagmatically formed means of expression. Figures can be divided into semantic and syntactic. Semantic figures are formed by combining words, phrases, sentences or larger segments of text. These include comparison, climax, anticlimax, zeugma, pun, antithesis, oxymoron, enallaga. Syntactic figures are formed by a special stylistically significant construction of a phrase, sentence or group of sentences in the text. According to the quantitative composition of syntactic constructions, “decreasing figures” (ellipsis, aposiopesis (default), prosiopesis, apokoinu, asyndeton) and “adding figures” (repetition, anadiplosis, prolepsa, polysyndeton) are distinguished. According to the location of the components of the syntactic construction, various types of inversion are distinguished. The expansion of the function of the syntactic construction underlies the rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, appeal. The interaction (similarity or dissimilarity) of the structures of syntactic constructions that occur together in the text underlies parallelism, chiasm, anaphora, epiphora, symplocs.

The great Russian literary critic, Doctor of Philology, said this about stylistics: “Stylistics is a kind of pinnacle of language research, the theoretical basis for the development of a national unique speech culture.” Recently, we can observe an extremely interesting situation: due to the variety of methods for presenting information, there is a rapid branching of sections of stylistics. This includes coding style, historical style, text style, and much more. However, it is generally accepted that stylistics as a science includes four main areas:

1. The style of artistic speech is a style that explores the features of the speech of artistic creations, the specifics of the image and the author's own styles of writing poets.

2. Structural stylistics (it is also called language stylistics) - outlines, characterizes and explains the relationship of various personal systems of word forms, rows of words and systems from within a single language construction, the so-called "system of systems". Explores variable species or development trends with a complex of unique features.

The language is a system consisting of levels, such as: vocabulary, phonetics-phonology, morphology, syntax and (from smallest to largest, that is: sound, syllable, word, etc.)

Like the style of artistic speech, rhetoric explores expressive means in oratory. A valuable point in stylistics (and hence rhetoric) is the doctrine of figures and tropes of speech as methods of “decorating speech”.

Figures of speech are ways of expressiveness based on the comparison of specific units of text, that is: opposition, comparison, rhyme, ellipsis, repetition, oxymoron, etc.

A trope is a turn of speech in which the expression is used figuratively to achieve maximum poetic expressiveness.

Everything that is presented above is combined into two words - stylistic devices.

Stylistic devices are an individual linguistic factor in the formation of a text, showing a special method of text setting, chosen by the author to more accurately reflect his own worldview and the transmitted situation.

Thanks to the results of textual research, it was found that at the phonetic-phonological level, the following stylistic devices will be important speech constructions: paronomasia, assonance, anagram, palindrome, antonomasia, acrostic.

It is also necessary to realize that stylistic devices and expressive means of language are different things.

Let us analyze the stylistic features of the prose of a famous writer.

A striking example is the humorous story by A.P. Chekhov - "The Avenger". A husband, offended by his wife, stands in a gun shop and selects a suitable revolver. He thinks only of one, of three murders, including the murder of himself. Everything portends trouble, but in the end, after much deliberation, he buys only a net for catching quails. The plot here can not be called banal or predictable. Chekhov used a stylistic device in this case.

Stylistic devices in literature, both in Russian and foreign, play a serious role in shaping the image of a work, that is, they give shape and “highlight” the content itself.

The concept of stylistic device and stylistic function.

Sections of stylistics and the relationship of stylistics with other disciplines

The subject and tasks of stylistics

Questions of style have occupied people since ancient times. Rhetoric is the forerunner of modern stylistics. Its goal is to teach the art of oratory (the importance of the beauty of the presentation of thoughts): well-organized speech, ways to decorate speech, interpretation of style in antiquity. Aristotle began the theory of style, the theory of metaphor, was the first to contrast poetry and prose. Style from lat.stilos - “wand”, then “the ability to use the language correctly”.

Stylistics It is customary to call the science of the use of language, a branch of linguistics that studies the principles and effect of the choice and use of lexical, grammatical, phonetic and linguistic means in general to convey thoughts and emotions in different communication conditions. There are stylistics of language and stylistics of speech, linguo-stylistics and literary stylistics, stylistics, from the author and stylistics of perception, stylistics of decoding, etc.

Language style explores, on the one hand, the specifics of linguistic subsystems, called functional styles and sublanguages ​​and characterized by the originality of the dictionary, phraseology and syntax, and, on the other hand, the expressive, emotional and evaluative properties of various language means. Speech style studies individual real texts, considering how they convey the content, not only following the norms known to the grammar and style of the language, but also on the basis of significant deviations from these norms.

Thing the study of stylistics - the emotional expression of the language, all the expressive means of the language. -> stylistics - the sphere of scientific knowledge about the expressive means of the language + the science of functional styles.

Stylistic goals:

1) analysis of the choice of certain language means in the presence of synonymous forms of expression of thought for a full and effective transmission of information. ( we have closed a deal - finalized the transaction).

2) analysis of expressive, figurative means of language at all levels (phonetic: alliteration, semantic: oxymoron, syntactic: inversion).

3) definition of a functional task - the definition of a stylistic function that a language tool performs.

Stylistics is usually classified into linguistic stylistics and literary style.

Linguistics, the foundations of which were laid by Sh. Bally, compares the national norm with special subsystems characteristic of different areas of communication, called functional styles and dialects (linguistics in this narrow sense is called functional style) and studies the elements of language in terms of their ability to express and evoke emotions, additional associations and appreciation.

An intensively developing branch of stylistics is comparative style, which simultaneously considers the stylistic possibilities of two or more languages. Literary style studies the totality of means of artistic expression characteristic of a literary work, author, literary movement or an entire era, and the factors on which artistic expression depends.

Linguistics and literary stylistics are subdivided by levels into lexical, grammatical and phonetic stylistics.

Lexical style studies style functions of vocabulary and considers the interaction of direct and figurative meanings. Lexical stylistics studies the different components of the contextual meanings of words, their expressive, emotional and evaluative potential and their relation to different functional and stylistic layers. Dialect words, terms, slang words, colloquial words and expressions, neologisms, archaisms, foreign words, etc. are studied from v.sp.
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their interactions with different context conditions. An important role in stylistic analysis is played by the analysis of phraseological units and proverbs.

Grammatical style subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Morphological style considers the stylistic possibilities of various grammatical categories inherent in certain parts of speech. Here, for example, the stylistic possibilities of the category of number, oppositions in the system of pronouns, nominal and verbal styles of speech, connections between artistic and grammatical time, etc. are considered. Syntactic style explores the expressive possibilities of word order, types of sentences, types of syntactic connection. An important place here is occupied by figures of speech - syntactic, stylistic or rhetorical figures, ᴛ.ᴇ. special syntactic constructions that give additional expressiveness to speech. Both in linguistic stylistics and in literary stylistics, much attention is paid to various forms of speech transmission of the narrator and characters: dialogue, improperly direct speech, stream of consciousness, etc.

Phonostylistics, or phonetic style, includes all phenomena of the sound organization of poetry and prose: rhythm, alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme, assonance, etc. - in connection with the problem of the content of the sound form, ᴛ.ᴇ. having a stylistic function. This also includes the consideration of non-standard pronunciation with a comic and satirical effect to show social inequality or to create local color.

Practical style teaches you how to express yourself correctly. He advises to use words whose meanings we know. Do not abuse words like staff, avoid fr.
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words (faux-pas instead of mistake), tautologies (decline to accept). Learn to use the language correctly. Everything should be used according to the occasion.

Functional style studies style as a functional kind of language, especially in a literary text.

Relationship of stylistics with ancient disciplines:

Literary criticism (study of content)

Semiotics (text is a system of signs, signs can be read in different ways) Eco, Lotman

Pragmatics (studies impact)

Sociolinguistics (selection of language means in contrast to the situation of communication, communication status, relationships)

Basic concepts:

1) visual means of the language - tropes (serve as a description and are mainly lexical)

2) expressive means of the language (do not create images, but increase the expressiveness of speech and enhance its emotionality with the help of special syntactic constructions: inversion, contrast)

3) figurative - expressive means of language - figures of speech

4) the stylistic device must be an independent means or coincide with the means of the language. Under the stylistic device of I.R. Galperin understands the intentional and conscious strengthening of some typical structural and/or semantic feature of a linguistic unit (neutral or expressive), which has reached generalization and typification and thus has become a generative model. The main feature is the intentionality or purposefulness of the use of this or that element, as opposed to its existence in the language system.

The same stylistic means may not be a stylist: repetition - in colloquial speech there is no effect; in artistic speech - enhances the effect

Convergence - the simultaneous use of several stylistic devices (bundle). May coincide with the concept of genre (paradox).

The stylistic function is the role that the language tool plays in the transmission of expressive information:

Creating Artistic Expression

Creation of pathos

Creating comic effect

Hyperbola

Should be descriptive (characterological)

To create a speech characteristic of the hero

There is no direct correspondence between style media, style techniques and style function, because stylistic means are ambiguous. Inversion, for example, based on the context and situation, can create pathos and elation, or, on the contrary, give an ironic, parodic sound. Polyunion, based on contextual conditions, can serve to logically highlight the elements of the statement, to create the impression of a leisurely, measured tale, or, on the contrary, to convey a series of excited questions, assumptions, etc. Hyperbole must be tragic and comic, pathetic and grotesque.

Functional-stylistic coloring should not be confused with stylistic function. The first belongs to the language, the second to the text. In dictionaries, functional-stylistic connotation - the historical reference of words and belonging to special terminology - just like emotional connotation, is indicated by special marks: colloquial, poetical, slang, ironical, anatomy, etc.

Unlike stylistic connotation, the stylistic function helps the reader to correctly place accents and highlight the main thing.

It is also important to distinguish the stylistic function from the stylistic device. Stylistic devices include style. figures and paths. Stylistic devices are also syntactic or stylistic figures that increase the emotionality and expressiveness of the statement due to unusual syntactic construction: different types of repetitions, inversion, parallelism, gradation, polynomial coordinating units, ellipsis, juxtaposition of opposites, etc. A special group is formed by phonetic stylistic devices: alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia and other methods of sound organization of speech.

The concept of stylistic device and stylistic function. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The concept of stylistic device and stylistic function." 2017, 2018.

The concept of stylistic device has been studied by many language researchers. But as such, there is no single generally recognized classification of stylistic devices, although attempts to build a classification of stylistic devices have been repeatedly undertaken by language researchers. So, for example, S.E. Nikitina and N.V. Vasiliev interpret the stylistic device as “a way of organizing the utterance of the text, enhancing its expressiveness” and it is noted that the figures of speech “are used as a stylistic device”, while the stylistic device and the figure of speech are considered as generic concepts. Similarly, V.Ya. Pastukhova considers the correlation of these two concepts: “We understand a stylistic device as a method that is consciously, for a specific purpose, used by a poet to more accurately express his thoughts, to enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech. It acts as a general, generic in relation to the particular, specific - trope, figure.

I.B. Golub and D.E. Rosenthal interpret the stylistic device as a deliberate rejection of the use of expressive and visual means of the language.

I.V. Arnold, noting that, according to some researchers (in particular, I.R. Galperin), the main sign of a technique is the intentionality and purposefulness of its use, notes that it is impossible not to recognize that both in the word "reception" and in the word "means "has its own component of purposefulness."

Therefore, he calls "the type of this or that poetic turn, and not its purposefulness" as the hallmark of the reception. Meanwhile, I.R. Galperin, identifying a stylistic device and a stylistic device, considers typification, and not only purposefulness, to be the main feature of a stylistic device. By definition, I.R. Galperin, a stylistic device is a deliberate and conscious strengthening of some typical structural or semantic feature of a language unit (neutral or expressive), which has reached generalization and typification and thus has become a generative model. Any expressive means of the language can be used as a stylistic device if it is typified and generalized for certain purposes of "artistic impact". The main feature is the intentionality or purposefulness of the use of this or that element, as opposed to its existence in the language system. A stylistic device is a method that is consciously, for a specific purpose, used by a poet or writer to more accurately express his thoughts, to enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech. It acts as a general, generic in relation to the particular, specific - trope, figure. The stylistic device can be independent or coincide with the means of the language.

Also, it should be noted that expressive means and stylistic devices have much in common, but these two concepts are not at all synonymous. All stylistic devices are expressive, but not all expressive means are stylistic devices. Expressive means have a greater degree of predictability than stylistic devices. As S.I. Vinogradov, a stylistic device is a generalization, typification, condensation of facts objectively existing in the language, means for expressing thoughts, and not a simple reproduction of these facts, but their creative processing. This creative use of the real possibilities of linguistic expression can sometimes take bizarre forms, bordering on the paradoxical use, on the grotesque. Any expressive means of the language can be used as a stylistic device if it is typified and generalized for certain purposes of artistic impact.

V. Vinogradov believes that some stylistic means of the language have become isolated as methods of only artistic speech; in other styles of speech they are not used, for example, improperly direct speech. However, the linguistic features of other styles of speech - newspaper, scientific, business, etc. - also influence the formation of individual stylistic means and determine their multifunctionality. Language means used in the same functions gradually develop a kind of new qualities, become conditional means of expression and, gradually forming into separate groups, form certain stylistic devices. Therefore, an analysis of the linguistic nature of stylistic devices (many of which were described in ancient rhetoric, and later in courses on the theory of literature) is an indispensable condition for a correct understanding of the features of their functioning.

The classification of some lexical means of the language is based on the principle of interaction of various types of lexical meanings. Many researchers have been involved in the classification of stylistic devices. Currently, the generally accepted and most used classifications are: Yu.M. Skrebneva, I.R. Galperin, G.N. Lich.

Let's consider some of them. According to Skrebnev's classification, stylistic devices are divided into figures of quantity and figures of quality. He refers to the former as hyperbole and meiosis (litote, understatement).

To the figures of Yu.M. Skrebnev relates techniques formed on the basis of the expression of a comparison of two heterogeneous objects (phenomena) or their properties with a common feature for them. At the same time, a common feature objectively characterizes one of the compared objects. If this sign is attributed to the object to a greater extent, an expressive means arises - hyperbole, if to a much lesser extent - meiosis (a variation of the latter is litote). Quality figures include figures based on the transfer of meaning. Value transfer can be of three types:

• 1. adjacency transfer, which is based on the relationship between two representations. Forms a metonymic group of tropes;
• 2. transfer in meaning, based on a comparison of two objects, and there is no connection between them. A metaphorical group of tropes is formed;
• 3. substitution transfer is the use of words with the opposite meaning. For example, irony.

The first type includes metonymy in its two forms: synecdoche and periphrase, and its varieties (euphemism and anti-euphemism). Metonymy is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their contiguity. For example:

• - Crown for sovereign;
• - Homer for Homer "s poems;
• - Wealth for rich people. He drank a whole glass of whiskey.

Synecdoche is a type of metonymy. This trope consists in replacing the plural with the singular, in using the name of the part instead of the whole, the particular instead of the general, and vice versa.

Paraphrase from [Greek. perнfrasis] - a syntactic-semantic figure that consists in replacing a one-word name of an object or action with a descriptive verbose expression. Euphemism (from Greek euphйmia - abstinence from inappropriate words, softened expression), replacement of rude or harsh words and expressions with softer ones, as well as some proper names - conventional designations.

The second type is metaphor. Skrebnev describes a metaphor as an expressive renaming based on the similarity of two objects. For example:

• - She is a flower;
• - People who live in glass houses should not throw stones.

According to Skrebnev, metaphor also includes such varieties as: allusion, personification and antonomasia. The third type is irony. Yu.M. Skrebnev notes that the term “irony”, which comes from the Greek word “eironeia” (“hidden mockery”), denotes a trope based on the direct opposite of meaning to meaning (meaning here means the traditional content of a linguistic unit, and meaning is understood as an actual value units).

Yu.M. Skrebnev distinguishes two types of irony. The first type of irony refers to irony in language, that is, to such statements that cannot be taken literally (some linguists call this type of irony an anti-phrase). For example: That "s a pretty kettle of fish! A fine friend you are!"

Skrebnev refers to the second type of irony the overwhelming majority of statements that can be perceived either in a literal sense or in an ironic sense. In oral speech, irony is often distinguished by emphatic intonation. In written language, quotation marks and italics are typical markers. More often, the true point of view of the author is shown by the situation.

Yu.M. Skrebnev refers to irony two schemes for creating ironic meaning: “criticism hidden under praise” and, in his words, more rare, “praise hidden under criticism”. Thus, the author does not consider the negative modality to be obligatory for irony. Irony can be expressed as a word and phrase, as well as a sentence and even a whole artistic narrative. Yu.M. Skrebnev gives such an example of expressing irony with a whole narrative, like W. Thackeray's "Vanity Fair" or O. Wilde's "Faithful Friend".

Unlike Leach and Galperin, Skrebnev does not classify expressive means and stylistic devices into language levels. First of all, Skrebnev divides stylistics into paradigmatic stylistics (or stylistics of units) and syntagmatic stylistics (or stylistics of consequences). He then considers the levels of language and considers all stylistic similarities according to this level of principle in both paradigmatic and syntagmatic stylistics.

He also unambiguously singles out one more level, supplementing it with phonetics, morphology, lexicology, and he adds semasiology (or semantics) to syntax. According to Skrebnev, the relationship between these five levels and the two aspects of stylistic analysis is two-way.

This linguistic material of these levels provides for stylistic features studied by paradigmatic and syntagmatic stylistics. The difference lies in their different structures.

Paradigmatic stylistics contains five levels:

• 1. phonetic;
• 2. morphological;
• 3. lexicological;
• 4. syntactic;
• 5. semasiological.

Paradigmatic semasiology deals with the study of the transfer of meanings known as tropes. Tropes (Greek: tropos - turn, turn, image) are words that acquire a figurative meaning, capable of losing their nominative function in an artistic context and acquiring bright expressive coloring and stylistic figures, calling them figurative and expressive means.

Stylistic means are varied and numerous, but all of them are based on the same linguistic principle on which the entire mechanism of language is built: the comparison of phenomena and the establishment of similarities and differences between them, contrast and equivalence.

In Leach's classification of stylistic devices, the main criterion is linguistic deviation from the norm. Since the material of our study is poetry, in the future we will turn to lexical devices. He points out that it is common to say that writers and poets use language in an unorthodox way and are allowed some degree of poetic freedom in depicting the real world. "Poetic freedom" refers to a note of piety, a historical period, poetry. Leach bases his classification on the principle of the difference between deviation from the norm and the nominal meaning of an object. Among the features of deviation from the norm, he singles out paradigmatic and syntagmatic deviations. According to Leach, all figures should be divided into syntagmatic and paradigmatic.

The difference between deviation from the norm and the norm, according to Leach, can be explained by a metaphor that includes the semantic transfer of compatible compounds. Another example of deviation from the norm is personification. In this case, we are dealing with purely grammatical oppositions: personal - impersonal; animate - inanimate; concrete - abstract. This type of rejection entails using an inanimate noun in a context suitable for a personal noun. For example: As Connie had said, she handled just like any other airplane, except that she had better manners than most. In this example, she kind of supports the airplane and personifies it at the grammatical level. The deviant use of she in this sentence is heightened with better manners, which can be associated with people.

Leach defines this type of deviation from the norm as "specific deviation from the norm" because, as he explains, this deviation is an unexpected, unpredictable choice that leads to a violation of the norm, i.e., deviation from it. He compares this to what the Prague School of Linguistics calls "high-priority problem solving."

Leach notes that unlike paradigmatic figures, syntagmatic features are based on opposition. The syntagmatic sequence of linguistic units involves the choice of equivalents, which must be made in various aspects of this sequence, while the author repeatedly selects these units. Leach illustrates this with alliteration. For example, in place of the sentence “Robert turned over a hoop in a circle”, we would have an intentional excess of the “r” sound in “Robert Rowley rolled a round roll round”.

Basically, the difference described by Leach between paradigmatic and syntagmatic aberrations is viewed by him as: in the first case it is a redundancy in choice, and in the second case it is a gap in the subsequent.

This classification includes many of the other divisions and details that are described in Leach's book. This theory was created by him for the analysis of stylistic forms, considered as deviant forms from the lexical and grammatical norm of the language.

The classification of some lexical stylistic means of the language is based on the principle of interaction of various types of lexical meanings.

Thus, a stylistic device is a method that is consciously, for a specific purpose, used by a poet, writer to more accurately express his thoughts, to enhance the figurative and expressive function of speech. Expressive means have much in common with stylistic devices, but these two concepts are not synonymous. The generally accepted classifications at present are the classifications of Yu.M. Skrebneva, I.R. Galperin, G.N. Lich. Yu.M. Skrebnev subdivides figures into figures of quality and quantity, and unlike I.R. Galperin and G.N. Lich, the scientist does not classify stylistic devices into language levels (lexical, phonetic, morphological, syntactic, semasiological).

Stylistic devices and expressive means

Stylistic devices and expressive means

Epithet (epithet [ˈepɪθet]) is a word definition expressing the author's perception:
silvery laugh
a thrilling tale
a sharp smile
An epithet always has an emotional connotation. He characterizes the object in a certain artistic way, reveals its features.
a wooden table (wooden table) - only a description, expressed in an indication of the material from which the table is made;
a penetrating look (penetrating look) - an epithet.

Comparison (simile [ˈsɪməli]) is a means of likening one object to another on some basis in order to establish similarities or differences between them.
The boy seems to be clever as his mother. The boy seems to be as smart as his mother.

Irony (irony [ˈaɪrəni]) is a stylistic device where the content of the statement carries a meaning different from the direct meaning of this statement. The main purpose of irony is to evoke a humorous attitude of the reader to the described facts and phenomena.
She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. She turned with a sweet alligator smile.
But irony is not always funny, it can be cruel and offensive.
How clever you are! You're so clever! (The reverse meaning is implied - stupid.)

Hyperbole (hyperbole) - an exaggeration aimed at enhancing the meaning and emotionality of the statement.
I have told you it a thousand times. I told you this a thousand times.

Litota / Understatement (litotes [ˈlaɪtəʊtiːz] / understatement [ˈʌndə(r)ˌsteɪtmənt]) - underestimation of the size or value of an object. Litota is the opposite of hyperbole.
a cat-sized horse
Her face isn't a bad one. She has a good face (instead of "good" or "beautiful").

Periphrase / Paraphrase / Periphrase ( periphrasis) - an indirect expression of one concept with the help of another, its mention by not direct naming, but description.
The big man upstairs hears your prayers. The big man upstairs hears your prayers (the "big man" means God).

Euphemism (euphemism [ˈjuːfəˌmɪzəm]) is a neutral expressive means used to replace uncultured and rude words in speech with softer ones.
toilet → lavatory/loo

Oxymoron (oxymoron [ˌɒksiˈmɔːrɒn]) - creating a contradiction by combining words that have opposite meanings. The suffering was sweet! Suffering was sweet!

Zeugma (zeugma [ˈzjuːɡmə]) is the omission of repeated words in syntactic constructions of the same type to achieve a humorous effect.
She lost her bag and mind. She lost her bag and her sanity.

Metaphor (metaphor [ˈmetəfɔː(r)]) is the transfer of the name and properties of one object to another according to the principle of their similarity.
floods of tears
a storm of indignation
a shadow of a smile
pancake/ball → the sun

Metonymy (metonymy) - renaming; replacing one word with another.
Note: Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor. Metonymy is based on contiguity, on the association of objects. Metaphor is based on similarity.
Examples of metonymy:
The hall applauded. The hall welcomed (the "hall" does not mean the room, but the audience in the hall).
The bucket has spilled. The bucket splashed (not the bucket itself, but the water in it).

Synecdoche (synecdoche) - a special case of metonymy; naming the whole through its part and vice versa.
The buyer chooses the quality products. The buyer chooses quality goods (by "buyer" is meant all buyers in general).

Antonomasia (antonomasia [ˌantənəˈmeɪzɪə]) is a type of metonymy. Instead of a proper name, a descriptive expression is put.
The Iron Lady
Casanova Casanova
Mr. All-Know Mr. omniscient

Inversion (inversion [ɪnˈvɜː (r)ʃ (ə) n]) is a complete or partial change in the direct order of words in a sentence. Inversion imposes logical tension and creates emotional coloring.
Rude am I in my speech. I am rude in my speech.

Repetition (repetition [ˌrepəˈtɪʃ (ə) n]) is an expressive tool used by the speaker in a state of emotional stress, stress. It is expressed in the repetition of semantic words.
Stop! Don't tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you've come for. Stop it! Do not tell me! I don't want to hear this! I don't want to hear what you came back for.

Anadiplosis (anadiplosis [ˌænədəˈpləʊsɪs]) - the use of the last words of the previous sentence as the initial words of the next.
I was climbing the tower and the stairs were trembling. And the stairs were trembling under my feet. I climbed the tower, and the steps trembled. And the steps trembled under my feet.

Epiphora (epiphora [ɪˈpɪf(ə) rə]) is the use of the same word or group of words at the end of each of several sentences.
Strength is given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failures are given by fate. Everything in this world is given by fate. Forces are given to me by fate. Luck is given to me by fate. And failure is given to me by fate. Everything in the world is determined by fate.

Anaphora / Monogamy (anaphora [əˈnaf (ə) rə]) - repetition of sounds, words or groups of words at the beginning of each speech passage.
What is the hammer? What is the chain? Whose was the hammer, whose chains,
In what furnace was your brain? To hold your dreams?
What is the anvil? What dread grasp
Dare its deadly terrors clasp? Got mortal fear?
("The Tiger" by William Blake ; Translation by Balmont)

Polysyndeton / Polyunion (polysyndeton [ˌpɒli:ˈsɪndɪtɒn]) - an intentional increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually between homogeneous members. This stylistic device emphasizes the significance of each word and enhances the expressiveness of speech.
I will either go to the party or study up or watch TV or sleep. I will either go to a party or study for an exam or watch TV or go to bed.

Antithesis / Contraposition (antithesis [ænˈtɪθəsɪs] / contraposition) - a comparison of images and concepts that are opposite in meaning or opposite emotions, feelings and experiences of the hero or author.
Youth is lovely, age is lonely, youth is fiery, age is frosty. Youth is beautiful, old age is lonely, youth is fiery, old age is frosty.
Important: Antithesis and antithesis are two different concepts, but in English they are denoted by the same word antithesis [æn "tɪƟɪsɪs]. A thesis is a judgment put forward by a person, which he proves in any reasoning, and antithesis is a judgment opposite to the thesis.

Ellipsis (ellipsis [ɪˈlɪpsɪs]) is an intentional omission of words that do not affect the meaning of the statement.
Some people go to priests; others to poetry; I to my friends. Some people go to priests, others to poetry, I go to friends.

Aposiopesis (aposiopesis [ˌapə(ʊ)ˌsʌɪəˈpiːsɪs]) - a sudden stop in speech, making it unfinished; breaking one sentence and starting a new one.
I if only could I ... But now is not the time to tell it. If only I could, I... But now is not the time to talk about this (instead of an ellipsis, a dash can be used in English. For more information about punctuation, see the material "Punctuation Marks").

A rhetorical question (rhetoric/rhetorical questions [ˈretərɪk/rɪˈtɒrɪk(ə)l ˈkwestʃ(ə)nz]) is a question that does not require an answer, since it is already known in advance. A rhetorical question is used to enhance the meaning of the statement, to give it greater significance.
Have you just said something? Did you say something? (Like a question asked by a person who did not hear the words of another. This question is not asked to find out whether the person said something at all or not, since this is already known, but in order to find out exactly what he said.

Pun / Wordplay (pun) - jokes and riddles containing a play on words.
What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver?
(One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)
What is the difference between a teacher and a machinist?
(One leads our minds, the other knows how to drive a train).

Interjection (interjection [ˌɪntə(r)ˈdʒekʃ(ə)n]) is a word that serves to express feelings, sensations, mental states, etc., but does not name them.
Oh! Oh! Ah! O! Oh! Ouch! Oh!
Aha! (Aha!)
Pooh! Ugh! Phew! ugh!
gosh! Hell! Oh shit!
Hush! Quiet! Shh! Hush!
Fine! Well!
Yah! Yah?
Gracious Me! Gracious! Fathers!
Christ! Jesus! Jesus Christ! good gracious! Goodness Gracious! good heavens! Oh my god!

Cliche / Stamp (cliche [ˈkliːʃeɪ]) is an expression that has become banal and hackneyed.
Live and learn. Live and learn.

Proverbs and sayings [ˈprɒvɜː(r)bz ændˈseɪɪŋz]).
A shut mouth catches no flies. In a closed mouth, a fly will not fly.

Idiom / Set phrase (idiom [ˈɪdiəm] / set phrase) - a phrase, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it taken separately. Due to the fact that the idiom cannot be translated literally (meaning is lost), translation and understanding difficulties often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring.
No matter
cloud up frown