MAIN TYPES OF TRANSLATION

Content: The fundamental unity of all types of translation activities (95). Main classifications of translations (96). Genre-stylistic classification of translations (97-98). Psycholinguistic classification of translations (99 -106). Theoretical description of certain types of translation (107). The main directions of the theory of oral translation (108 -113). The relationship of genre-stylistic and psycholinguistic types of translation (114).

95. The characteristic features of translation considered in the previous chapters and the types of equivalent relations between the source and final texts are due to the specifics of translation as a linguistic phenomenon occurring within the framework of interlingual communication. The general characteristic of translation, which defines translation as the correlated functioning of two language systems, and the conclusions arising from this definition apply to any act of translation.

Real translation activity is carried out by translators in various conditions; translated texts are very diverse in subject matter, language, genre; translations are carried out in written or oral form, translators are subject to different requirements regarding the accuracy and completeness of the translation, etc. Certain types of translation require special knowledge and skills from the translator.

All these differences, no matter how significant they may seem, do not change the essence of the translation process, its general linguistic basis. Any kind of translation remains, first of all, a translation with all its features determined by the ratio of languages.

96. Along with common features due to a single linguistic mechanism of translation activity, certain types of translation may also have important specific features: modify the translation process, attach particular importance to achieving equivalence at the highest level, or, on the contrary, allow deviations from the maximum possible degree of semantic generality, include some elements of adaptive transcoding, etc. These features necessitate a scientific classification of the types of translation activities (types of translation) and a detailed study of the specifics of each type. There are two main classifications of types of translation: according to the nature of the translated texts and according to the nature of the translator's speech actions in the translation process. The first classification is associated with the genre and stylistic features of the original, the second - with the psycholinguistic features of speech actions in written and oral form.

The genre and stylistic classification of translations depending on the genre and stylistic features of the original determines the separation of two functional types of translation: artistic (literary) translation and informative (special) translation.

97. Literary translation is the translation of works of fiction. Works of fiction are opposed to all other speech works due to the fact that for all of them one of the communicative functions is dominant, namely artistic and aesthetic or poetic. The main goal of any work of this type is to achieve a certain aesthetic impact, to create an artistic image. Such an aesthetic orientation distinguishes artistic speech from other acts of speech communication, the informative content of which is primary, independent.

Since we are talking about the translation of segments of literary speech, the main difference between literary translation and other types of translation should be recognized as belonging to the text of the translation to the works of the literary language, which have artistic merit. In other words, literary translation is a type of translation activity, the main task of which is to generate a speech work in the TL that can have an artistic and aesthetic impact on the PR. An analysis of the translations of literary works shows that in connection with this task, deviations from the maximum possible semantic accuracy are typical for them in order to ensure the artistry of the translation. Here are some examples of such deviations.

The mountain tops were hidden in a gray waste of sky... (A. Cronin) (Translated by M. Abkina)

It is clear that the rejection of the closest match to the English were hidden is not accidental. The verb "drowned" here also conveys the infinity of the heavenly vault (waste of sky).

Dirmy waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant and looked out on to a back street. A fly, disenchanted by the approach of winter was crawling dejectedly up the pane. (J. Galsworthy)

Dinny was waiting for her in the corridor, which smelled of carbolic acid. A fly, dejected by the approach of winter, crawled despondently over the window, which looked out on a deaf side street. (Translated by Yu. Korneev and P. Melkova)

And here the choice of translation “smelled” (smelled), “carbolic” (disinfectant), “depressed” (disenchanted), “deaf side street” (back street), as well as the addition of the pronoun “her” and “transferring information about the window from the first sentences to something else, undoubtedly, pursue the goal of raising the artistic level of translation.

But night-time in this dreadful spot! - Night, when the smoke was changed to fire; when every chimney spurted up its flame; and places, that had been dark vaults all day, now shone red-hot, with figures moving to and fro within their blazing jaws and calling to one another with hoarse cries. (Ch. Dickens) And what a terrible night it was here! The night, when smoke turned into flames, when every chimney blazed with fire, and the pro-r.s of the Dnerei, gaping black all day, were lit up with crimson light, and ghosts rushed about in their hot maws, calling to each other in hoarse voices. (Translated by N. Volzhina)

The translator is guided, first of all, by the desire to create an artistic description of a terrible picture of the night in the mind of a frightened homeless girl. To accomplish this task, the structure of the sentence is changed (“night in this terrible place” - “what a terrible night it was here”), matches to individual words are selected (changed to fire - turned into a flame, spurted up flame - blazed with fire, figures - ghosts, etc. .), the situation is described in a different way (places that had been dark vaults all day, i.e. “where there were black crypts all day”, is replaced by a more understandable “doorways gaping with blackness all day”). Regardless of the evaluation of the results of such changes, they can be considered as a modification of equivalence relations under the influence of a dominant function determined by the type of translation.

Literary translation distinguishes between separate subspecies of translation depending on whether the original belongs to a particular genre of fiction. As such subspecies, translation of poetry, translation of plays, translation of satirical works, translation of fiction, translation of song lyrics, etc. are distinguished. The allocation of the translation of works of a particular genre into a special subspecies of translation is conditional and depends on how significant the specificity of this genre has on the course and result of the translation process.

98. Informative translation is the translation of texts, the main function of which is to communicate some information, and not to have an artistic and aesthetic impact on the reader. Such texts include all materials of a scientific, business, socio-political, everyday, etc. nature. This should also include the translation of many detective (police) stories, travel descriptions, essays and similar works, where purely informational narrative prevails. The division into literary and informative translation indicates only the main function of the original, which should be reproduced in translation. In fact, in the original, which, in general, requires literary translation, there may be separate parts that perform exclusively informational functions, and, on the contrary, in the translation of an informative text, there may be elements of literary translation.

In informative translation, subtypes of translation are distinguished on the basis of the belonging of the translated texts to different functional styles of the foreign language. At the same time, it is necessary that the functional and stylistic features of the originals determine the specific features of the translation of such texts. On this basis, translation of scientific and technical materials, translation of official business materials, translation of political and journalistic materials, translation of newspaper and information materials, translation of patent materials, etc. are distinguished into special subspecies.

99. The psycholinguistic classification of translations, taking into account the way the original is perceived and the translation text is created, divides translation activities into written translation and interpretation.

Written translation is a type of translation in which speech works combined in an act of interlingual communication (original and translated text) appear in the translation process in the form of fixed texts that the translator can repeatedly refer to. This enables the translator to re-perceive segments of the translated text, compare them with the corresponding segments of the translation, make any necessary changes to the translation text before presenting the translation to the Receptor, i.e. before the completion of the translation process. A classic example of written translation is when the translator perceives the original visually in the form of a written text and creates the text of the translation also in the form of a written text. (Hence the name itself - written translation.)

Oral translation is a type of translation in which the original and its translation appear in the process of translation in an unfixed form, which predetermines the one-time perception of segments of the original by the translator and the impossibility of subsequent comparison or correction of the translation after it has been completed. A classic example of oral translation is when the translator perceives the original in acoustic form (“by ear”) and pronounces his translation orally. In oral translation, the creation of the translation text can occur either in parallel with the perception of the original, or after the perception of the original is completed. Accordingly, two subspecies of oral translation are distinguished: simultaneous translation and consecutive translation.

100. Simultaneous translation is a method of oral translation in which the interpreter, listening to the speech of the speaker, almost simultaneously (with a slight delay of -2-3 seconds) pronounces the translation. As a rule, simultaneous translation is carried out using technical means, in a special booth, where the speaker's speech is given to the interpreter through headphones, and the interpreter himself speaks into the microphone, from where the translation is broadcast to the Receptors. Thanks to this device, the translator's voice does not prevent him from listening to the original. A variety of simultaneous translation is the so-called. "whispering", when the interpreter is not placed in the booth, but next to the Receptor and tells him the translation in an undertone with or without headphones and a microphone. Simultaneous translation is a complex subspecies of oral translation, since it requires the translator to be able to simultaneously perform heterogeneous speech actions: listen in one language, translate into another language and speak this language, while keeping up with the pace of the speaker's speech. Synchronization of all three actions is associated with a lot of memory work, intense attention, the need to perform speech compression, predict the next segments of the original, correct unfulfilled forecasts, make instant decisions, etc.

101. Consecutive interpreting is a method of interpreting in which the interpreter begins to interpret after the speaker has stopped speaking, having finished the whole speech or some part of it. The size of the translated segment of speech can be different: from a single statement to a text of a significant volume, which the speaker spoke for 20-30 minutes or more. This type of translation requires the translator to retain the content of significant segments of the original for a long time before the start of the translation. If the volume of the original exceeds several utterances, then the translator, in the process of perceiving the original, keeps a record of the key moments of the content, which helps him to restore the listened message in his memory.

102. The written or oral form of perception of the original and the creation of the translated text are typical for written and oral translation respectively, but each of them may sometimes use some elements of a different type of translation. A translator can receive the original text recorded on magnetic tape, or dictate his translation to a typist or into a voice recorder. In any case, the translation remains written, since the texts of the original and the translation are stored in a fixed form and they can be repeatedly reviewed, compared and the necessary corrections made to the translation before the translation is presented to the Receptors. The interpreter can receive the text of the oral presentation before starting the translation and use it as an auxiliary support in the process of simultaneous or consecutive translation. A special type of use of written text in interpreting is the so-called. “Sight translation”, when an interpreter orally translates a written original for Receptors without regard to any oral presentations, i.e. not in the process of translating the speaker's speech. And here the main feature of oral translation remains: the impossibility of comparing and correcting the text of the translation before presenting it to the Receptors.

103. An important role in the difference between translation and interpretation is played by the time factor. In written translation, the translation process is not limited by rigid temporal limits. The translator can interrupt the translation at any time, return to an already translated segment, spend additional time thinking about any part of the original or translation, refer to dictionaries and reference books, get advice or advice from experts, etc. This creates conditions for the successful solution of complex translation problems, allows you to successfully translate any texts, both literary and informative. In written translation, the highest level of equivalence is required and achieved. In oral translation, the actions of an interpreter are strictly limited in time by the pace of the speaker's speech and the need to "give out" the translation simultaneously with the speaker or immediately after he stops. In this regard, the translator does not have time to think, sort through options or refer to reference literature. The role of semi-automatic skills, knowledge of stable correspondences and clichés, the ability to quickly and clearly articulate statements in TL is growing. At the same time, sometimes the translator has to introduce elements of adaptive transcoding, omit some details of the message being translated, compress (compress and reduce) the text of the translation, and be content with the translation at a lower level of equivalence. The need for especially fast speech actions in short periods of time in the process of simultaneous translation creates great physical and psychological stress, and therefore a simultaneous interpreter can fully perform his duties only for 20-30 minutes. Therefore, during simultaneous translation, each booth is served by several interpreters working in turn.

104. An important difference between written and oral translation lies in the fact that in each of these types of translation, the translator deals with different parts of the original. In written translation, the translator translates one statement in the original after another, but at his disposal is the entire text of the original as a whole, and each statement acts as a unit of this text. The translator translates a single statement, correlating it with the content of the entire text, he can search in the previous or subsequent parts of the text for additional information necessary for him to choose a translation option, follow the logic of thought development, the correct connection between individual statements, etc. In oral translation, the translator is forced to perceive and translate the original text in small segments as they are pronounced by the speaker and does not have the opportunity (with the exception of “sight translation”, where this possibility is also limited) to refer to other parts of the original in the process of translation. In consecutive translation, the interpreter operates with one or more utterances. In simultaneous translation, due to the parallel implementation of perception and translation and an acute shortage of time, the translator translates individual segments of statements in the original, building complete statements in translation from the translated segments.

105. Translation and interpretation also differ in the nature of the relationship with the participants in interlingual communication. In written translation, as a rule, the translation process takes place “in the office environment”, and the translator does not have direct or feedback with the communicants. Possible (and highly desirable) acquaintance of the translator with the original author and potential Translation Receptors is carried out outside the framework of the translation process. Interpersonal relations do not play a role here, the only object of the translator's attention is the translated text, any assessment of the translator's actions (translation quality) by communicants can be given only after the completion of the entire process of interlingual communication.

When interpreting, an interpreter works in direct verbal (and sometimes personal) contact with communicants, often in conditions where feedback is possible with one or both participants in interlingual communication. He is forced to perceive oral speech, regardless of its correctness, tempo, peculiarities of pronunciation or manner of speech of the speaker, and ensure mutual understanding between the speaker and the listeners. Overcoming the difficulties associated with this is facilitated by the presence of an interpreter when creating the original text, the ability to take into account the situation of communication, fill in the missing information based on knowledge of the subject and purpose of the conversation and the previous stages of discussion, personal acquaintance with the Receptors present, their understanding of the issue under discussion, their usual arguments and formulations. . In the presence of feedback from the speaker, it sometimes becomes possible to ask again, clarify the thought expressed, and find out the meaning of an unfamiliar term. If there is feedback from the listeners, it becomes possible to monitor their reaction, the intelligibility of the translation, adjust the pace of the interpreter's speech, and sometimes the speaker, etc. In case of personal contact of the interpreter with the communicants, he can resort to gestures, visual demonstration, additional explanations. In such cases, the translation is often supplemented with elements of adaptive transcoding, and sometimes the translator acts as an additional participant in communication, answering questions and fulfilling the requests of one or both communicants.

106. Any speech communication (including interlingual) transfers information in one direction: from the Source to the Receptor. Therefore, the translation process is always carried out from the original text created by the Source to the translation text intended for the Receptor. The translator translates from the original language into the target language. In written translation, the ratio of languages ​​in the process of interlingual communication usually remains unchanged, and the translator often specializes in translating from one specific language to another. When interpreting in conditions of direct contact with both communicants, a conversation situation is possible when multilingual communicants exchange remarks, alternately acting as a Source and a Receptor. In this case, the translator performs the so-called. “two-way translation”, translating first from one, then from another language. Although in this case each act of translation is directed in one direction - from the Source to the Receptor, the source language is constantly changing, and the translator is required to be able to translate from each of the languages ​​used by the communicants, quickly switching from one language to another.

107. In theoretical terms, the selection of certain types of translation is associated with the development of special translation theories that reveal the specifics of each type or subtype of translation. In practical terms, the classification of types of translation provides a basis for the specialization of translators in certain types of translation activities. Depending on the significance of their specific features, different types of translation require more or less detailed theoretical analysis.

At present, a number of special translation theories have not yet been sufficiently developed. Among the special theories related to the genre-stylistic classification of translations, the greatest attention of researchers is attracted by the problems of translation of scientific, technical and newspaper information materials, which are of great theoretical and practical interest. These issues are the subject of Chap. V. When developing special theories of translation that study its types and subspecies on the basis of the psycholinguistic classification of translations, various aspects of oral, especially simultaneous translation, are most comprehensively studied. The theory of simultaneous translation stands out in the training program for translators, and special textbooks and teaching aids have been published for this course (see Chernov G.V. Fundamentals of simultaneous translation. - M., 1987). Therefore, within the framework of the general course of translation theory, we will only point out the basic principles of the theoretical description of oral translation. Since the psycholinguistic classification of translations is based on differences in the nature of the translator's speech actions, the scientific description of a particular type of translation includes not only (and not so much) purely linguistic as psycholinguistic factors. This is especially true for the theory of oral translation (both simultaneous and consecutive), where a one-time oral presentation of the original and the generation of the translated text in the form of a series of single acts excludes the possibility of returning to the original or any significant corrections to the translation. The conditions for the implementation of oral (especially simultaneous) translation create certain restrictions to achieve maximum equivalence and lead to some loss of information both when the translator perceives the original and when choosing a translation option.

108. The study of the specifics of interpretation is carried out in three main areas. The first aspect of the study deals with the factors that influence the translator's extraction of the information contained in the original. Oral translation is the translation of oral speech into I, Z. The perception of oral speech is short, disposable and discrete, and therefore the extraction of information in the translation process is carried out differently than in the visual perception of the text. The completeness of understanding depends on the rhythm, pauses (the number and duration of pauses), and the rate of speech; the extraction of information takes place in the form of separate portions as the chain of linguistic units unfolds in the speaker's speech, the perception is carried out on the basis of "semantic strongholds". The translator predicts the subsequent content of the text on the basis of already perceived "quanta" of information, refining his forecast in the process of further perception, which involves the accumulation and retention of previous information in memory. The theory of oral translation describes the psycholinguistic features and linguistic prerequisites for probabilistic forecasting in translation, its dependence on the relative semantic independence of minimal speech segments in different languages, as well as the nature of information loss when listening to significant segments of speech. Factors that compensate for such losses are also described: knowledge of the subject and situation of speech, which allows one to guess about the content of the omitted, intonation, emotional coloring of speech, etc.

109. The second aspect of the study of interpretation is related to its consideration as a special type of speech in TL. The theory of oral translation describes the specifics of the translator's oral speech, which differs from the usual "non-translated" speech. The existence of distinctive features is due to the fact that the translator's speech is focused on the original and is formed in the process of translation. In simultaneous translation, the process of speaking proceeds in parallel with the process of listening (perception of the speaker's speech), although part of the translation is “spoken out” in pauses in the speech of the Source. An important aspect of the linguistic description of simultaneous translation is to identify the size (duration) of the minimum interval between the beginning of the generation of the original segment and the beginning of the translation of this segment. The value of such an interval is determined by two series of linguistic factors. Firstly, it depends on the features of the structure of the foreign language, which determine the length of the segment of speech, within which the ambiguity of its constituent units is removed. For many languages, such a segment most often includes the structural basis of the SPO sentence (subject-predicate-object) and, first of all, the verb-predicate. Often the translator is forced to delay the beginning of the translation, waiting for the verb to appear in the speaker's statement. Secondly, the value of the lag interval also depends on some features of the TL structure, which determines the degree of dependence of the form of the initial elements of the utterance on its subsequent elements. For example, when translating into English the beginning of the Russian sentence “Friendship with the Soviet Union... (we deeply appreciate)”, the translator will have to wait for the Source to pronounce the subject and predicate in order to begin translating: We highly appreciate our friendship... . At the same time, when translating the same sentence into German, he could start translating after the very first words: Die Freundschaft mil der Sowjetunion... The existence of synonymous statements in the TL that differ in structure also affects the size of the lag interval. Instead of waiting for the subject and predicate to appear in the Russian utterance, the translator into English could immediately translate the beginning of the sentence as The friendship with the Soviet Union..., hoping that he could use a different structure in the translation, for example: ...is of great value to us. ON. Within the framework of the special theory of oral translation, a number of other features of the translator's speech are also noted. This includes slower articulation associated with the so-called. hesitation pauses, fluctuations in the choice of options, leading to a sharp increase (3-4 times) in the interval behind erroneous options, as well as the total duration of pauses in relation to the pure sound of speech. The interpreter’s speech is less rhythmic, the simultaneous interpreter often speaks at an increased pace, trying to “speak” what is already understood faster, and with consecutive interpreting, the tempo of speech is significantly reduced, since the interpreter at the same time understands his record, restoring the content of the original in memory. Particular attention in the theory of interpretation is paid to the normative requirements for the translator's speech, the implementation of which in extreme conditions of simultaneous and consecutive translation requires special efforts: ensuring clear articulation, uniform rhythm, correct placement of accents, mandatory semantic and structural completeness of phrases and other elements of the "delivery" of the translation. ensuring its full perception by listeners.

111. The central aspect of the study of interpretation is to consider it as a special type of translation, i.e. as opposed to written translation. Here, the special theory of oral translation reveals both quantitative and qualitative features. In simultaneous translation, the volume (number of words) of the target text depends on the length of the segments of speech being translated. When translating short phrases, the number of words in simultaneous translation, on average, is greater than in written translation, due to the greater number of elements of description and explanation. When translating long phrases, these values ​​are equalized, and when translating paragraphs and larger sections of text, simultaneous translation turns out to be less verbose, both due to conscious compression (compression) of the text during the translation process, and due to a certain number of omissions. A decrease in the volume of the translated text compared to the written translation of the same original is noted in all cases and in consecutive translation. The number of skips increases with the speaker's speech rate. Therefore, the theory of oral translation pays special attention to the causes, methods and limits of speech compression.

112. The need for compression is determined by the fact that the conditions of oral (especially simultaneous) translation do not always allow transferring the content of the original as fully as in written translation. Firstly, with the fast pace of the speaker's speech, it is difficult for the translator to have time to pronounce the full text of the translation. Secondly, the speed of the speech-thinking process for each translator has its limits, and he often cannot speak as quickly as the speaker. Thirdly, the hasty pronunciation of speech statements often affects their correctness and completeness, as a result of which their perception by the Translation Receptor and the entire process of interlingual communication are disturbed.

Speech compression in interpreting is not an easy task. This is not just about skipping a part of the original, but about such a compression of the translated message, which preserves all the important elements of meaning. Compression becomes possible due to the information redundancy of speech. The statement often contains elements of information that duplicate each other, and when translating, some of them can be omitted, preserving the content of the message. For example, if the interpreter completely translated the question "When will the implementation of this plan begin?" and he has to translate the answer "The implementation of this plan will begin in 1990," he can condense it to "in the nineties." The statement may sometimes contain side information (formulas of politeness, random remarks, deviations from the topic), the omission of which will not interfere with the implementation of the main task of communication. In some cases, the situation of communication makes it unnecessary to transfer some part of the information in verbal form and thus allows for the reduction of information in translation.

Message compression during translation is a variable value. It depends on the rate of the speaker's speech and on the ratio of the structures of the FL and the TL. The theory of oral translation describes the methods of speech compression for each pair of languages ​​using both structural and semantic transformations. The most typical compression methods are synonymous replacement of phrases and sentences with shorter words, phrases and sentences, replacement of the full name of an organization, state, etc. abbreviation or abbreviated name (The United Nations - UN), replacing the combination of a verb with a verbal noun with a single verb denoting the same action, process or state as the noun being replaced (to render assistance - to help), omission of connecting elements in the phrase (the policy pursued by the United States - US policy), replacement of the subordinate clause with a participial or prepositional phrase (When I met him for the first time - at the first meeting with him), etc. When the speaker speaks quickly, the use of various methods of speech compression can reduce the translated text by 25 - 30% compared to the written translation of the same original.

113. An important part of the theory of interpretation is the study of the nature of the equivalence achieved in various types of such translation. As already mentioned, there is sometimes a loss of information in interpretation compared to the level of equivalence established in translation. Observed deviations are reduced to omissions, additions or erroneous replacements of information contained in the original. Each type of deviation includes smaller categories, differing in the degree of importance of information not transmitted or added. Passes include:

1) the omission of an insignificant single word, mainly an epithet;

2) the omission of more important and large units, associated with the translator's misunderstanding of part of the text;

3) omission of a part of the text due to the restructuring of the text structure during translation;

4) omission of a significant part of the text due to the lag of the translation from the speech of the speaker.

Additions are classified according to the nature of the added redundant elements: separate determinants, additional clarifications clarifying connections between statements, etc. And, finally, errors are divided according to the degree of importance: a small error in the translation of a single word, a gross semantic error in the translation of a single word, a small error in connection with a slight change in structure, a gross semantic error with a significant change in structure, etc. When assessing the quality of interpreting, the specifics of the oral form of communication are taken into account: with direct contact between communicants, the establishment of equivalence at a lower level in some cases does not prevent their mutual understanding, which to a certain extent compensates for the loss of information in the process of interpreting.

114. These two methods of classifying translations (by the nature of the translated text and by the form of perception of the original and the creation of the translated text) are based on different principles, and the types of translation distinguished in each of them, of course, do not coincide. Theoretically, any type of text can be translated both orally and in writing. In practice, however, the specificity of oral translation imposes certain restrictions on the degree of complexity and volume of translated texts, which in a certain respect is also associated with their functional and genre characteristics. Works of fiction, in general, are not translated orally, although individual quotations from such works may be given in oral presentations and translated simultaneously or sequentially. Ensuring artistic and aesthetic impact in oral translation with its rigid temporal framework is a very difficult task, especially if poetic works are quoted, the translation of which is not known to the translator in advance. Large-scale works of informative genres are also not translated orally, since the duration of oral translation is limited not only by the possibilities of translation, but also by the short duration of oral communication in general: it is physically impossible to speak, listen and memorize continuously for a long period of time.

1. Main types and forms of translation

There are several types of scientific and technical translation. For example, free translation is the understanding and transmission of the general content of the text. This type of translation is used in the form of a translation-summary, abstract, annotation. In addition to knowledge of grammar and vocabulary, such a translation requires a certain amount of knowledge in science and technology.

Literal translation reveals the content of each sentence and helps to understand it correctly. In a literal translation, the translated sentence has the same structure and word order as the corresponding English sentence. However, a literal translation cannot be an adequate translation.

Adequate translation, i.e. equivalent to the original, implies a deep understanding of the subject of translation, text, creative interpretation of the original, exactly corresponds to the lexical and grammatical structure of the target language. It (an adequate translation) also conveys the exact content of the text with all the shades and peculiarities of style in accordance with the norms of the Russian language.

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The main criteria that should be taken into account are the speed of transfer delivery and the amount of the paid commission.

According to their type, money transfers are urgent and ordinary, i.e. the recipient can wait for the amount due to him from several minutes to several days.

Some systems (for example, international transfers) do not have any divisions and work in the only possible mode.

There are the following ways to transfer money abroad:

• International translation systems.
• Bank transfer.
• Postal transfer.
• Transfer to an electronic wallet.
• Transfer by card number.

All of them have different terms of the operation and different commission fees. The methods of notifying the recipient about the funds received by him are also not the same.

The main types of forwarded currencies are rubles, euros and dollars.

International money transfer systems abroad

The most popular and reliable are: WesternUnion, MoneyGram and Contact. Their branches are quite common, as the client network is organized quite well and conveniently.

Basically, international transfer systems are presented in post offices, banks, currency exchange offices.

Registration procedure:

• The sender indicates the exact name and surname of the recipient, his country and the city where the transfer should be received.
• After paying the required commission fee, the sender is given a copy of the already completed form, which contains the transfer number. For example, for Western Union it is the Money Transfer Control Number (MTCN), and for MoneyGram it is the Reference Number.
• The sender informs the recipient of the number and amount of the transfer.

Both the recipient and the sender must have a passport with them. All necessary fees are paid by the one who carries out the withdrawal of money abroad.

Advantages:

• Delivery speed. Within 15 minutes, the funds will arrive at their destination.
• There is no need to provide a large number of documents and details.

Flaws:

• High commission fee. The size of the transferred amount and the recipient country affect the amount of payment, which can reach from one percent to several tens of percent of the transfer amount. At the same time, it is less profitable to send small amounts. For example, a transfer fee of $50 will be about $13, and if you transfer $1000, you will have to pay an additional $50.

Bank transfer

This is ideal if the sender and recipient are customers of the same bank. In this case, you can simply transfer the necessary funds to the desired account.

It is especially convenient if a financial institution provides online banking services, which allows you to manage money yourself from your personal account on the bank's website.

When financial institutions are different, you can find a branch of the recipient's bank in your city and deposit cash into his personal account. Some banks, such as Sberbank, transfer money abroad without opening an account.

Registration procedure:

• The sender indicates the exact passport details of the recipient, details and SWIFT code of his bank, account number.
• The currency, amount and type of transfer are negotiated.
• The sender provides the details of his account from which the funds will be debited.
• After registration of the documents, the sender is given the appropriate copies.

Since the commission for the service is charged on both sides (for writing off and for accruing funds), it will be necessary to specify in advance who will pay: the sender, the recipient, or each for himself.

In order to issue a transfer and pick it up, you will have to show your passport.

Advantages:

• If there is a technical base, it is possible to transfer funds from account to account using Internet tools without visiting a bank branch.
• Lower commission compared to international transfer systems. Usually the tariffs are about 0.5% of the amount of transfers. However, banks almost always set a lower fee limit. For example, in Promsvyazbank, the minimum deduction is $10, and the maximum is $150.

Flaws:

• It is necessary to provide a large number of documents.

See also: Which Internet bank is better - Internet banking rating in Russia for 2014-2015

Postal transfer

Russian Post offers a service called "CyberMoney". With its help, the client can transfer funds to the CIS countries, non-CIS countries and the Baltics. The average turnaround time for a translation is two days.

The amount of the commission is from 1.5 to 5% and depends on the country of the recipient and the amount of the shipment.

However, in addition to interest deductions, you will have to pay additional fee in the amount of 40 to 260 rubles.

Advantages:

• Relatively low commission.

Flaws:

• Limited list of recipient countries.

Transfer to an electronic wallet

It - the easiest and fastest way to transfer money abroad cheaply if the sender and recipient use the same payment system.

To conduct a financial transaction, you only need to know the recipient's e-wallet number.

Advantages:

• The commission for the translation is minimal. For example, WebMoney take only 0.8% of the transferred amount.
• You do not need to visit any organizations, the withdrawal of money is made via the Internet.

Flaws:

• There are problems with cashing out money, part of the funds is spent on this operation.

Transfer by card number

In this case the client's bank must be a partnerinternational payment system and have the right to provide a transfer service by card number.

For the transfer procedure, you will need a plastic card number, the recipient's full name or CCV code.

Advantages:

• Funds are transferred instantly.
• Money can be transferred via Internet banking (transfer from card to card) or using a payment terminal (transfer by card number).

Flaws:

• Money is transferred only within one system: from Visa to Visa, from MasterCard to MasterCard or to Maestro.

When thinking about how to transfer money abroad, there are various factors to consider.

• If timing is important– use international transfer systems, electronic wallets or transfer by card number.
• When the amount of the commission fee is more significant- use plastic cards or electronic money.

Postal and bank transfers guarantee the highest reliability.

Money transfers are a financial service that is in high demand among individuals. With its help, you can send money to another person, regardless of his location.

Plus, this way people can avoid the hassle of carrying large amounts of cash. After all, it is much cheaper and safer to send funds through a money transfer system than to carry them yourself or hire collectors.

There are many types of money transfers in the world today. Often, even in one bank, a client can be offered several systems at once to choose from. They differ from each other not only in the size of the commission, but also in such parameters as the speed of enrollment, the territory of action, the procedures for sending and enrolling.

In banking practice, the following classification of transfers is used:

• international - with their help you can send money from one country to another;
• national - operate only on the territory of one state;
• intrabank - you can receive money only in the financial institution through which the transfer was sent;
• cash - do not provide for the opening of a special account;
• non-cash - carried out only with the help of a bank account;
• currency - provide for the transfer of monetary units of other states (dollars, euros, etc.).

It should be noted that the monopoly of banks in the money transfer market is gradually disappearing. You can already send money through social networks, as well as using electronic wallets.

What do you need to send money

The initiator of the money transfer is the individual sender. In order to send money, he must provide the bank with a certain package of documents, which depends on his citizenship:

• Russians will need a passport or any other identification document (passport, "military", etc.);
• foreigners need to bring their “native” passport or another document that is recognized in the Russian Federation, an identity document, a migration card, a document for the right to reside in the Russian Federation;
• a stateless person must apply for a residence permit in Russia and a document for the right to reside in the Russian Federation.

Transfer restrictions

To better understand what restrictions apply when sending money, you must first consider such concepts as resident and non-resident.

So, the first one is a citizen who lives and works in the state, pays taxes to the budget.

The second is an individual who operates in the territory of one country, but is registered and lives in another.

In accordance with domestic legislation, non-residents can transfer, without opening an account, both rubles and foreign currency within Russia and abroad without restrictions.

Residents, and these are in most cases our compatriots, can send no more than the ruble equivalent of 5,000 dollars in one day outside Russia without opening an account.

Popular money transfer systems

The leaders in the number of transactions in the world are Western Union and MoneyGram.

Western Union

The main office of the company is located in the USA in Englewood (Colorado). The advantage of the system is a very extensive network of points of issue of transfers, which are located in more than 200 countries of the world. It is also convenient that you can send money using Western Union not only abroad, but also within the same country.

You can send money using the WU system in the following ways:

• online from www.westernunion.com;
• in the WU department;
• in the divisions of the Russian Post;
• using Internet banking (the service works only in Avangard and Uralsib banks);
• cash at the bank;
• through the Yandex.Money e-wallet.

The transaction fee depends on many factors, the main of which are: sending method, transfer amount, country of destination. A large number of points of issue of transfers contributes to the growth of popularity of Western Union in many countries of the world.

moneygram

It is the second most popular money transfer system in the world. Its central office is located in the USA, Dallas (Texas). Points of issue of money for Moneygram are present in more than 200 countries around the world. You can send money using it only in a bank branch.

The amount of the commission depends on the standard parameters: the amount and currency of the transaction, the country of destination.
It is also worth considering that sending more than $10,000 to Moneygram will not work.

Russian money transfer systems

On a national scale, the most popular systems are the following:

gold Crown

One of the largest transfer systems in Russia was established in 2003. Its participants are more than 550 banks, which are located not only on the territory of the Russian Federation, but also in the CIS countries, near and far abroad. In total, the system has about 60,000 service points in 36 countries.

The great importance of the system is evidenced by the fact that in 2013 it was included in the register of socially significant payment systems in Russia.

According to the international credit rating service S&P Global Ratings, it is the leader in the money transfer market in the CIS, and ranks third in the world in terms of the volume of transferred funds.

You can send money through the Golden Crown system:

• in divisions of financial institutions;
• in communication stores (for example, Svyaznoy);
• in the offices of system partners;
• online - using a mobile application or through a web interface www.koronapay.com

In addition, with the help of the Golden Crown, you can transfer money between payment cards, as well as repay loans from any bank in the Russian Federation.

CONTACT

One of the first transfer systems in Russia was created in 1999. Its partners are more than 900 Russian and international financial institutions. With this system, you can send money in the following ways:

• online via www.contact-sys.com;
• in cash from the point of transfer;
• from an account in any bank in Russia, EU, USA, Hong Kong and other countries;
• using a mobile phone;
• through terminals;
• using Internet banking, financial institutions partners of the Contact system;
• via Qiwi wallet.

Blizko

Another system that is on the list of socially significant. It was established in 2006 by Svyaz-bank. With its help, you can send money within the Russian Federation, as well as to other countries only in the three most popular currencies: rubles, dollars, euros. The system network consists of 36,000 points, including all divisions of the Federal State Unitary Enterprise Russian Post.

It is worth considering that you can send money only at bank branches and post offices. Blizko also makes transfers between payment cards and from mobile numbers (Beeline, MegaFon, MTS).

hummingbird

is one of the youngest systems in Russia. It was established in 2013 by the flagship of the banking system - Sberbank. With its help, you can send money only within Sberbank, including within its divisions that are located abroad.

The system works only with three standard currencies: national, dollars and euros. The amount of transfers is limited:

• ruble equivalent of 5 thousand dollars for residents;
• ruble equivalent of 10 thousand dollars for non-residents.

It is possible to make a transfer only at Sberbank branches.

Unistream money transfers

It was established in 2001 by the bank of the same name. In February 2015, it received the status of nationally significant. Its partners are more than 450 financial institutions from around the world, and the number of points of issue of money reaches 333.5 thousand.

You can send money using Unistream:

• from the official website https://online.unistream.ru/ using a payment card of any Russian bank;
• in any subdivision of the system agent.

Unistream has a restriction - you can not send more than 100 thousand rubles. Regarding currencies, you can transfer in any monetary unit.

Money transfers Leader

It was established in April 2003. This money transfer network is present in 132 countries, cooperates with more than 500 financial institutions and has about 130,000 points of issue. With its help, you can make transfers only in three main currencies: national, dollars and euros.

You can send a transfer in the Leader system:

• in the partner's department;
• online from the official website https://leadermt.ru;
• using Leader terminals (more than 4.5 thousand pieces);
• using the Leader Digital mobile app.

The Leader system also replenishes payment cards, accepts utility payments and pays for services of state institutions, monthly payments on loans.

Money transfer system in social networks

Significant competition to standard banking products is beginning to come from money transfers, which are carried out by companies that have not previously positioned themselves in the market with the provision of financial services. We are talking about sending money using social networks.

For example, VKontakte started making money transfers in September 2016. carried out by VTB24 Bank.

With the help of payment cards issued by banks in Russia or Kazakhstan, you can send a transfer to a card of any bank from 17 countries of the world. However, it is worth considering that the size of one transfer is limited to an amount from 100 to 75 thousand rubles, while you cannot send more than 150 thousand rubles per day and no more than 600 thousand rubles per month. The service is paid and depends on the tariffs of the issuing bank and the type of payment card.

What to choose

You can send money transfers using any payment system, there are enough of them today. However, which one is better to use depends on many factors: the transfer fee, the speed of receipt, the complexity of sending, the list of currencies, the availability of pickup points, and current restrictions. All this must be taken into account when choosing a translation system.

Also, do not forget that money transfers within Russia are highly competitive with payments between bank cards. After all, their replenishment is essentially a similar operation, which also allows another person to receive the necessary amount of money, regardless of his location.

Moreover, sometimes making a card and paying a commission for services is much cheaper than regularly using money transfers.

Well, there is no need to discount the rapidly gaining popularity of electronic wallets and transfer systems through social networks, which can attract a significant part of banking customers.

Alexander Babin

(Department of English Philology №2)

1. The essence of translation as a type of communicative activity.

The history of the formation of translation studies

The first period - the period of antiquity (mainly interpretation)

The second - the period of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (exchange of religious knowledge; interpretation and translation)

The third is the period of enlightenment (creation of translation glossaries, mainly written translation)

Fourth - 19th century of industry and literature

Fifth - the 20th century, the heyday of translation activities, staff training, the emergence of translator training centers.

2. Interdisciplinary connections of translation studies as a scientific discipline.

Comparative linguistics delimits the levels of the language, establishes similarities and differences between the systems of two languages ​​in the field of their sound structure, vocabulary and grammatical (syntactic) structure.

The TiPP deals with specific speech derivatives, therefore it does not consider units of different levels separately, but establishes the semantic commonality of two texts, regardless of the levels of the linguistic hierarchy.

Ethnolinguistics - studies the interaction of linguistic and ethnic factors in the process of the functioning of the language. Considers communication as an exchange of information between the resources of different ethnic groups (language communities) Translation is not only the contact of two languages, but also the contact of two cultures and ethnic groups (cultural translation)

Sociolinguistics - studies the interactions between language and the facts of social life in various areas depending on certain criteria (social status, corporate, age, gender, degree of proximity of communication, religious)

Linguistic geography - studies the territorial distribution and variability of various languages ​​​​and their elements. In the process of translating the text, it is necessary to make the right choice of the variant of the translation language, taking into account the target audience.

Psycholinguistics - studies the interaction of linguistic and mental mechanisms. In the theory of translation, it gives an explanation of the internal organization of the translator's activity with an emphasis on the system of levels of the psychophysiological organization of translation mechanisms.

3. Types of translation activities.

The diversity of translation activities determines the distinction between three branches of the science of translation.

The general theory of translation studies the process of translation as a whole, regardless of the conditions for the implementation of translation, the genre of texts, contacting languages, and more. TO is engaged in the study of translation universals.

Private theory of translation - considers the specific features of translation activities associated with the specifics of the two contacting languages.

The special theory of translation deals with the scientific description of various types of translation, distinguished on the basis of a number of criteria:

Correlation between types of source language and target language

Genre specificity of stratification of texts.

1) According to the ratio of the types of the original language and the target language:

intralingual and interlingual.

diachronic (historical - translation into modern translation)

transposition (from one genre to another)

binary (translation from one natural language to another)

intersemiotic (from natural language to artificial)

traditional (human/manual translation)

machine translation

3) By the criterion of the translation unit

morphemic translation

word by word

phrase-by-phrase

paragraph-phrase

full text

4) On the basis of the primary / non-primary text of the original

direct/immediate

indirect/secondary (translation from translation)

reverse (experimental or educational translation of an already translated text into the source language)

5) By the stage of work on the text

working translation (a higher level in work on the original form)

translation - a sample (the text corresponds to the norm of the target language and is perceived as the original)

6) Based on the completeness and method of conveying the meaning of the original

full/full translation

incomplete

Abbreviated

Fragmentary

aspect

signal

annotating

abstract

7) According to the degree of professionalism of the performer

student translation

8) By genre

literary translation

scientific and technical translation

9) According to the form of presentation of the translation

written translation

written and oral translation (interpretation of a written text, carried out simultaneously with its reading, as a rule, without prior acquaintance with the original)

oral translation

Consistent

Synchronous

10) By the quality of the translation product

adequate

inadequate (free, literal)

Often, when a person picks up the Holy Scriptures for the first time, the question arises, what translations of the Bible exist? The answer to this question depends, in particular, on the believer's choice - in which translation to read the Bible. Today, there are two classical translations of this sacred book for Christians into Russian - Church Slavonic and Russian Synodal, as well as a modern Russian translation.

Church Slavonic translation

Bible in Church Slavonic appeared in Russia in the first centuries of its Christianization thanks to the labors of the holy brothers Cyril and Methodius. The brothers themselves, who were from Byzantium, by order of the emperor, went to the Moravian prince to preach about Christ in the native language of the Slavic peoples.

For this, Equal-to-the-Apostles Cyril and Methodius created the alphabet, named after one of them Cyrillic, and then they translated Scripture and books for worship into Slavonic.

As a result of the fact that the Slavic translation of the Bible began to be used in services, the Church Slavonic language gradually formed. It was almost never used in everyday life, but for the Church it became the main language. It is such today, and therefore Orthodox believers should, if possible, be able to read and understand the Bible, first of all, in this language.

Synodal translation

When answering the question, what are the translations of the Bible into Russian, it is worth mentioning Synodal translation, which is by far the most popular.

The synodal translation of the Holy Scriptures was carried out in the 19th century in order to make this book accessible to the maximum number of inhabitants of the Russian Empire. It so happened that by the 19th century, few in Russia could freely read and understand sacred texts in Church Slavonic. In addition, by publishing the Bible in Russian, Emperor Alexander I wanted to support the development of the Russian Bible Society (RBS) in Russia, which had been created on the basis of similar European societies shortly before.

The translation of Scripture into Russian was carried out by a specially created commission under the Synod under the leadership of the Vice-President of the RBO, Archimandrite Filaret (Drozdov), later a saint, Metropolitan of Moscow. The RBO itself published the book in parts.

The New Testament was the first to be completely translated into Russian in 1820. In 1823 it would have been printed along with the Old Testament Psalter. The Old Testament itself was completely translated and published in 1876. Thus, it was from the second half of the 19th century that the main holy book of Christians became available to the majority of the inhabitants of Russia.

Modern translation

Relatively recently, in the early 2010s, a modern Russian translation of the Bible came out, the authors of which were M. Seleznev (Old Testament) and V. Kuznetsova (New Testament).

From the moment of publication to the present day, there has been an active discussion of the quality of this translation of the Bible. Someone speaks positively, someone criticizes.

However, it is important to note here that the main task of this translation was to make the Holy Scripture more accessible to the understanding of the modern reader, often not even a churchman, who finds it difficult to understand even the Synodal translation. To evaluate such a publication, you can personally read the Bible in a modern translation, as well as learn the advice of priests, which are available, for example, on the Internet.

What is the best translation of the Bible to read?

When choosing one or another translation of the Bible that is convenient for himself, an Orthodox person should focus on several points.

First of all, it is, of course, following the church tradition, which, for example, makes it desirable to understand the Bible in Church Slavonic. At least in some minimal amount. Then it will be easier for a person, for example, at a divine service, where all the texts are read and sung in Church Slavonic.

The second, and no less important point, is the understanding of the essence of what is read. It’s good, of course, to read the Bible in the living language of the Church, but if nothing of what you read is clear, then perhaps it’s better to start with the Synodal Translation, which is also approved for reading by the Church.

The question may also arise, what is the most accurate translation of the Bible? It is worth noting here that the Church Slavonic translation undoubtedly more fully reflects the essence, the spirit of the original Holy Scripture, but one should not think that the Synodal Translation is unreliable in this regard. No, this translation simply sets out the same text in a more accessible and understandable language for a modern person. At the same time, the translators of the Synodal edition undoubtedly tried to preserve the spirit of the Word of God.

In any case, whatever translation you are interested in, you will always find the necessary edition in our online store.