Liberal reforms 1801-1815
Having become emperor, Alexander I fully showed himself as a cautious, flexible and far-sighted politician, extremely prudent in his reform activities.
Alexander I returned the disgraced nobles, lifted restrictions on trade with England, lifted the ban on the import of books from abroad. The emperor also confirmed the privileges to the nobles and cities indicated in Catherine's Letters of Complaint.
At the same time, Alexander I, in order to develop liberal reforms of the state system, created Unspoken Committee (May 1801 - November 1803), which included: P. Stroganov, A. Czartorysky, V. Kochubey and N. Novosiltsev.
The result of the activities of the Unofficial Committee of the camp reform of the highest state bodies. On September 8, 1802, the Manifesto was issued, according to which ministries were established instead of colleges: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice, as well as the State Treasury as a ministry.
On February 20, 1803, a decree was issued on "free ploughmen", which provided the landlords with the opportunity to release peasants with land for ransom. The decree was advisory in nature and was not very popular with the landowners.
From the autumn of 1803, the importance of the Private Committee began to decline, and the Committee of Ministers took its place. To continue the transformation, Alexander I needed new people who were personally devoted to him. A new round of reforms was associated with the name M. Speransky. Alexander G made Speransky his main adviser and assistant. By 1809, Speransky, on behalf of the emperor, prepared a plan for state reforms called "Introduction to the Code of State Laws." According to this plan, it was necessary to implement the principle of separation of powers (legislative functions were concentrated in the hands of the State Duma, judicial - in the hands of the Senate, executive - in the ministries).
The emperor approved Speransky's plan, but did not dare to carry out large-scale reforms. The transformations affected exclusively the central system of state administration: in 1810, the State Council was established - a legislative advisory body under the emperor.
In 1810-1811. the reform of the ministerial administration system, begun back in 1803, was completed. According to the “General Establishment of Ministries” (1811), eight ministries were formed: foreign affairs, military, maritime, internal affairs, finance, police, justice and public education, as well as the Main Directorate post office, the State Treasury and a number of other departments. Strict monocracy was introduced. Ministers appointed by the king and accountable only to him formed Committee of Ministers whose status as an advisory body under the emperor was determined only in 1812.
At the beginning of 1811, the State Council refused to approve the draft of new reforms. The failure of the whole plan of Speransky became obvious. The nobility clearly felt the threat of the abolition of serfdom. The growing opposition of the conservatives became so threatening that Alexander I was forced to stop the transformation. M. Speransky was removed and then exiled.
In Corfu, there was a detachment of Count N.D. Voinovich: frigates "Navarchia", "Descent of the Holy Spirit", "Our Lady of Kazan", "Nikolai" (transport), two brigantines. At the beginning of the year, news was received of the approach of the English squadron to Messina and Zante. Detachment N.D. Voinovich was unable to repel the attack, because due to the dilapidation of the frigates they could not carry all the guns in batteries, there was a lack of gunpowder and provisions. At a military council with the commanders of the ships and the commandant of Corfu, Lieutenant Colonel Gastfer, it was decided for safety to leave for the neutral port of Brindisi. In February, the frigates left for Brindisi, and after the danger had passed, they returned to Corfu. On April 6, Captain 1st Rank K.K. took command of the squadron. Konstantinov.
In July-August, the ships left Corfu in two groups and arrived in Constantinople by October, where they stayed for the winter. In April 1802 the detachment arrived in Sevastopol.
In the first years of the 19th century, official and ordinary practical voyages took place every year, and sometimes, under the guise of the latter, separate squadrons were sent out for political purposes. So, for example, when the French, despite the agreed neutrality of Southern Italy, occupied Otranto and Brindisi, part of our land and sea troops stationed in Naples was transferred to Corfu in 1802 on chartered Greek ships escorted by two military frigates.
In 1802, small squadrons were intended for practical navigation in the Baltic - Kronstadt - four ships, a frigate and a boat, Revelskaya - three ships, two frigates and a boat. Both of them joined under the overall command of Vice Admiral A.L. Simansky from mid-June to August were in practical navigation.
In addition, three frigates under the command of Captain-Commander A.E. Myasoedov with the midshipmen on board walked along the Gulf of Finland.
In the Gulf of Finland, for two months, 33 vessels of the rowing flotilla (30 gunboats and three floating batteries) sailed, and two gunboats sailed on Lake Saimo.
In Naples in 1802 there were three frigates under the command of Captain 1st Rank A.A. Sorokin: "St. Nicholas" and "Gregory the Great of Armenia" and "Mikhail". They were in poor condition - dilapidated and badly eaten by worms. On June 28, the frigate "Gregory the Great of Armenia" (Captain 1st Rank I.A. Shostak) left Naples with two transports. After wintering in Constantinople, in July 1803 they arrived in Nikolaev.
The most dilapidated of the ships remaining in Naples - "St. Nicholas" in July 1802 was sold for 11,460 ducats. The frigate "Mikhail" in August 1802 moved from Naples to Corfu.
On October 15, the frigate "Nazareth" (captain of the 1st rank K.S. Leontovich), which left Sevastopol in September, arrived in Corfu to replace the "Mikhail", which in 1803 returned to Sevastopol.
At the beginning of 1803, diplomatic complications between England and France, which ended in May with the declaration of war, aroused strong fears among the Russian government. Therefore, in March, it was ordered to alert the fortifications of Revel and prepare the squadron of Admiral E.E. Theta (nine ships, frigate, three small ships). On April 11, in case of an attack on Revel, the ships "Don't touch me", "Elizabeth", "Rostislav", "Gleb" and the frigate "Narva" were placed in positions.
But at the end of April, having received information that the fleets of the belligerent powers were not going to enter the Baltic Sea, our maritime activities were limited only to sending cruisers from Revel and Kronstadt for observation in the Gulf of Finland and in mid-May - the departure of E.E. Theta in practical swimming.
During these years, serious shortcomings were revealed in the staffing of the rowing fleet. Deputy Minister of Naval Forces P.V. Chichagov reported to the emperor in November 1803: "In the Baltic Rowing Fleet of gunboats, 200 gunboats were put in place, but 26 were available, then 174 were missing."
In July-September 1803, for the first time since 1799, two frigates "Hurry" and "Legky" crossed from Arkhangelsk to Kronstadt. July 31, they left the Arkhangelsk raid. In the North Sea, the ships got into a storm and were damaged, but on September 19 they arrived safely in Kronstadt.
In the same year, a historic event took place for the Russian fleet - the beginning of the first round-the-world voyage. On July 26, 1803, the ships of the expedition I.F. Kruzenshtern "Neva" and "Nadezhda" left Kronstadt for a long three years.
In 1801–1803 The Black Sea Fleet put to sea for practical voyages. Since the Black Sea was open to almost all trading powers, the war that began between England and France could give rise to privateers under the guise of merchant ships or under the flag of one of the warring powers to attack merchant ships. In this regard, in August 1803, the commander of the Black Sea Fleet was ordered to send several frigates or other light ships for cruising, which all the marque ships that came across to them, under whatever flag they were, were considered to be robbers and drowned.
During 1804, ships of the Black Sea Fleet transported troops, provisions, artillery and other cargoes to Mingrelia.
In the summer of 1804, squadrons of the Baltic Fleet sailed across the Baltic and went to the North Sea. Until June 16, all ships of the Kronstadt squadron entered the raid, Vice Admiral R.V. Crown raised the flag on the ship "Yaroslav", Rear Admiral F.Ya. Lomen on the ship "Archangel Michael". The next day, Emperor Alexander I, who arrived in Kronstadt, visited the Izyaslav ship. On July 11, the squadron arrived at the Reval roadstead, where soldiers of the 3rd Marine Regiment were taken on board. The next day, the squadron (10 battleships, 5 frigates, 3 boats and a luger) went to sea and tacked off Bornholm. On August 1, the detachment of F.Ya. Lomena - ships: "Emgeiten", "Prince Karl", "Archangel Michael", frigates: "Happy", "Tikhvinskaya Bogoroditsa" and the boat "Dispatch" - separated from the squadron to sail to the North Sea on the Doger Bank. At the same time, he was ordered not to enter other people's ports during the entire voyage. The rest of the ships went to Kronstadt.
Swimming R.V. Crown and F.Ya. Lomena were very stormy: many ships suffered significant damage, one boat lost both masts, and Crown's flagship had to go to Copenhagen for correction, and from there return to Kronstadt. Lomen's detachment, having stood behind fresh opposite winds for three weeks in the Kattegat, went out into the German Sea, met severe storms, which forced him, due to significant damage to the ships, to return to Kronstadt on October 7th. The real difficulty of this voyage and the good management of ships are evidenced by gratitude " for good management" received by Lomen and some of the commanders of the ships of his detachment.
The concentration of Russian forces in Corfu
During 1804, the government of Alexander I was intensively preparing for the upcoming war. Russian troops concentrated on the northwestern and southwestern borders of the country.
The fear that Napoleon would try to occupy the Ionian Islands, which would open up an opportunity for him to once again spread his influence in the Middle East, forced Russia as early as the beginning of 1804 to attend to the creation of a reliable defense of Corfu. The alliance with Turkey allowed her to deliver troops to the Ionian Islands from the Black Sea ports. To reinforce the garrison, which consisted of 1200 soldiers and officers brought from Naples in 1802, Alexander I ordered an infantry division to be sent to Corfu.
The highest rescript to Admiral Marquis I.I. de Traversay dated December 9, 1803: "I deign to send one garrison battalion to the island of Corfu, with a commensurate number of artillery ranks and with these 12 and 3 pounder cannons or 8 pound unicorns with all accessories, you have chosen as many military and transport vessels, as may be required both to accommodate these teams with supplies, and to escort or cover such transport.
But one battalion for such a strategically important area was clearly insufficient, and on March 12, 1804, a new Imperial decree by I.I. de Traversay: "To our troops already in Corfu and now sent, appointing the following regiments of the Crimean inspection: 1) Siberian Grenadier chief - Major General Bakhmetiev 3rd, 2) Vitebsk Mushkater Major General Musin-Pushkin, 3) Egersky 13 Major General Prince Vyazemsky, 4) Jaeger 14th Colonel Stetter and two artillery companies ... "The Emperor allowed Traverse to determine the composition of the ships himself, as well as hire merchant ships.
And separate squadrons with troops were sent from the Black Sea: in March 1804 - the squadron of K.S. Leontovich, in June - I.O. Saltanov, in July - G.G. Belle, T. Messer and P.M. Maksheev. On these squadrons, a division was delivered under the command of Major General R.K. Anrep.
Detachment of captain 1st rank K.S. Leontovich: frigates "John Chrysostom" (captain-lieutenant S.A. Belisarius) - the flagship, "Strong" (captain of the 2nd rank K.Yu. Patanioti), "St. Nicholas", "Hasty" (captain of the 2nd rank P .N. Dragopulo), transport "Gregory" (captain-lieutenant A.E. Paleolog), having received landing troops - 1095 people, left Sevastopol on February 6. On March 13, he arrived in Corfu, where the frigate Nazareth was stationed. The troops were brought ashore.
In mid-April, "John Chrysostom" and the transport "Gregory" left Corfu for Sevastopol. The rest of the ships remained until the end of the year in Corfu, transporting troops to the islands of St. Maura, Kefalonia, Zante, and also went on a cruise to the Albanian coast, to the Gulf of Venice and to Cape Otranto.
February 20, 1803Acting Privy Councilor Count Sergei Rumyantsev, expressing a desire to some of his serfs, when they were dismissed, to approve plots of land belonging to him for ownership by sale or on other voluntary conditions, asked that such conditions, voluntarily concluded, have the same legal effect and force as assigned to other serf obligations, and so that the peasants, thus dismissed, could remain in the state of free farmers, without being obliged to enter into another kind of life.
Finding, on the one hand, that according to the force of existing laws, such as the manifesto of 1775 and the decree of December 12, 1801, the dismissal of peasants and the ownership of land by the dismissed are allowed; and on the other hand, that the approval of such land ownership can in many cases provide the landlords with various benefits and have a beneficial effect on encouraging agriculture and other parts of the state economy: we consider it fair and useful, both for him, Count Rumyantsev, and for all who from the landlords follow he wills his example, the order to permit such; and in order that it may have its lawful force, we find it necessary to decree the following:
If any of the landlords wishes to release their acquired or ancestral peasants individually, or as a whole village, to freedom, and at the same time approve them a piece of land or a whole dacha; then having made conditions with them, which, by mutual agreement, are recognized as the best, he has to present them at his request through the provincial noble marshal to the Minister of the Interior for consideration and presentation to us; and if a decision follows from us according to his desire, then these conditions will be presented in the Civil Chamber and recorded at the serf deeds with the payment of legal duties.
Such conditions, made by the landowner, recorded with his peasants and serf affairs, are preserved as serf obligations sacredly and inviolably. Upon the death of the landowner, his legal heir or heirs shall assume all the duties and rights indicated in these conditions.
In the event of a forfeit of one or the other side, under these conditions, the government offices, on complaints, sort out and impose penalties under the general laws on contracts and fortresses, with such an observation that if the peasant, or the whole village, does not fulfill his obligations: then it is returned to the landowner with the land and his family for possession as before.
Peasants and villages from the landowners on such conditions with land released, if they do not wish to enter into other states, can remain farmers on their own lands and in themselves constitute a special state of free cultivators.
Household people and peasants, who hitherto were personally set free with the obligation to choose a kind of life, can enter into this state of free farmers within the time period prescribed by laws, if they acquire land for themselves. This also applies to those of them who are already in other states and wish to go into agriculture, accepting all the duties of it.
The peasants released from the landlords to freedom and owning the land as property, bear the capitation state salary on an equal footing with the landowners, send recruitment duties in kind, and correcting the Zemstvo duties on an equal basis with other state peasants, they do not pay quitrent money to the treasury.
They are in charge of court and reprisal in the same places where state peasants are; according to the possessions of the land, they are sorted out according to the fortresses, as owners of immovable property.
As soon as the fulfillment of the conditions, the peasants, such, receive land in their ownership: they will have the right to sell it, mortgage it and leave it as a legacy, without breaking up, however, plots of less than 8 acres; equally they have the right to buy land again; and therefore to move from one province to another; but only with the knowledge of the Treasury for the transfer of their capitation salary and recruitment duty.
Inasmuch as such peasants have immovable property, then they can enter into all sorts of obligations; and the decrees of 1761 and 1765 forbidding peasants, without the permission of their superiors, to enter into conditions that do not apply to them.
In the event that the peasants released by the landowner to freedom with land were in state or private pledge: they can, with the permission of state places and with the consent of private creditors, take on the debt that lies on the estate, make it to the conditions; and in the recovery of this debt, taken on by them, to treat them as with the landowners.
On this basis, the Governing Senate will not leave to make all the necessary orders from itself.
PSZ, from 1649. T. XXVII. 1802-1803. SPb., 1830, pp. 462-463, No. 20620.
Which of these decrees was signed by the emperor in 1803? Chancellery" 4) "On the introduction of compulsory military service" A2. What estate was the most privileged in Russia in the 19th century? 1) boyars 3) merchants 2) nobility 4) clergy (priesthood) A3. According to the reform of 1802, which state authority was given the functions of the highest judicial authority and the body of supervision over the administration? 1) the Holy Synod 3) the Senate 2) the Supreme Privy Council 4) the State CouncilA4. As in the 19th century called peasants who had money and were engaged in entrepreneurial activities? 1) sessional 3) temporarily liable 2) capitalists 4) Black HundredsA5. Read an excerpt from the historian's work and indicate the place of the meeting of the two emperors in question. In the very middle of the river, a raft with two magnificent pavilions was approved. The whole guard was lined up on the French shore, on the Russian - a small retinue of the emperor ... The boats set sail from the banks, and in the middle of the river, the emperor and the tsar simultaneously entered the tent of peace. The guardsmen, who were shooting at each other 10 days ago, shout: "Hurrah!" Yesterday's enemies embraced...» 1) Waterloo 3) Austerlitz 2) Tilsit 4) St. PetersburgA6. During the years of which war did the Russian army carry out the brilliant Tarutinsky march maneuver? 1) Smolensk 3) Livonian 2) Northern 4) Patriotic A7. In the 19th century wealthy townspeople could participate in city management issues through 1) city dumas 3) labial elders 2) peace mediators 4) zemstvo committeesA8. Read an excerpt from the notes of a contemporary and indicate the name of the war, the events of which are discussed. “The Uglitsky and Kazan regiments, and the fifth squad of the Bulgarian militia, with amazingly beautiful harmony, moved forward under heavy enemy fire. After brilliant attacks, Skobelev lined up in front of the Vladimir regiment ... - Well, brothers, follow me now. Your comrades have honestly done their job, and we will finish as it should. - Let's try ... - Look ... Go in harmony ... The Turks are almost already defeated ... blessing, with God! ”1) Russian-Turkish war of 1806-1812. 3) Crimean War 1853–1856 2) Russo-Turkish War 1828–1829 4) Russian-Turkish war of 1877–1878 A9. Under the reform of 1861, the peasants received the right 1) to transfer to other estates 2) to elect and be elected to the State Duma 3) to leave the community and settle in farms 4) to all the land of the landownerA10. Read an excerpt from the memoirs of N. Figner and indicate the name of the emperor, the preparation of the assassination attempt on which the document refers. prepared an explosion in the Winter Palace, but this was kept in the strictest secrecy and was under the jurisdiction of the "Administrative Commission" of three persons elected by members of the Committee from among themselves for matters of the greatest importance. At that time these three were: Al. Mikhailov. Tikhomirov and Al. Kwiatkowski, from whom I once heard a mysterious phrase: "While all these preparations are going on, here the personal courage of one can end everything." This was an allusion to Khalturin, who later told me that in the Winter Palace he once happened to be alone with the sovereign, and a hammer blow could destroy him on the spot. 1) Pavel Petrovich 3) Nikolai Pavlovich 2) Alexander Pavlovich 4) Alexander Nikolaevich Which of the above happened in the 19th century? 1) the abolition of the patriarchate 3) the proclamation of Russia as an empire 2) the establishment of colleges 4) the abolition of serfdomA12. “We were the children of 1812” - this is what they said about themselves 1) Slavophiles 3) Decembrists 2) Marxists 4) Narodnaya Volya A13. What was the name of the legislative body of state power established in 1810? 1) State Council 3) Supreme Senate 2) State Duma 4) Holy SynodA14. Started in Russia in the 30s. 19th century the industrial revolution contributed to 1) the emergence of the first manufactories 2) the emergence of the first all-Russian fairs 3) a decrease in the urban population 4) the formation of factory centersA15. Representatives of Russian public thought from the late 1830s - 1850s, who believed that Russia should develop in an original way, and not follow the patterns of leading European countries, were called 1) Westerners 3) Slavophiles 2) Social Democrats 4) DecembristsA16. Indicate the changes, transformations that were carried out during the Great Reforms of the 1860-1870s. correct answer 1) ABG 2) AVD 3) BVG 4) IOP
MAIN BOARD EVENTS
In the first years of his reign, he believed that the country needed fundamental reforms and serious renewal. To carry out reforms, he created an Unspoken Committee to discuss reform projects. The secret committee put forward the idea of limiting autocracy, but at first it was decided to carry out reforms in the sphere of administration. In 1802, the reform of the highest bodies of state power began, ministries were created, and the Committee of Ministers was established. In 1803, a decree was issued on "free cultivators", according to which landowners could release their serfs into freedom with land allotments for a ransom. After the appeal of the Baltic landowners, he approved the law on the complete abolition of serfdom in Estonia (1811).
In 1809, the emperor's secretary of state M. Speransky presented to the tsar a project for a radical reform of public administration - a project for the creation of a constitutional monarchy in Russia. Having met the active resistance of the nobles, Alexander I abandoned the project.
In 1816–1822 In Russia, noble secret societies arose - the "Union of Salvation". Welfare Union Southern society, Northern society - with the aim of introducing a republican constitution in Russia or a constitutional monarchy. By the end of his reign, Alexander I, under pressure from the nobles and fearing popular uprisings, abandoned all liberal ideas and serious reforms.
In 1812, Russia experienced the invasion of Napoleon's army, the defeat of which ended with the entry of Russian troops into Paris. Russia's foreign policy has undergone fundamental changes. Unlike Paul I, who supported Napoleon, Alexander, on the contrary, opposed France, and resumed trade and political relations with England.
In 1801, Russia and England concluded an anti-French convention "On Mutual Friendship", and then, in 1804, Russia joined the third anti-French coalition. After the defeat at Austerlitz in 1805, the coalition fell apart. In 1807, the forced Peace of Tilsit was signed with Napoleon. Subsequently, Russia and its allies inflicted a decisive defeat on Napoleon's army in the "Battle of the Nations" near Leipzig in 1813.
In 1804–1813 Russia won the war with Iran, seriously expanded and strengthened its southern borders. In 1806–1812 there was a protracted Russo-Turkish war. As a result of the war with Sweden in 1808-1809. Russia included Finland, later Poland (1814).
In 1814, Russia took part in the work of the Congress of Vienna to resolve issues of the post-war structure of Europe and in the creation of the Holy Alliance to ensure peace in Europe, which included Russia and almost all European countries.
THE BEGINNING OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I
And yet, the first years of the reign of Alexander I left the best memories among contemporaries, “A wonderful beginning of the Days of Alexander” - this is how A.S. Pushkin. A short period of enlightened absolutism set in.” Universities, lyceums, gymnasiums were opened. Measures were taken to alleviate the situation of the peasants. Alexander stopped the distribution of state peasants into the possession of the landowners. In 1803, a decree on "free cultivators" was adopted. According to the decree, the landowner could free his peasants by giving them land and receiving a ransom from them. But the landlords were in no hurry to take advantage of this decree. During the reign of Alexander I, only 47 thousand male souls were released. But the ideas laid down in the decree of 1803 subsequently formed the basis of the reform of 1861.
In the Unspoken Committee, a proposal was made to prohibit the sale of serfs without land. Human trafficking was carried out in Russia in undisguised, cynical forms. Announcements about the sale of serfs were published in newspapers. At the Makariev fair, they were sold along with other goods, families were separated. Sometimes a Russian peasant, bought at a fair, went to distant eastern countries, where until the end of his days he lived in the position of a foreign slave.
Alexander I wanted to stop such shameful phenomena, but the proposal to ban the sale of peasants without land ran into the stubborn resistance of the highest dignitaries. They believed that this undermined serfdom. Without showing perseverance, the young emperor retreated. It was forbidden only to publish advertisements for the sale of people.
By the beginning of the XIX century. the administrative system of the state was in a state of apparent collapse. The collegial form of central administration that was introduced clearly did not justify itself. A circular irresponsibility reigned in the colleges, covering up bribery and embezzlement. Local authorities, taking advantage of the weakness of the central government, committed lawlessness.
At first, Alexander I hoped to restore order and strengthen the state by introducing a ministerial system of central government based on the principle of unity of command. In 1802, instead of the previous 12 colleges, 8 ministries were created: military, naval, foreign affairs, internal affairs, commerce, finance, public education and justice. This measure strengthened the central administration. But a decisive victory in the fight against abuse was not achieved. Old vices settled in the new ministries. Growing, they rose to the upper floors of state power. Alexander was aware of senators who took bribes. The desire to expose them struggled in him with the fear of dropping the prestige of the Senate. It became obvious that the task of creating a system of state power that would actively promote the development of the country's productive forces, and not devour its resources, could not be solved by mere rearrangements in the bureaucratic machine. A fundamentally new approach to solving the problem was required.
WAR OF 1812 AND FOREIGN CAMPAIGN OF THE RUSSIAN ARMY
Of the 650 thousand soldiers of the "Great Army" of Napoleon returned to their homeland, according to some sources, 30 thousand, according to others - 40 thousand soldiers. In essence, the Napoleonic army was not expelled, but exterminated in the endless snowy expanses of Russia. December 21 reported to Alexander: "The war is over for the complete extermination of the enemy." On December 25, the tsar's manifesto, timed to coincide with the Nativity of Christ, was published announcing the end of the war. Russia turned out to be the only country in Europe capable of not only resisting Napoleonic aggression, but also inflicting a crushing blow on it. The secret of victory was that it was a national liberation, truly Patriotic, war. But this victory came at a high cost to the people. Twelve provinces, which became the scene of hostilities, were devastated. The ancient Russian cities of Smolensk, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Moscow were burned and destroyed. Direct military losses amounted to over 300 thousand soldiers and officers. Even greater losses were among the civilian population.
The victory in the Patriotic War of 1812 had a huge impact on all aspects of the social, political and cultural life of the country, contributed to the growth of national self-consciousness, and gave a powerful impetus to the development of advanced social thought in Russia.
But the victorious end of the Patriotic War of 1812 did not yet mean that Russia had succeeded in putting an end to Napoleon's aggressive plans. He himself openly announced the preparation of a new campaign against Russia, feverishly put together a new army for the campaign of 1813.
Alexander I decided to preempt Napoleon and immediately transfer military operations outside the country. In pursuance of his will, Kutuzov, in an order to the army dated December 21, 1812, wrote: "Never stopping among heroic deeds, we are now moving further. We will pass the borders and strive to complete the defeat of the enemy in his own fields." Both Alexander and Kutuzov rightfully counted on help from the peoples conquered by Napoleon, and their calculation was justified.
On January 1, 1813, a hundred thousandth Russian army under the command of Kutuzov crossed the Neman and entered Poland. On February 16, in Kalisz, where the headquarters of Alexander I was located, an offensive and defensive alliance was concluded between Russia and Prussia. Prussia also assumed the obligation to supply the Russian army with food on its territory.
In early March, Russian troops occupied Berlin. By this time, Napoleon had formed an army of 300,000, from which 160,000 soldiers moved against the allied forces. A heavy loss for Russia was the death of Kutuzov on April 16, 1813 in the Silesian city of Bunzlau. Alexander I appointed P.Kh. as the commander-in-chief of the Russian army. Wittgenstein. His attempts to lead his own strategy, different from Kutuzov's, led to a number of failures. Napoleon, having inflicted defeats on the Russian-Prussian troops at Luzen and Bautzen in late April - early May, threw them back to the Oder. Alexander I replaced Wittgenstein as Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces with Barclay de Tolly.
In July-August 1813 England, Sweden and Austria joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. At the disposal of the coalition was up to half a million soldiers, divided into three armies. The Austrian Field Marshal Karl Schwarzenberg was appointed commander-in-chief of all the armies, and the general leadership of the conduct of military operations against Napoleon was carried out by the council of three monarchs - Alexander I, Franz I and Friedrich Wilhelm III.
By the beginning of August 1813, Napoleon already had 440 thousand soldiers, and on August 15 he defeated the coalition troops near Dresden. Only the victory of the Russian troops three days after the Battle of Dresden over the corps of Napoleonic General D. Vandam near Kulm prevented the collapse of the coalition.
The decisive battle during the campaign of 1813 took place near Leipzig on October 4–7. It was the "battle of the nations". More than half a million people participated in it from both sides. The battle ended with the victory of the allied Russian-Prussian-Austrian troops.
After the battle of Leipzig, the allies slowly moved towards the French border. In two and a half months, almost the entire territory of the German states was liberated from French troops, with the exception of some fortresses, in which the French garrisons stubbornly defended themselves until the very end of the war.
On January 1, 1814, the Allied forces crossed the Rhine and entered French territory. By this time, Denmark had joined the anti-Napoleonic coalition. The allied troops were continuously replenished with reserves, and by the beginning of 1814 they already numbered up to 900 thousand soldiers. During the two winter months of 1814, Napoleon won 12 battles against them and drew two. In the camp of the coalition again there were fluctuations. The allies offered peace to Napoleon on the condition that France return to the borders of 1792. Napoleon refused. Alexander I insisted on continuing the war, striving to overthrow Napoleon from the throne. At the same time, Alexander I did not want the restoration of the Bourbons to the French throne: he offered to leave Napoleon's infant son on the throne under the regency of his mother, Marie-Louise. On March 10, Russia, Austria, Prussia and England signed the Treaty of Chaumont, according to which they pledged not to enter into separate negotiations with Napoleon about peace or a truce. The threefold superiority of the allies in the number of troops by the end of March 1814 led to a victorious end to the campaign. Having won in early March in the battles of Laon and Arcy sur Aube, a 100,000-strong group of allied troops moved on Paris, defended by a 45,000-strong garrison. March 19, 1814 Paris capitulated. Napoleon rushed to liberate the capital, but his marshals refused to fight and forced him to sign an abdication on March 25. According to the peace treaty signed on May 18 (30), 1814 in Paris, France returned to the borders of 1792. Napoleon and his dynasty were deprived of the French throne, on which the Bourbons were restored. Louis XVIII, who returned from Russia, where he was in exile, became the King of France.
History of Russia from ancient times to 1861 N. Pavlenko, I. Andreev, V. Kobrin, V. Fedorov. 3rd ed. M., 2004 http://wordweb.ru/andreev/84.htm
ENTERTAINMENT AND ENTERTAINMENT OF THE ALEXANDER AGE
The holidays of the dynasty were national days of rest and festivities, and every year the whole of Petersburg, seized with festive excitement, waited for July 22. A few days before the celebrations, thousands of people rushed from the city along the Peterhof road: to know in luxurious carriages, nobles, townspeople, commoners - whoever needs it. A journal from the 1820s tells us:
“Several people are crowded on the droshky and willingly endure shaking and anxiety; there, in a Chukhon wagon, there is a whole family with large stocks of provisions of all kinds, and they all patiently swallow thick dust ... Moreover, on both sides of the road there are many pedestrians, whose hunting and strength of legs overpower the lightness of the wallet; peddlers of various fruits and berries - and they rush to Peterhof in the hope of profit and vodka. ... The pier also presents a lively picture, here thousands of people crowd and rush to get on the ship.
Petersburgers spent several days in Peterhof - the parks were open for everyone. Tens of thousands of people spent the night right on the streets. The warm, short bright night did not seem tiring to anyone. The nobles slept in their carriages, the burghers and peasants in the wagons, hundreds of carriages formed real bivouacs. Everywhere one could see horses chewing, people sleeping in the most picturesque poses. They were peaceful hordes, everything was unusually quiet and orderly, without the usual drunkenness and massacre. After the end of the holiday, the guests just as quietly left for St. Petersburg, life went back to its usual track until the next summer ...
In the evening, after dinner and dancing in the Grand Palace, a masquerade began in the Lower Park, where everyone was admitted. By this time, Peterhof parks were being transformed: alleys, fountains, cascades, as in the 18th century, were decorated with thousands of lit bowls and multi-colored lamps. Orchestras played everywhere, crowds of guests in masquerade costumes walked along the alleys of the park, parting in front of the cavalcades of smart horsemen and carriages of members of the royal family.
With the ascension of Alexander, St. Petersburg celebrated its first century with particular joy. In May 1803, there were continuous festivities in the capital. Spectators saw on the birthday of the city how a myriad of festively dressed people filled all the alleys of the Summer Garden ... on the Tsaritsyn Meadow there were booths, swings and other devices for all kinds of folk games. In the evening, the Summer Garden, the main buildings on the embankment, the fortress and the small Dutch house of Peter the Great… were splendidly illuminated. On the Neva, a flotilla of small ships of the imperial squadron, dismantled with flags, was also brightly lit, and on the deck of one of these ships one could see ... the so-called "Grandfather of the Russian Fleet" - the boat from which the Russian fleet began ...
Anisimov E.V. Imperial Russia. St. Petersburg, 2008 http://storyo.ru/empire/141.htm
LEGENDS AND RUMORS ABOUT THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER I
What happened there in the south is shrouded in mystery. It is officially known that Alexander I died on November 19, 1825 in Taganrog. The body of the sovereign was hastily embalmed and taken to St. Petersburg. […] And around 1836, already under Nicholas I, rumors spread around the country that a certain wise old man Fyodor Kuzmich Kuzmin lives among the people, righteous, educated and very, very similar to the late emperor, although he does not at all pretend to imposture . He walked for a long time in the holy places of Russia, and then settled in Siberia, where he died in 1864. The fact that the elder was not a commoner was clear to everyone who saw him.
But then a furious and insoluble dispute flared up: who is he? Some say that this is the once brilliant cavalry guard Fyodor Uvarov, who mysteriously disappeared from his estate. Others believe that it was the Emperor Alexander himself. Of course, among the latter there are many crazy and graphomaniacs, but there are also serious people. They pay attention to many strange facts. The cause of death of the 47-year-old emperor, in general, a healthy, mobile person, is not fully understood. There is some strange confusion in the documents about the death of the king, and this led to the suspicion that the papers were drawn up retroactively. When the body was delivered to the capital, when the coffin was opened, everyone was amazed by the cry of the mother of the deceased, Empress Maria Feodorovna, at the sight of Alexander’s dark, “like a Moor’s” face: “This is not my son!” There was talk of some mistake in the embalming. Or maybe, as supporters of the departure of the king say, this mistake was not accidental? Just shortly before November 19, a courier crashed before the eyes of the sovereign - the carriage was carried by horses. They put him in a coffin, and Alexander himself ...
[…] In recent months, Alexander I has changed a lot. It seemed that some important thought possessed him, which made him thoughtful and resolute at the same time. […] Finally, relatives recalled how Alexander often spoke of being tired and dreaming of leaving the throne. The wife of Nicholas I, Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, wrote in her diary a week before their coronation on August 15, 1826:
“Probably, when I see the people, I will think about how the late Emperor Alexander, once speaking to us about his abdication, added: “How I will rejoice when I see you passing by me, and I will shout to you in the crowd“ Hurray! 'waving his cap'.
Opponents object to this: is it a thing seen to give up such power? Yes, and all these conversations of Alexander are just his usual pose, affectation. And in general, why did the king need to go to the people that he did not like so much. Was there no other way to live without the throne - remember the Swedish Queen Christina, who left the throne and went to enjoy life in Italy. Or it was possible to settle in the Crimea and build a palace. Yes, you could go to the monastery, finally. […] Meanwhile, from one shrine to another, pilgrims wandered around Russia with staffs and knapsacks. Alexander saw them many times in his trips around the country. These were not vagabonds, but people full of faith and love for their neighbor, eternal enchanted wanderers of Russia. Their continuous movement along an endless road, their faith, visible in their eyes and not requiring proof, could suggest a way out for the weary sovereign ...
In a word, there is no clarity in this story. The best connoisseur of the time of Alexander I, historian N.K. Schilder, the author of a fundamental work about him, a brilliant connoisseur of documents and an honest person, said:
“The whole dispute is only possible because some certainly want Alexander I and Fyodor Kuzmich to be the same person, while others absolutely do not want this. Meanwhile, there are no definite data to resolve this issue in one direction or another. I can give as much evidence in favor of the first opinion as in favor of the second, and no definite conclusion can be drawn. […]
