The battle on the Kalka River in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov is a battle between the combined Russian-Polovtsian army and the Mongol army in May 1223.
Battle of Kalka 1223
- On May 31, 1223, the first battle of the Russians and Polovtsy with the Mongol-Tatar troops took place on Kalka.
After the devastation of the Alanian lands in 1223, Subedey and Jebe attacked the Polovtsy, who hastily fled to the borders of Russia. Polovtsian Khan Kotyan appealed to the Kiev prince Mstislav Romanovich and to his son-in-law the Galician prince Mstislav Mstislavich Udaly with a request to help in the fight against a terrible enemy: “And if you don’t help us, we will be cut off today, and you will be cut off in the morning”.
Having received information about the movement of the Mongols, the South Russian princes gathered in Kyiv for advice. In early May 1223, the princes set out from Kyiv. On the seventeenth day of the campaign, the Russian army concentrated on the right bank of the lower reaches of the Dnieper, near Oleshya. Here the Polovtsian detachments joined the Russians. The Russian army consisted of the Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kursk, Trubchev, Putivl, Vladimir and Galician squads. The total number of Russian troops probably did not exceed 20-30 thousand people (Lev Gumilev in his work “From Russia to Russia" writes about the eighty-thousandth Russian-Polovtsian army approaching Kalka; The Dutch historian in his book "Genghis Khan. Conqueror of the World" is the most complete today, a biography about the conqueror of the world - estimates the strength of the Russians at 30 thousand people).
Having discovered the advanced patrols of the Mongols on the left bank of the Dnieper, the Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich with the Galicians he swam across the river and attacked the enemy.
The first success inspired the Russian princes, and the allies moved east, to the Polovtsian steppes. Nine days later they were on the Kalka River, where again there was a small clash with the Mongols with a favorable outcome for the Russians.
Expecting to meet large Mongol forces on the opposite bank of the Kalka, the princes gathered for a military council. Mstislav Romanovich of Kyiv objected to crossing the Kalka. He settled down on the right bank of the river on a rocky height and proceeded to strengthen it.
Mstislav Udaloy and most of the Russian troops on May 31, 1223 began crossing to the left bank of the Kalka, where they were met by a detachment of the Mongolian light cavalry. The warriors of Mstislav the Udaly overthrew the Mongols, and the detachment of Daniil Romanovich and the Polovtsian Khan Yarun rushed to pursue the enemy. At this time, the squad of the Chernigov prince Mstislav Svyatoslavich just crossed the Kalka. Moving away from the main forces, the advance detachment of Russians and Polovtsians met large Mongols forces. Subedey and Jebe had the forces of three tumens, two of which came from Central Asia, and one was recruited from the nomads of the North Caucasus.
The total number of Mongols is estimated at 20-30 thousand people. Sebastatsi writes about those who set out on a campaign from the country “China da Machina” (northern and southern China China) in the year 669 of the Armenian chronology (1220).
Battle on Kalka. Defeat of Russian troops. Reasons for the defeat
- A stubborn battle began. The Russians fought bravely, but the Polovtsians could not withstand the Mongol attacks and fled, sowing panic among the Russian troops that had not yet entered the battle. With their flight, the Polovtsy crushed the squads of Mstislav the Udaly.
On the shoulders of the Polovtsy, the Mongols broke into the camp of the main Russian forces. Most of the Russian troops were killed or captured.
Mstislav Romanovich Stary watched from the opposite bank of the Kalka for the beating of Russian squads, but did not provide any help. Soon his army was surrounded by the Mongols.
Mstislav, having fenced himself with a tyn, held the defense for three days after the battle, and then went to an agreement with Jebe and Subedai on laying down arms and free retreat to Russia, as if he had not participated in the battle. However, he, his army and the princes who trusted him were treacherously captured by the Mongols and brutally tortured as "traitors to their own army."After the battle, no more than a tenth of the Russian army remained alive.
Of the 18 princes who participated in the battle, only nine returned home.
Princes who died in the main battle, during the pursuit and in captivity (12 in total): Alexander Glebovich Dubrovitsky, Izyaslav Vladimirovich Putivlsky, Andrey Ivanovich Turovsky, Mstislav Romanovich Old Kievsky, Izyaslav Ingvarevich Dorogobuzhsky, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Kanevsky, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Yanovitsky, Yaroslav Yuryevich Negovorsky, Mstislav Svyatoslavich Chernigovsky, his son Vasily, Yuri Yaropolkovich Nesvizhsky and Svyatoslav Ingvarevich Shumsky.The Mongols pursued the Russians to the Dnieper, destroying cities and settlements along the way (they reached Novgorod Svyatopolch south of Kyiv). But not daring to enter deep into the Russian forests, the Mongols turned to the steppe.
The defeat at the Kalka marked the mortal danger hanging over Russia.There were several reasons for the defeat. According to the Novgorod chronicle, the first reason is the flight of the Polovtsian troops from the battlefield. But the main reasons for the defeat include the extreme underestimation of the Tatar-Mongolian forces, as well as the lack of a unified command of the troops and, as a result, the inconsistency of the Russian troops (some princes, for example, Vladimir-Suzdal Yuri, did not speak, and Mstislav the Old, although he spoke, but ruined himself and his army).
Prince Mstislav of Galicia, having lost the battle of Kalka, escapes beyond the Dnieper "... ran to the Dnieper and ordered to burn the boats, and cut the others and push them away from the coast, fearing the Tatars would chase them."
Prince Galitsky Mstislav. Artist B. A. Chorikov.
Video "Battle on the Kalka". Karamzin, History of the Russian State
Kalka River |
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Mongols victory |
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Opponents |
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Kiev principality |
Mongol Empire |
Galicia-Volyn principality |
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Chernihiv Principality |
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Smolensk principality |
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Commanders |
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Mstislav Stary |
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Daniel Romanovich |
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Mstislav Udatny |
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Mstislav Svyatoslavich |
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Side forces |
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9/10 Russian troops |
There is no data |
(May 31, 1223) - a battle between the combined Russian-Polovtsian army and the Mongol corps, operating as part of the Jebe and Subedei campaign of 1221-1224. The battle took place on the Kalka River, on the territory of the modern Donetsk region. The Polovtsy and the main Russian forces were defeated on May 31, 1223, after 3 days the battle ended in a complete victory for the Mongols. Many princes and well-born boyars of southern and central Russia died in the battle.
Prerequisites
After the capture of Urgench (end of 1221), Genghis Khan instructed Jochi to continue his conquests in Eastern Europe, where his troops were to connect with Jebe and Subedei, but he declined to do so. The Polovtsy in 1222 succumbed to the persuasion of the Mongols and violated their alliance with the Alans, after which Jebe defeated the Alans, and then attacked the Polovtsy. In 1222, the Mongol army, led by Jebe and Subedei, invaded the Polovtsian steppes from the North Caucasus. The chronicle reports the reaction of Mstislav of Kiev to this news:
The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan Sutoevich turned to his son-in-law, the Galician prince Mstislav Mstislavich Udatny, and to other Russian princes, asking them for help against a new formidable enemy:
South Russian princes gathered in Kyiv for a council under the leadership of three great princes: Mstislav Romanovich, Mstislav Mstislavich and Mstislav Svyatoslavich. Yuri Vsevolodovich of Vladimir sent an army to help the southern princes, but it did not have time for the Kyiv gathering (see below). At the same time, there was a growing danger that the Polovtsians, left face to face with the Mongols, would go over to their side. After much persuasion by Mstislav Udatny:
and generous gifts of the Polovtsians (the second Polovtsian Khan Basty was even baptized in the Orthodox faith), it was decided that:
The collection was appointed at Zaruba, near Varyazhsky Island (the island was located opposite the mouth of the Trubezh River, now destroyed by the Kanev Reservoir), 10 kilometers from the present Trakhtemirov, Cherkasy region. The huge army composed did not have a common commander: the squads of the specific princes were subordinate only to their grand dukes. The Polovtsy acted under the leadership of the governor Mstislav Udatny - Yarun. Learning about the fees, the Mongols sent their ambassadors with these words:
After listening to the ambassadors, the Russian princes ordered them all to be killed, after which the combined forces moved further down the Dnieper.
The murder of ambassadors in historiography is assessed mainly as a reaction to another attempt by the Mongols to divide the forces of their victims and defeat them one by one, with the possible clarification that the murder of the ambassadors took place on the initiative of Mstislav Udatny, who was most closely associated with the Polovtsians, in order to exclude the possibility of peace negotiations with the Mongols for all leaders of the United forces, including the Kiev and Chernigov princes. However, there is also a version that the assassination of the ambassadors showed the diplomatic illiteracy of the princes of Kievan Rus, provoking an extremely hostile attitude of the Mongols towards all Russians.
The Galician army advanced down the Dniester to the Black Sea (the chronicle exaggerates the number of rooks, naming 1000). At the mouth of the Dnieper near Oleshya, the Galicians were met by a second Mongol embassy with the following note:
Unlike the first, it was decided to release these ambassadors in peace. The Galician army went up the Dnieper to the island of Khortitsa at the rapids, where it joined with the rest of the troops. Crossing to the left bank of the Dnieper and finding the enemy's advance detachment, the Russians, after a short but bloody battle, put the Mongols to flight, commander Ganibek was killed. Moving east and not seeing the main enemy forces, the Russian troops, two weeks later, reached the banks of the Kalka River, where they defeated another advanced detachment of the Mongols.
balance of power
The number of the Mongol army initially (at the beginning of the pursuit of Sultan Mohammed) was 30 thousand people, but then the tumen led by Tohuchar Noyon was defeated in Iran, and Sebastatsi determines the number of Mongols at their first appearance in the Caucasus (1221) at 20 thousand people . In 1221, the main forces of the Mongols took Merv, Urgench and defeated the heir of the Sultan of Khorezm, Jalal-ad-Din, in the battle on the Indus River, after which Genghis Khan sent 2 tumens in pursuit of him, and sent Subedei and Jebe around Georgia to Eastern Europe .
Accurate data on the size of the combined Russian-Polovtsian troops are not available. According to some historians, it was 80-100 thousand people. According to other estimates, 40-45 thousand people. According to V. N. Tatishchev, the number of Russian troops was 103 thousand people and 50 thousand Polovtsian horsemen. However, according to Khrustalev A.G. the number of Russian troops was about 10 thousand warriors plus 5-8 thousand Polovtsy. To get a more accurate idea of the number of Russian troops at the beginning of the 13th century, news about the participation in campaigns against the Order of the Sword of the Russian troops numbering 12-20 thousand people can help. in the period 1219-1223, about the number of Polovtsian - news about the departure of Kotyan with 40 thousand of his people in 1238 to Hungary, about the defeat of two Polovtsian khans (Yuri Konchakovich and Danila Kobyakovich) in 1222 and about the union of two Polovtsian khans (Kotyan Sutoevich and Basty) with the Russian princes in 1223, as well as about the 10,000-strong Russian-Polovtsian army, according to Ibn al Bibi, who were defeated by the Seljuks near Sudak in 1221.
Smolensk troops also participated in the campaign. According to one version, the eldest son of Mstislav the Old, Svyatoslav, who occupied the throne of Polotsk since 1222, also participated in the battle on the Kalka.
According to E.N. Tarasenko:
It is extremely difficult to determine the total number of the Russian-Polovtsian troops that opposed the Mongols in the events on Kalka. Known estimates are based on chronicle reports of losses and the proportion of survivors of the battle. These messages are confused and contradictory. It is said that every tenth survived. The number of dead Kiev soldiers varies from 10,000 in the Laurentian Chronicle to 30,000 in the Tver Chronicle. How many adult men throughout the then not very extensive principality of Kiev, perhaps, cannot be scraped together ... As mentioned above, all estimates of the number of Russian-Polovtsian troops are very unsteady, according to R.P. Khrapachevsky (it seems to us more or less justified), the entire army did not exceed 40-50 thousand soldiers (20-25 thousand Russians with Black Hoods and Galician vygontsy, no more than 20 thousand Polovtsy). One can speak more definitely about the number of Mongols, according to most historians, it was 20-30 thousand horsemen. |
The course of the battle
Mstislav Udatny was the first to cross the Kalka and personally went on reconnaissance. Looking around the location of the enemy, the prince ordered his army and the Polovtsy to prepare for battle. The battle began on the morning of 31 May.
Initially, the battle developed well for the Russians. Daniil Romanovich, who was the first to enter the battle, fought with unparalleled courage, not paying attention to the wound he received. The Mongol vanguard began to retreat, the Russians gave chase, lost formation and collided with the main forces of the Mongols. The Ipatiev Chronicle tells in detail only about the events in the center of the battle, where Daniel, his cousin uncle, Prince of Lutsk Mstislav Yaroslavich the Nemoy, and Oleg Kursky, who, apparently, was the first to cross the river from the Chernigov regiment, acted, and connects the subsequent flight with the strike of new Mongol forces . The Novgorod First Chronicle calls the flight of the Polovtsy the reason for the defeat, and the Suzdal Chronicle (according to the Academic List) connects the flight of the Polovtsy precisely with the introduction of additional forces by the Mongols into battle. The Mongol right wing, the attack wing, succeeded faster than the others. The Polovtsy ran to the crossing, crushing and upsetting the regiments of Mstislav of Chernigov, who were already ready to march.
One part of the Mongols drove the fleeing to the banks of the Dnieper. Mstislav Udatny and Daniil Romanovich were the first to reach the Dnieper and, before sailing, pushed the remaining free boats from the shore, fearing a chase.
The second part of the Mongol army (the chronicle names two Mongol commanders, whose rank remains uncertain) laid siege to the camp of the Kiev prince. He bravely fought back for three days and surrendered only after the ataman of the roamers Ploskinya, sent to negotiate, who eventually betrayed the prince, swore on the cross that if the Russians laid down their arms, none of them would be killed, and the princes and governor would be allowed to go home. The Mongols, avenging the death of their ambassadors, did not keep their promise: all the Russian princes and military leaders were put under the boards and crushed by the winners, who sat down to feast from above. Ordinary soldiers were taken into slavery. According to other sources, the treaty was
since among the Mongols it was considered shameful to die not in battle, shedding blood, and formally the promise was kept. The folk epic connects the death of 70 Russian heroes with this battle: in the annals, the names of Alexander of Rostov and Dobrynya Ryazants are named among the dead.
Place of battle
There are several basic assumptions about the location of the Battle of Kalka. Stone Graves(south of Rozovka), mound Grave Seredinovka and area northeast the village of Granite.
Losses
There are no data on Mongolian and Polovtsian losses.
Only one tenth of the Russian army survived the battle (“The Tale of the Battle of the Kalka”). The only author who names Russian losses in numerical terms (though very approximate, which he himself says) is Henry of Latvia. In the Chronicle of Livonia, written around 1225, he mentions:
Effects
After the victory at Kalka, the Mongols invaded Russia (the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron calls this the first Mongol invasion of Russia) and reached the city of Svyatopolch south of Kyiv. Having learned about the arrival of Vladimir troops in Chernigov, led by 14-year-old Vasilko Konstantinovich Rostov, the Mongols abandoned the plan of a campaign against Kyiv and went to the Volga, where they suffered a crushing defeat from the Volga Bulgars near Samarskaya Luka (according to Ibn al-Asir, only 4 thousand survived pers.), and returned to Central Asia. The Mongols began a new large-scale invasion of Europe only 13 years later.
List of Russian princes - participants in the battle
Reconstruction according to L.Voitovich's version is marked in italics.
List of Russian princes |
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dead |
Returned from the campaign alive |
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Years completely changed the fate of our country. What is this event? Let's figure it out in this article.
1223: an event in Russia
The XIII century was marked by the following: hordes of Mongol-Tatars came to Russia. However, before the destruction of our cities by Batu Khan, the first of which was the recalcitrant Ryazan, the hordes attacked the lands of the Polovtsians. They were located approximately to the south of Russia. Today these are the lands of our Southern Federal District: the Rostov Region, the Krasnodar Territory, the Republic of Kalmykia, and most recently it included the former lands of Ukraine - the Republic of Crimea and Sevastopol.
What was the event on May 31 (1223) in Russia? On this day, the first clash between the Russian-Polovtsian troops and the Mongol-Tatar hordes took place.
Causes
Scientists argue that it was possible to avoid what 1223 brought. The event in Russia (the battle on the Kalka River) might not have been as significant as it is for our history today. The fact is that an expeditionary detachment of the Mongol-Tatars Subedei and Dzhebe approached the Polovtsian lands. The fact that the eastern hordes had a small detachment equal in number to the united squads of several princes was not yet known at that time. According to the plan of Genghis Khan, the Mongols were supposed to go to Europe, but conflicts with the Polovtsy prevented him. The Great Khan had already captured China and established diplomatic relations with some European states.
He learned that Europe is a huge developed territory, comparable to China and Central Asia. Genghis Khan wanted to take over the whole world. When he made such grandiose plans, he did not know about any Europe, just as he did not know about Russia. According to the maps of travelers, the Mongol detachment set off in search of a path for a large army. On the way back, already knowing the area, the detachments of Subedei and Jebe decided to fight a little in the Caucasus and the south of the Black Sea region against various scattered tribes: Alans, Polovtsy, etc.
However, the "small detachment" outnumbered any princely squad of Russia. The Polovtsy sounded the alarm and called for the help of the Russian princes, when several times Khan Kotyan was defeated by them. Significant for the history was brought in 1223 by an event in Russia. The Kalka River became the site of the battle, the battle on this river broke the course of history. Today, the question about this period can be found in history tests. It was this fatal battle that caused the seizure of our territory.
The course of the battle
Khan Kotyan begged for Russian help. In Kyiv, several princes gathered for a council, which decided to help the neighbors, although the Mongol-Tatars themselves were not going to fight with Russia. If only they knew what the year 1223 would bring them, the event in Russia which would come back to haunt their descendants! However, no one thought about it then. In May, the combined troops of the Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kursk, Trubchev, Putivl, Vladimir squads left Kyiv. On the southern borders, they were joined by the remnants of the army of Khan Kotyan. According to historians, the army numbered up to 80 thousand people. On the way, our troops met a small advance detachment of the Mongols.
Some believe that they were parliamentarians, whom the Mongols always liked to send, others - that they were scouts. Perhaps both at the same time. Be that as it may, but the Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich - later he would personally go to the Mongols to bow - defeated an enemy detachment with his squad. This event will become fatal: the murder of ambassadors is the most terrible crime among the Mongols. Entire cities were burned for this, which will happen later.
During the battle, the main weakness of the Russian united forces was revealed - the lack of a unified command. Each prince commanded his squad. In such battles, the princes listen to the most authoritative among them, but this time there was none: each considered himself equal to the rest. Approaching the river Kalka, the army was divided. The squad of Mstislav Chernigov decided not to cross to the other side of the river, but to strengthen the bank for defense. He was not supported by the rest of the princes.
Mstislav Udaloy and Daniil Romanovich, together with the Polovtsy, crossed over and overturned the small Mongol forces, which rapidly began to flee. Perhaps this was the plan of the enemy, since the Mongols were forbidden to retreat under the threat of death. Without waiting for the rest of the forces, Prince Daniel with the Polovtsians began to pursue the enemy and ran into the main forces of Subedei and Jebe (30 thousand people). At this time, the main forces of Mstislav of Kiev had just begun to cross the river.
As a result, the alignment of forces is as follows: there is no unified command, one part of the army remained on one bank, the second only crossed the river, the third had already managed to make war, but remained in place, the fourth began to pursue the enemy and stumbled upon an ambush.
The Polovtsians, knowing the power of the Mongols, began to run away as soon as the battle began. With their flight, they crushed the entire squad of Mstislav the Udaly, which did not participate in the pursuit. On the shoulders of the Polovtsy, the Mongols broke into the camp of the main forces of the united army and completely defeated it.
Outcome of the battle
The event on Kalka was marked by a terrible tragedy for the Russians: never before have so many princes died in one battle. The wars of that time always spared the "best men". Battles were common, the nobles were always left alive, then exchanged for gold. Here, everything was different: 12 princes died in the battle, not counting the boyars, governor, etc. The two most noble princes in Russia, Mstislav of Kyiv and Mstislav of Chernigov, also died. The rest were taken prisoner. Only a tenth of the army survived the battle. The battle showed that the era of "comic battles" is over. Russia faced a real danger.
Mongols do not forgive enemies
The expeditionary detachment of the Mongols told that on their way they defeated unknown Russia, and that the ambassadors were killed by the Russians.
A distinctive feature of the Mongols is that they never forgave their enemies. If the lands in their path offered no resistance, they always remained intact. But one has only to show the slightest resistance - and entire cities were wiped off the face of the earth. The Russian princes, without knowing it themselves, became the blood enemies of the huge Mongol hordes. And this marked the year 1223, the event in Russia which will make you regret it in the future.
When the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu Khan - did not have enough clothes in his homeland, the Mongols remembered their natural enemies - the Russians. He went to them with the entire Mongol horde ten years later.
Why did the Russian princes come out in defense of the Polovtsians?
The Polovtsians are first mentioned in our sources in the second half of the 11th century. They came to replace other steppe dwellers - the Pechenegs. But if the Pechenegs did not get involved in major battles, they attacked rather like robbers on poorly protected villages, then the Polovtsy created numerous detachments and fought with the Russian princes on an equal footing. They devastated our lands, devastated villages, took people into captivity.
In 1111, Prince Vladimir Monomakh, under the influence of the events of the Crusades, even organized his own "crusade" against the steppes. Also, at the congresses of Russian princes, calls for joint defense against the Polovtsy were constantly heard. Then the question arises as to why the Russians got involved in this war on the side of their southern neighbors.
It was already 1223 in the yard. The event in Russia showed that by this time the ties between the Russian princes and the Polovtsian khans had already strengthened. Permanent dynastic marriages by this time, one might say, erased the cultural line. Although we considered the Polovtsy as enemies, they were “our enemies”, understandable to us. They always found a common language with them.
Let us recall from the school literature course the famous campaign of Prince Igor against the Polovtsy in 1185, which we know from the Tale of Igor's Campaign. After the defeat, the prince managed to “miraculously” escape from captivity, thereby remaining unharmed. Although there was no miracle at all: the Polovtsian khans had long been intermarried with the Russians, they were with each other in family ties. The war between them resembled internecine wars between the princes themselves, in which the princes themselves died only by chance. Often, during constant skirmishes, both Russian warriors and Polovtsian wars were on both sides of the squads.
Therefore, the Russians opposed the unknown new force, the Mongol-Tatars, on the side of their allies.
On May 31, 1223, a bloody, grandiose in scale and significance, battle took place between the Mongol army and the combined forces of the Russian principalities with the Polovtsians. The battle went on for 3 days and ended with the complete victory of the Mongol troops. The result of this battle was of great importance and influenced the course of history not only in Russia, but throughout Eastern Europe.Causes and background of the battle
At the end of the 12th - beginning of the 13th century, Temujin managed to unite the scattered and conquered tribes of the Mongols. He carried out a wide range of reforms in public life, introduced a new code of laws, and reformed the army. As a result, a strong Mongol state arose, striving for expansion and conquest. Over time, this state turned into an empire with an area of 38 million square kilometers and a population of over 160 million people. This, without exaggeration, the Great Mongol is known to the whole world under the name of Genghis Khan.
Having spent several successful campaigns in China, while significantly expanding the territory and size of the empire, Genghis Khan turned his gaze to the east. The next in the list of his conquests were to be Central Asia and the Caucasus. In 1221, the campaign of the Mongol army began under the leadership of two talented commanders of that time - Jebe and Subedei. Having conquered Central Asia, where by force, where by cunning and diplomacy, the 20,000-strong army of the Mongols passed through the Caucasus in a military raid and collided with the tribes of the Alans, who had quite numerous tribes of another nomadic people, the Polovtsy, as allies. After persuading the Polovtsian army to violate the treaty and bribing them with offerings, the Mongols defeated the Alans. After that, the Polovtsy also attacked, who did not expect this at all. Several Polovtsian khans died in the battles, and the remnants of their troops were reunited with Khan Kotyan. His horde roamed the territories of the Black Sea, and the khan himself was connected by family ties with the Galician prince Mstislav Udatny. He was his son-in-law.
Kotyan also turned to the Grand Duke in Kyiv, Mstislav Romanovich. “The essence of our land has been taken away today, and yours will be taken away tomorrow, when it comes,” with these words the Polovtsy addressed the Russian princes, hinting that, having defeated them, the Mongols would also take over the princes’ lands.
It should be noted here that by the beginning of the 13th century, Kievan Rus was already experiencing a period of feudal fragmentation. The Grand Duke from Kyiv was only formally considered senior. In fact, each prince had his own patrimony, where he ruled, relying on the strength of his squad and the support of the upper class. Without regard to the throne, the princes conducted both domestic and foreign policy, signing treaties and alliances, declaring war and concluding peace agreements.
Causes of the battle
Whether or not to conclude an alliance with the Polovtsy was to be decided by the princely council in Kyiv. It is worth paying attention to the fact that the Polovtsy actively tried to attract the “Russians” to their side. After all, they had already encountered the Mongols, competed with them, knew about their strength and skills, and perfectly understood that they could not stand alone. The Polovtsian khans showered the princes with rich gifts and promises, flattery and praise. Some of the khans even adopted the Christian faith, which was generally unheard of at that time.
Not all princes understood the depth of the danger that threatened Russia. Some of them just didn't understand it. The Mongols, like the Polovtsians, were nomads. The basis of the economy and life was animal husbandry. What does a nomad need? That's right, steppe. Vast and rich pastures are needed for herds of horses and herds of cattle. In turn, only some of the principalities bordered on the steppe and faced nomads (with the same Polovtsy at one time). Some princes thought to sit behind the high walls of their fortresses or consoled themselves with the hope that the Mongols would certainly not get to their estates. That is why the decision to conclude an alliance with the Polovtsians was approved by the princes of 4 principalities: Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk and Galicia-Volyn. The Grand Duke of Suzdal seemed to support the union and sent troops, but they “did not have time” to the place of gathering of squads, so to speak, and did not take part in the campaign.
Based on the foregoing, it is worth highlighting several reasons that prompted the princes to conclude an alliance and oppose the Mongols:
The battle was supposed to take place not on the territory of Russia (in order to save cities and settlements from the consequences of hostilities). The Tver chronicle contains the words of Mstislav of Kiev.
There was a real threat that, in despair, the Polovtsy would surrender to the Mongols without a fight and join their army. Accordingly, increasing and strengthening the army of the enemy.
Treaties and agreements between princely families and Polovtsian leaders, also sealed with the help of dynastic marriages.
Campaign of Russian troops
Having established a gathering place, and having waited for all the main forces there, the princely troops set out on a campaign. There is no exact information about the number of troops of the "Russians" - various sources give figures from 10-12 thousand to 50-80 thousand soldiers. Of course, the spread is very large, but after carefully analyzing and comparing all the sources, we can assume that the army was about 30-40 thousand people. This is very much even in modern times, and what can we say about the XIII century! There was no single commander among the troops, and the main decisions were made by 3 senior princes: the prince of Kyiv Mstislav Romanovich, the prince from Chernigov Mstislav Svyatoslavovich and the prince of Galicia Mstislav Udatny.
The Mongol embassy arrived in time for the gathering place of the princely squads. This once again suggests that diplomacy and war were close by the subordinates of Genghis Khan and were located at a high level. The Mongolian envoys tried to dissuade the princely squad from the campaign, not to mention that they intended to fight only with the Polovtsians. The princes did not respect the embassy and executed the ambassadors. Officially they were accused of espionage. There are several points of view on this event: some scientists believe that this was done so that the Mongols did not destroy the union (everyone knew about the tragic history of the Alans and Pechenegs); others - that this was done deliberately by Prince Mstislav Udatny, who thus rejected even the slightest opportunity for negotiations by other princes. One thing remains reliable - it was a gross mistake and led to bad consequences. First of all, for the princes themselves.
When the Russian-Polovtsian army approached the Dnieper and was preparing for the crossing, a second Mongol embassy arrived. This time, the ambassadors told the princes that it was not they who violated the rules of diplomacy by killing the embassy, and they were not going to war, which means that God, who sees everything, will judge everyone. Such a message cannot be interpreted otherwise than as a manifestation of fortitude and readiness for war. Nobody touched this embassy, and it soon went to its headquarters.
Having crossed the Dnieper, the princely troops collided with the vanguard of the Mongol army and won in a short but bloody battle. According to the chronicles, the remnants of the vanguard of the Russian-Polovtsian troops pursued for 7 days, and on the 8th they reached the bank of the Kalka River, where some princely squads immediately crossed to the other side of the river. Only the prince of Kyiv remained on the right bank and started building a fortified camp. The exact location is unknown, it is only indicated that it was a rocky hill. Subsequently, this camp will serve Mstislav Romanovich well.
The battle and the reasons for the defeat of the Russian-Polovtsian troops
The Polovtsy, no longer believing in success, fled the battlefield, and the princely troops were left face to face with the Mongols. Those who managed to cross the river took refuge in the camp and held the defense for another 3 days. The Mongols were never able to take the fortification by force. Only by cunning and a promise to save their lives did they manage to convince the Russians to lay down their arms. But it was a hoax. Only military commanders and princes were left alive. Ordinary soldiers were killed immediately on the spot.
But sometimes the living envy the dead. Putting a tent for a feast in honor of the victory, under a floor of logs, the Mongols eliminated all those who were left alive. And they feasted. You can't even look for a worse death. Some of the researchers suggest that this was revenge for the death of the embassy, someone that this was done as a punishment for surrendering (among the Mongols this was considered the greatest shame), but the fact remains that such a death is difficult to wish even an enemy.
The reason for the defeat of the Polovtsian-Russian invasion is considered to be the retreat from the battlefield of the Polovtsy (this is if you listen to the Novgorod Chronicle). In the Ipatiev Chronicle, merit is given to the Mongols and their timely introduced reserves. The Suzdal chronicle connects these two factors. Later sources indicate the lack of a unified command. Who is right? The answer is obvious - everything. The lack of a unified leadership, the unreliability of the allies, a poor assessment of the situation, the arrogance of the command - all this led to one of the most terrible defeats in the history of Russia.
Consequences of the Battle of the Kalka River
Terrible and tragic were the consequences of the defeat of the princely squads in this battle:
12 warriors of the princely family did not return home. This subsequently gave rise to a round of new intrigues in the struggle for thrones and fiefdoms.
Losses in manpower weakened 4 principalities and affected the defense of Russia as a whole.
The defeat of the squads pointed out to the Mongols the disunity of Russia, the weakness of the rulers.
It opened the way to new conquests of the Mongols and eventually led to the establishment of the Golden Horde yoke.
The Battle of the Kalka River is a battle between the united Russian-Polovtsian army and the Mongol corps, operating as part of the Jebe and Subedei campaign of 1221–1224. The Polovtsy and the main Russian forces were defeated on May 31, 1223, after 3 days the battle ended in a complete victory for the Mongols.
Zyabkin Dmitry. Battle on the Kalka
On May 31, 1223, the first battle of the Russians and Polovtsy with the Mongol-Tatar troops took place on Kalka.
After the devastation of the Alanian lands in 1223, Subedey and Jebe attacked the Polovtsy, who hastily fled to the borders of Russia. The Polovtsian Khan Kotyan turned to the Prince of Kiev Mstislav Romanovich and his son-in-law, the Galician prince Mstislav Mstislavich Udaly with a request to help in the fight against a terrible enemy: “And if you don’t help us, we will be cut now, and you will be cut in the morning.”
Having received information about the movement of the Mongols, the South Russian princes gathered in Kyiv for advice. In early May 1223, the princes set out from Kyiv. On the seventeenth day of the campaign, the Russian army concentrated on the right bank of the lower reaches of the Dnieper, near Oleshya. Here the Polovtsian detachments joined the Russians. The Russian army consisted of the Kiev, Chernigov, Smolensk, Kursk, Trubchev, Putivl, Vladimir and Galician squads. The total number of Russian troops probably did not exceed 20-30 thousand people
(Lev Gumilev in his work “From Russia to Russia” writes about the eighty-thousandth Russian-Polovtsian army approaching Kalka; The Dutch historian Leo De Hartog in his book “Genghis Khan. Conqueror of the World” is the most complete biography today about the conqueror of the world - evaluates the forces Russians in 30 thousand people).
Having discovered the advanced patrols of the Mongols on the left bank of the Dnieper, the Volyn prince Daniil Romanovich crossed the river with the Galicians and attacked the enemy.
The first success inspired the Russian princes, and the allies moved east, to the Polovtsian steppes. Nine days later they were on the Kalka River, where again there was a small clash with the Mongols with a favorable outcome for the Russians.
Expecting to meet large Mongol forces on the opposite bank of the Kalka, the princes gathered for a military council. Mstislav Romanovich of Kyiv objected to crossing the Kalka. He settled down on the right bank of the river on a rocky height and proceeded to strengthen it.
Map scheme "Battle on the Kalka"
On May 31, 1223, Mstislav Udaloy and most of the Russian troops began crossing to the left bank of the Kalka, where they were met by a detachment of the Mongolian light cavalry. The warriors of Mstislav the Udaly overthrew the Mongols, and the detachment of Daniil Romanovich and the Polovtsian Khan Yarun rushed to pursue the enemy.
At this time, the squad of the Chernigov prince Mstislav Svyatoslavich was just crossing the Kalka. Moving away from the main forces, the advance detachment of Russians and Polovtsians met large Mongols forces. Subedey and Jebe had the forces of three tumens, two of which came from Central Asia, and one was recruited from the nomads of the North Caucasus.
The total number of Mongols is estimated at 20-30 thousand people (Sebastatsi writes about 20 thousand Tatars who set out on a campaign from the country of China and Machina).
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Battle on Kalka.
Defeat of Russian troops. Reasons for the defeat
A stubborn battle began. The Russians fought bravely, but the Polovtsians could not withstand the Mongol attacks and fled, sowing panic among the Russian troops that had not yet entered the battle. With their flight, the Polovtsy crushed the squads of Mstislav the Udaly.
On the shoulders of the Polovtsy, the Mongols broke into the camp of the main Russian forces. Most of the Russian troops were killed or captured.
Painting by Pavel Ryzhenko "Kalka", 1996. The capture of the Grand Duke Mstislav Romanovich against the backdrop of a mound built from the bodies of Russian soldiers.
Mstislav Romanovich Stary watched from the opposite bank of the Kalka for the beating of Russian squads, but did not provide assistance. Soon his army was surrounded by the Mongols.
Mstislav, having fenced himself with a tyn, held the defense for three days after the battle, and then went to an agreement with Jebe and Subedai on laying down arms and free retreat to Russia, as if he had not participated in the battle. However, he, his army and the princes who trusted him were treacherously captured by the Mongols and brutally tortured as "traitors to their own army."
After the battle, no more than a tenth of the Russian army remained alive.
Of the 18 princes who participated in the battle, only nine returned home.
Princes who died in the main battle, during the pursuit and in captivity (12 in total): Alexander Glebovich Dubrovitsky, Izyaslav Vladimirovich Putivlsky, Andrey Ivanovich Turovsky, Mstislav Romanovich Old Kievsky, Izyaslav Ingvarevich Dorogobuzhsky, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Kanevsky, Svyatoslav Yaroslavich Yanovitsky, Yaroslav Yuryevich Negovorsky, Mstislav Svyatoslavich Chernigovsky, his son Vasily, Yuri Yaropolkovich Nesvizhsky and Svyatoslav Ingvarevich Shumsky.
List of Russian princes - participants in the battle 
The Mongols pursued the Russians to the Dnieper, destroying cities and settlements along the way (they reached Novgorod Svyatopolch south of Kyiv). But not daring to enter deep into the Russian forests, the Mongols turned to the steppe.
The defeat at the Kalka marked the mortal danger hanging over Russia.
B. A. Chorikov. Prince Mstislav of Galicia, having lost the battle of Kalka, escapes beyond the Dnieper
“... ran to the Dnieper and ordered the boats to be burned, and others to be cut and pushed away from the shore, fearing the Tatars would chase them.”
There were several reasons for the defeat. According to the Novgorod chronicle, the first reason is the flight of the Polovtsian troops from the battlefield. But the main reasons for the defeat include the extreme underestimation of the Tatar-Mongolian forces, as well as the lack of a unified command of the troops and, as a result, the inconsistency of the Russian troops (some princes, for example, Vladimir-Suzdal Yury, did not speak, and Mstislav the Old, although he spoke, but ruined himself and his army).
Lev Nikolaevich Gumilyov
Having cast a very general look at the history of the creation of the vast Mongol ulus, we now have the right to return to Russia. But, before proceeding to the story of the then Russian-Mongolian relations, let us remind the reader about Russia itself at the beginning of the 13th century.
As already mentioned, in contrast to the "young" Mongols, Ancient Russia then passed from the inertial phase to the phase of obscuration. The decrease in passionarity in the final analysis always leads to the destruction of the ethnos as a single system. Outwardly, this is expressed in events and deeds that are not compatible with either morality or the interests of the people, but are quite explicable by the internal logic of ethnogenesis. So it was in Russia.
Igor Svyatoslavich, a descendant of Prince Oleg, the hero of The Tale of Igor's Campaign, who became Prince of Chernigov in 1198, set himself the goal of cracking down on Kiev, the city where the rivals of his dynasty were constantly strengthening. He agreed with the Smolensk prince Rurik Rostislavich and called for the help of the Polovtsy. In defense of Kyiv - "the mother of Russian cities" - Prince Roman Volynsky spoke out, relying on the allied troops of the Torks.
The plan of the Chernigov prince was realized after his death (1202). Rurik, Prince of Smolensk, and the Olgovichi with the Polovtsy in January 1203, in a battle that went mainly between the Polovtsy and the Torks of Roman Volynsky, prevailed. Having captured Kyiv, Rurik Rostislavich subjected the city to a terrible defeat. The Church of the Tithes and the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra were destroyed, and the city itself was burned. "They created a great evil, which was not from baptism in the Russian land," the chronicler left a message.
After the fateful year 1203, Kyiv did not recover. What prevented the restoration of the capital? There were talented builders in the city, and resourceful merchants, and literate monks. The Kievans traded through Novgorod and Vyatka, built fortresses and temples that have survived to this day, and wrote chronicles. But, alas, they could not return the city to its former significance in the Russian land. There are too few people left in Russia who possessed the quality that we called passionarity. And therefore there was no initiative, no ability to sacrifice personal interests for the sake of the interests of their people and state was awakened. Under such conditions, a collision with a strong enemy could not but become tragic for the country.
Meanwhile, the indomitable Mongolian tumens were approaching the Russian borders. The Western front of the Mongols passed through the territory of modern Kazakhstan between the Irgiz and Yaik rivers and covered the southern tip of the Ural Range. At that time, the main enemy of the Mongols in the west were the Polovtsy.
Their enmity began in 1216, when the Polovtsy accepted the natural enemies of Genghis - the Merkits. The Polovtsy pursued the anti-Mongolian policy extremely actively, constantly supporting the Finno-Ugric tribes hostile to the Mongols. At the same time, the Polovtsian steppes were as mobile and maneuverable as the Mongols themselves. And the fact that the path from Onon to Don is equal to the path from Don to Onon,
Genghis Khan understood perfectly. Seeing the futility of cavalry clashes with the Polovtsy, the Mongols used the traditional military technique for nomads: they sent an expeditionary force behind enemy lines.
M. Gorelik
The talented commander Subetei and the famous archer Jebe led a corps of three tumens through the Caucasus (1222). The Georgian king Giorgi Lasha tried to attack them and was destroyed with his entire army. The Mongols managed to capture the guides who showed the way through the Darial Gorge
(modern Georgian Military Highway). So they went to the upper reaches of the Kuban, to the rear of the Polovtsians. Here the Mongols clashed with the Alans. By the XIII century. The Alans have already lost their passionarity: they have neither the will to resist nor the desire for unity. The people actually broke up into separate families.
Exhausted by the transition, the Mongols took away food from the Alans, stole horses and other livestock. Alans in horror fled anywhere. The Polovtsy, having found the enemy in their rear, retreated to the west, approached the Russian border and asked for help from the Russian princes.
A little earlier, speaking about the events of the 11th-12th centuries, we were convinced that the relations between Russia and the Polovtsy did not fit into the primitive scheme of confrontation "sedentary - nomad". The same is true for the beginning of the thirteenth century. In 1223, the Russian princes became allies of the Cumans. The three strongest princes of Russia:
Mstislav Udaloy from Galich, Mstislav of Kyiv and Mstislav of Chernigov, having gathered an army, tried to protect the Cumans.
It is important that the Mongols did not at all seek war with Russia. The Mongol ambassadors who arrived at the Russian princes brought a proposal to break the Russian-Polovtsian alliance and conclude peace. True to their allied obligations, the Russian princes rejected the Mongol peace proposals. But, unfortunately, the princes made a mistake that had fatal consequences. All the Mongol ambassadors were killed, and since, according to Yasa, the deceit of a trusted person was an unforgivable crime, war and revenge after that could not be avoided.
However, the Russian princes did not know anything of this and actually forced the Mongols to accept the battle. A battle took place on the Kalka River: an 80,000-strong Russian-Polovtsian army fell upon a 20,000-strong detachment of Mongols (1223). The Russian army lost this battle due to its complete inability to organize itself to the very minimum. Mstislav Udaloy and the "younger" Prince Daniel
fled for the Dnieper, they were the first to reach the shore and managed to jump into the boats.
At the same time, the princes cut down the rest of the boats, fearing that the Mongols would be able to cross after them. Thus, they doomed their comrades-in-arms, whose horses were worse than princely ones, to death. Of course, the Mongols killed everyone they overtook.
Mstislav Chernigov with his army began to retreat across the steppe, leaving no rearguard. The Mongolian horsemen chased the Chernigovites, easily overtook them and cut them down.
Mstislav of Kyiv positioned his soldiers on a large hill, forgetting that it was necessary to ensure a retreat to the water. The Mongols, of course, easily blocked the detachment.
Surrounded by Mstislav, he surrendered, succumbing to the persuasion of Ploskin, the leader of the roamers, who were allies of the Mongols. Ploskinya convinced the prince that the Russians would be spared and their blood would not be shed. The Mongols, according to their custom, kept their word. They laid the bound captives on the ground, covered them with boards, and sat down to feast on their bodies. But not a drop of Russian blood was really shed. And the latter, as we already know, according to Mongolian views was considered extremely important.
Valentin Taratorin. After the Battle of the Kalka
Here is an example of how different peoples perceive the rule of law and the concept of honesty. The Russians believed that the Mongols, by killing Mstislav and other captives, violated the oath. But, from the point of view of the Mongols, they kept their oath, and the execution was the highest necessity and the highest justice, for the princes committed the terrible sin of killing the one who trusted. Let us note that, according to the norms of modern law, violence against a parliamentarian is strictly condemned and punished.
Everyone, however, is free in this case to take a position closest to his moral imperative.
After the battle on Kalka, the Mongols turned their horses to the east, trying to return to their homeland and report on the completion of the task - the victory over the Polovtsians. But on the banks of the Volga, the army fell into an ambush set up by the Volga Bulgars. The Muslims, who hated the Mongols as pagans, unexpectedly attacked them during the crossing. Here are the winners at Kalka
suffered a serious defeat and lost many people. Those who managed to cross the Volga went to the east across the steppes and joined with the main forces of Genghis Khan. Thus ended the first meeting of the Mongols and the Russians.
Video: "Battle on the Kalka" (Karamzin. History of the Russian state)
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History of Russian Goverment
