Plutarch traveled a lot, visited central Greece, Sparta, Corinth, Sardis and Alexandria, but his permanent residence was Chaeronea, where he performed not only the duties of chief judge, but also other leadership positions, and also led a school with a broad curriculum, in which philosophy was taught, and special attention was paid to ethics. Plutarch maintained close ties with the Academy of Athens (he had Athenian citizenship) and with Delphi, to whom, from about 95, he devoted his life; in all likelihood this was due to Trajan's interest in the Delphic oracle, which had begun to come into fashion again. There is no exact information about his family. In the "Consolatio" Plutarch mentions his wife Timoxena, reports that their daughter died in childhood, and mentions four of his sons, of whom at least two survived to adulthood.
The literary heritage of Plutarch is enormous. The so-called catalog of Lamprias alone contains 227 titles of his works. The list of Plutarch's works may have been compiled by his son, but even so it does not include everything that Plutarch wrote.
The popularity of Plutarch was brought primarily by "Parallel Lives". This work was dedicated to Emperor Trajan's friend Sossius Senecio, who is mentioned in the biographies of Demosthenes, Theseus and Dion. Plutarch set himself the goal of arousing mutual interest between the Greeks and the Romans. Describing noble deeds and characters, the "Parallel Lives" were supposed to serve as a model for the mutual respect of the Greeks and Romans.
The first comparative description of Epaminondas and Scipio and, possibly, the introduction and dedication written by Plutarch, alas, have not survived to this day. But Plutarch's plan is clear even without the lost introduction to the book. Plutarch wrote biographies of famous Greeks and Romans who lived in different eras, and brought them into pairs using the similarity of character and career, accompanied by a comparative description. It is quite obvious that the "Biographies" were compiled by Plutarch in the form that has come down to us in later years, and initially they were comparative biographies of only famous Greeks. This conclusion suggests itself because of the chronology of the biographies of the famous Greeks, who stand first in order in pairs with the Romans. In total, 22 comparative biographies have come down to us, and one of them is a double comparative description of "Agis and Cleomenes" with "Grazzi" and four separate biographies of Artaxerxes, Aratus, Galba and Ozo.
Plutarch's "Biographies" amaze the reader with the depth of the author's research. Plutarch reworked many sources, and although he does not directly refer to them, it is obvious that their study, research and reflection took him many years. Writing biographies of famous Romans was given to Plutarch much more difficult, since he had an imperfect command of the Latin language, which he began to study in his declining years.
The general scheme of biographies can be described as follows - a description of the birth of the hero, character traits in youth, a description of mature life and the circumstances of death; in each section, the author examines the actions of the characters from an ethical point of view.
Plutarch never claimed to be a historian, but considered writing biographies to be a separate genre. His goal was to make the reader admire the heroic deeds of the heroes, and Plutarch never hid his own sympathies - Plutarch describes the statements and actions of the Spartan kings and generals with especially warm words, and the author uses especially poisonous and unfair words when talking about the Greek historian (5th century BC .) Herodotus, perhaps due to the fact that he exaggerated the role of Athens and downplayed the role of his native Boeotia.
Plutarch's works on ethics, religion, physics, politics and literature that have come down to us are summarized in a collection and are known under the name "Moralia" (or "Ethics"), which contains more than 60 essays written mainly in the form of dialogues and diatribes (diatribes) . The author compiled this collection from brief statements said in private conversations in the circle of Plutarch's family; the date and occasion on which the author spoke are usually not indicated. Diatribes were uncomplicated and energetic short speeches that were in vogue due to the influence of the tragicomic works of the satirist of the 3rd century BC. Menippus. "Moralia" is of great literary value also due to the frequent quotations of Greek poets and playwrights, especially Euripides.
Treatises on political issues are of particular value. The "Political Instructions" show what great importance was then given to politics in Greece; in the treatise "Should a Man Engage in Politics When Old" Plutarch advises his friend Eofan to continue his social activities in Athens. The ideas of Stoicism appear in the short work "To the Illiterate Ruler" and in separate arguments in "Philosophers talk only with princes."
Plutarch's interest in the history of religion and antiquity can be seen in a group of admirable essays, in an early "The Demon of Socrates" and three later works on Delphi, "The Fall of the Oracles" in which he explains the decline in interest in the oracle, a decrease in population, "Answers of the Pythia" in which he seeks to revive faith in the oracle. Written at the same time as them, "Isis and Osiris" are sustained in mystical tones. "Merry Questions" (nine books) and "Greek and Roman Questions" absorbed extensive knowledge of ancient history.
Among the most valuable works, one can distinguish for a long time doubts about the authorship of "The Joy of Apollo", "Biographies of Ten Speakers", "Fate", "Short Sayings of Kings and Generals", "Short Sayings of the Spartans", "Proverbs of the Alexandrians".
The unfading charm and popularity of Plutarch is largely due to such an interpretation of the events described in which he simply ignored the mention of the controversy of some historical facts. He wrote easily and naturally, with humor. Although his works are verbose, they are very easy to understand. The philosophy of Plutarch is eclectic, with borrowings of Stoicism, Pythagoreanism, but was mainly based on Platonism. He was most interested in ethics, especially in his last years he developed the mystical direction of ethics; he participated in the mysteries dedicated to the cult of Dionysus, and, as a Platonist, believed in the immortality of the soul. Plutarch considered Greek culture unsurpassed and believed in the progressiveness and good intentions of the Roman Empire.
However, one can often hear a skeptical attitude towards the veracity of Plutarch's "Biographies". The compiler of this website once happened to hear such a statement from a modern historian: "He's lying like Plutarch!"
EXAMPLE PLAN
Kings and Ephors
Education and social life in Sparta
Property relations among the Spartans
Origin and position of helots
The terror of the Spartans against the helots
Legislation of Lycurgus
SOURCES
Reader on the history of ancient Greece / Ed. D. P. Kallistov. M., 1964. Section "Sparta".
Anthology of sources on the history, culture and religion of ancient Greece / Ed. V. I. Kuzishchina. Tutorial. SPb., 2000. Sections V, XI, XIV.
Xenophon. Lacedaemonian polity // Kurilov M. E. Socio-political structure, foreign policy and diplomacy of classical Sparta. Saratov, 2005.
Plutarch. Biography of Lycurgus // Plutarch. Comparative biographies / Ed. S. S. Averintseva. T. I. M., 1994.
MAIN LITERATURE
Andreev Yu. V. Sparta as a type of policy // Ancient Greece. T. 1. M., 1983. S. 194–217.
Latyshev VV Essay on Greek antiquities in 2 volumes. T. I. State and military antiquities. SPb., 1997.
Pechatnova L. G. History of Sparta. Archaic and classical period. SPb., 2001.
Pechatnova L. G. Spartan kings. M., 2007.
ADDITIONAL LITERATURE
Kolobova K. M. Ancient Sparta (X - VI centuries BC). Tutorial. L., 1957.
Kurilov M.E. Socio-political structure, foreign policy and diplomacy of classical Sparta. Saratov, 2005.
Pechatnova L. G. Formation of the Spartan state (VIII-VI centuries BC). Textbook for students. SPb., 1998.
Pechatnova L. G. Crisis of the Spartan policy (end of the 5th - beginning of the 4th century BC). Textbook for students. SPb., 1998.
Starkova N. Yu. The attraction of ancient Sparta. Textbook for the course "Source Studies and Historiography of Antiquity". Part I - II. Izhevsk, 2002.
Shishova I. A. Early legislation and the formation of slavery in ancient Greece. L., 1991.
When studying the topic "Spartan policy", you should pay attention to the following important provisions:
Sparta was not an anomaly in the development of ancient Greek civilization. However, in many respects, Sparta was very different from most Greek cities. Having chosen a special path of development associated with a long-term military expansion, Sparta gradually turned into a kind of military camp, where all spheres of public life were subjected to severe deformation. Only in Sparta, until the Roman conquest, did patriarchal royal power persist, and in the form of a decarchy, only in Sparta did the state consistently fight against private ownership of land and organize the life of its citizens in such a way as to subordinate personal interests to public ones.
Attention should be paid to the caste character of the civil collective in Sparta. For the non-civilian population of Sparta - helots and perieks - the path to citizenship was almost completely closed, and for the citizens themselves, maintaining their status was associated with the observance of a number of conditions, including economic ones. As a result, Sparta became the only state in Greece where the civilian population was declining catastrophically.
Of particular interest is the Spartan helotia, a type of slavery different from classical ancient slavery. It should be borne in mind that, ultimately, it was the helotia that was the main factor influencing the state of Spartan society. Fear of a huge army of helots and the inability to exist without them gradually made the Spartan policy a militarized state.
One should carefully consider the institutions of state power in Sparta, especially such as the ephorate, which had no analogue in other Greek policies. The preservation of the ancient political institutions, the dual royal power and the gerusia, which originated in Homeric Greece, also requires an explanation. The state, which for centuries preserved its ancient organs of power and traditions of the tribal system without any visible changes, was an amazing example of an artificially conserved socio-political structure, within which there was a continuous process of deformation of the human personality.
SOURCE TEXTS
The first work that has come down to us, specifically dedicated to Sparta, belongs to Xenophon, a writer whose fate was closely connected with Sparta. Xenophon's treatise "The Lacedaemonian Politia", written in the genre of a political pamphlet, had a sharp political focus and, in its own way, was engaged by the Spartan government. Xenophon's main focus is not on the political institutions of Sparta. He describes in detail the system of Spartan education, surprising for other Greeks, thanks to which such an important trait, from the point of view of Xenophon, as “civil virtue” was successfully cultivated in the Spartans. The Laconophile sympathies of Xenophon also manifested themselves in his main historical work, The Greek History. His Hellenica is essentially a Spartan-friendly version of Greek history.
An invaluable source on the history of Sparta is also Plutarch (I - II century AD). Due to the loss of a huge layer of literature, Plutarch remains our main, and sometimes the only informant on the cardinal problems of Spartan history. So he owns the most extensive biography of Lycurgus, containing an excess of antiquarian facts and being, as it were, the result of a centuries-old literary tradition about Lycurgus. The degree of reliability of Plutarch's testimony largely depends on his sources, however, in general, Plutarch's material, adjusted for the well-known tendentiousness of his informants and the originality of the genre of historical biography, seems to us to be quite solid.
LEGISLATION OF LYCURGUS
In the preface to the biography of Lycurgus, Plutarch warns the reader that “nothing strictly reliable can be reported about Lycurgus” and that “information about the time he lived is most divergent” (I). Along these main lines - the historicity of Lycurgus and the chronological framework of his legislation - there are still disputes in the scientific literature. At present, most scientists believe that there is no reason to doubt the historical existence of the Spartan legislator. The timing of the reforms is determined, as a rule, in the range between the endIXand middleVIIin. BC. According to Plutarch, Lycurgus was not only the author of the first constitutional document, the Great Rethra, but he was also responsible for the division of the land in Sparta into cleres, for the introduction of sissitia, and for the entire collection of characteristic features of Spartan social life and public education.
(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 5–6)
5. The Lacedaemonians yearned for Lycurgus and repeatedly invited him to return, saying that the only difference between their current kings and the people is the title and honors that are given to them, while in him the nature of the leader and mentor is visible, some kind of power that allows him to lead of people. The kings themselves also looked forward to his return, hoping that in his presence the crowd would treat them more respectfully. The Spartans were in such a state of mind when Lycurgus arrived back and immediately began to change and transform the entire state structure. He was convinced that separate laws would not bring any benefit if, as if healing a sick body suffering from all kinds of ailments, with the help of cleansing agents, the bad mixing of juices was not destroyed and a new, completely different way of life was not prescribed. With this thought, he first went to Delphi. 1 Having made sacrifices to the god and questioned the oracle, he returned, carrying that famous saying in which the Pythia called him "God-loving", rather a god than a man; to a request for good laws, the answer was received that the deity promises to give the Spartans orders incomparably better than in other states. Encouraged by the proclamations of the oracle, Lycurgus decided to involve the best citizens in the execution of his plan and conducted secret negotiations, first with friends, gradually capturing an ever wider circle and rallying everyone for the cause he had conceived. When the time came, he ordered thirty of the most noble men to go out early in the morning with weapons to the square in order to instill fear in opponents. Of these, twenty, the most famous, are listed by Hermippus; 1 Artmiada is called the first assistant of Lycurgus in all matters and the most zealous accomplice in the issuance of new laws. As soon as the confusion began, King Harilaus, fearing that this was a rebellion, took refuge in the temple of Athena Mednodomnaya, 2 but then, believing persuasion and oaths, he went out and even himself took part in what was happening ...
Of the numerous innovations of Lycurgus, the first and most important was the Council of Elders (Gerousia). In conjunction with the feverish and inflamed, according to Plato, 3 royal power, having an equal right to vote with it in deciding the most important matters, this Council became a guarantee of well-being and prudence. The state, which rushed from side to side, leaning now to tyranny, when the kings won, then to full democracy, when the crowd took over, placing in the middle, like ballast in the hold of a ship, the power of the elders, found balance, stability and order: twenty-eight the elders (geronts) now constantly supported the kings, resisting democracy, but at the same time helping the people to keep the fatherland from tyranny. Aristotle explains this number by the fact that before Lycurgus had thirty supporters, but two, frightened, withdrew from participation in the case. Sphere 4 says that from the very beginning there were twenty-eight of them ... However, in my opinion, Lycurgus appointed twenty-eight elders, most likely so that, together with the two kings, there would be exactly thirty of them.
Lycurgus attached so much importance to the power of the Council that he brought from Delphi a special prophecy on this subject, which is called "retra". 5 It reads: “Establish a temple for Zeus Sillania and Athena Sillania. 6 Divide into phyla and oby. 7 Establish a gerousia of 30 members together with archaetes. From time to time, convene an appeal between Babika and Knakion, and there propose and dissolve, but let the dominance and power belong to the people. The order to “divide” refers to the people, and the phyla and obi are the names of the parts and groups into which it should be divided. The archagetes are the kings. “Calling an apella” is indicated by the word “apelladzein”, because Lycurgus declared the Pythian Apollo to be the beginning and source of his transformations. Babika and Knakion are now called ... / the text is corrupted / and Enunt, but Aristotle claims that Knakion is a river, and Babika is a bridge. Meetings took place between them, although in that place there was neither a portico nor any other shelters: according to Lycurgus, nothing like this contributes to soundness of judgment, on the contrary, it causes only harm, occupying the mind of the audience with trifles and nonsense, scattering their attention for, instead of doing business, they look at statues, paintings, the proscenium of the theater, or the ceiling of the Council, which is too magnificently decorated. None of the ordinary citizens was allowed to submit their opinion, and the people, converging, only approved or rejected what the elders and kings would offer. But subsequently, the crowd of various kinds of withdrawals and additions began to distort and mutilate the approved decisions, and then the kings Polydorus and Theopompus 8 made the following addition to the retra: “If the people decide incorrectly, dissolve the gerontes and archagetes”, that is, the decision is not considered accepted, but to leave and dissolve the people on the grounds that it perverts and distorts the best and most useful. They even convinced the entire state that this was the command of God, as is clear from one mention in Tyrtaeus 1:
Those who heard Phoebus speak in the cave of Python,
They brought the wise word of the gods to their own home:
May in the Council the kings whom the gods have honored,
The first will be; let sweet Sparta be kept
With them are the elders, behind them are the men of the people,
Those who have to answer a question directly with a speech.
Translated by S. P. Markish.
GERUSIA
In Sparta, the council of elders, or gerousia, with the low importance of the national assembly, was in fact the highest government body. At the time of the establishment of the Gerousia, its chairmen were the kings, and later the ephors. Gerusia belonged to the highest judicial power. Only the gerontes, for example, could judge kings. Both the method of election, and the lack of accountability, and the lifetime membership in the Gerousia most corresponded to the oligarchic essence of the Spartan state.
(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 26)
As already mentioned, Lycurgus appointed the first elders from among those who took part in his plan. Then he decided to replace the dead every time to choose from citizens who have reached sixty years of age, the one who will be recognized as the most valiant. 2 There was probably no greater competition in the world and no victory more desirable! And it is true, because it was not about who is the most agile among the agile or the strongest among the strong, but about who among the good and wise is the wisest and best, who, as a reward for virtue, will receive the supreme one until the end of his days - if here this word is applicable, - power in the state, will be master over life, honor, in short, over all the highest blessings. The decision was made as follows. When the people gathered, the special elected ones closed themselves in the house next door, so that no one could see them, and they themselves could not see what was happening outside, but would only hear the voices of those assembled. The people in this case, as in all others, decided the matter by shouting. Applicants were not introduced all at once, but in turn, in accordance with the lot, and they silently passed through the meeting. Those who were locked up had signs on which they noted the strength of the scream, not knowing to whom they were shouting, but only concluding that the first, second, third, in general, the next competitor had come out. The chosen one was declared the one to whom they shouted more and louder than others. 3 With a wreath on his head, he went around the temples of the gods. He was followed by a huge crowd of young people, praising and glorifying the new elder, and women who sang of his valor and proclaimed his fate happy. Each of his relatives asked him to eat, saying that the state was honoring him with this treat. Having finished his rounds, he went to a common meal; the established order was not violated in any way, except for the fact that the elder received the second share, but did not eat it, but put it off. His relatives stood at the door, after dinner he called one of them, whom he respected more than others, and, handing her this share, said that he was giving away the award that he himself had received, after which the rest of the women, glorifying this chosen one, escorted her home.
Translated by S. P. Markish.
KINGS AND EPHOR
At the same time, Sparta was ruled by two kings from different dynasties, the Agiads and the Eurypontids. Their power was hereditary. The kings led the Spartan army, and were also the chief priests of the community. Starting from the classical period, their power tended to gradually transform into an ordinary public office, a magistracy, but not completely and not completely. The special status of the kings, who in Sparta occupied a middle, intermediate position between sovereign monarchs and ordinary government officials, was already noted by Aristotle. (Floor.III, 10, 1, 1285 b). In the following passage of Xenophon, the activities of kings as military commanders are discussed in detail.
(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 13, 15)
13. Now I want to state what power and what rights Lycurgus gave the king over the army. Firstly, during the campaign, the state supplies the king and his retinue with food. Those polemarchs eat with him, 1 who are constantly with the king, so that in case of need he can consult with them. Together with the king, three people from among the “gomes” also eat, 2 their task is to take care of everything necessary for the king and his retinue, so that they can devote themselves entirely to taking care of military affairs. I want to tell you as accurately as possible about how the king goes on a campaign with an army. First of all, while still in the city, he makes a sacrifice to Zeus the Driver and the deities, companions of Zeus. 3 If the sacrifices are favorable, the “bringer of fire” takes the fire from the altar and carries it ahead of everyone to the border of the state. Here the king again sacrifices to Zeus and Athena. Only if both deities favor the undertaking, the king crosses the borders of the country. The fire taken from the sacrificial fire is carried all the time in front, not allowing it to die out; behind him are sacrificial animals of various breeds. Each time, the king begins to make sacrifices in the predawn twilight, seeking to win the favor of the deity before the enemies. At the sacrifices there are polemarchs, lohagi, pentecosters, commanders of mercenaries, chiefs of the convoy, as well as those of the strategists of the allied states who wish it. There are also two ephors, 4 who do not interfere in anything until the king calls them. They watch how everyone behaves and teach everyone to behave with dignity during sacrifices... When the army is on the march and the enemy is not yet visible, no one goes ahead of the king, except for the Skirites 5 and mounted scouts. If there is to be a battle, the king takes the agema of the first mora and leads it to the right, until he is with her between two mora and two polemarchs. The eldest of the king's retinue builds those troops that should stand behind the royal detachment. This retinue consists of homeys who eat with the king, as well as fortune-tellers, doctors, flute players, the commander of the army and volunteers, if any. Thus, nothing interferes with the actions of people, since everything is provided in advance ... When it comes time to settle down for the night, the king chooses and indicates a place for the camp. Sending embassies to friends or enemies is not the business of the king. Everyone turns to the king when they want to achieve something. If someone comes to seek justice, the king sends him to the Hellanodics, 1 if he seeks money - to the treasurer, if he brings booty - to the lafiropolises. 2 Thus, in the campaign, the king has no other duties, except for the duties of the priest and commander ...
I want to tell you what relationship Lycurgus established between the kings and the community of citizens, for the royal power is the only one that remains exactly the same as it was established from the very beginning. Other government institutions, as anyone can see, have already changed and continue to change even now. Lycurgus ordained that the king, descended from God, performed all public sacrifices in the name of the state. He must also lead the army wherever the homeland orders him. The king is given the right to take the honorary part of the sacrificial animal. In the cities of the Perieki 3, the king is allowed to take enough land for himself so that he has everything he needs, but is not richer than he should be. To prevent the kings from eating at home, Lycurgus ordered them to participate in public meals. He allowed them to receive a double portion, not so that the kings would eat more than others, but so that they could honor with food whomever they wished. In addition, Lycurgus gave the right to each king to choose for his meal two comrades, who were called Pythias ... 4 Such are the honors given to the king in Sparta during his lifetime. They are only slightly different from the honors given to individuals. Indeed, Lycurgus did not want either to inspire the kings with a desire for tyranny, or to arouse the envy of fellow citizens for their power. As for the honors paid to the king after death, it is clear from the laws of Lycurgus that the Lacedaemonian kings were honored not as ordinary people, but as heroes.
Translation by M. N. Botvinnik.
Ephorate established in 754 BC marked the victory of the policy over the sovereign royal power. With the strengthening of the ephorate, the power of the Spartan kings gradually decreased more and more. In addition to supervising the kings during the war, the ephors constantly watched them in peacetime. Obviously, immediately after the establishment of the ephorate, a monthly oath was established between the kings and the ephors as a sign of compromise between the kings and the community.
(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 15, 7)
Ephors and kings exchange oaths every month: ephors swear on behalf of the policy, the king - on his own behalf. The king swears to rule in accordance with the laws established in the state, and the policy undertakes to keep the royal power inviolable as long as the king is true to his oath.
Translation by M. N. Botvinnik
In classical times, the ephors owned all the executive and control power in the state. Elected from the entire mass of citizens, the ephors, in fact, expressed the interests of the entire community and constantly acted as antagonists of royal power. Already in the classical period, the power of the ephors was so great that Aristotle likens it to tyrannical (Pol.II, 6, 14, 1270 b). However, like any republican magistracy, the power of the ephors was limited to election for only one year and the obligation to report to their successors.
(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 8, 3 - 4)
Naturally, the same people / the most noble and influential in Sparta / together / with Lycurgus / 1 established the power of the ephors, since they believed that obedience is the greatest good for the state, and for the army, and for private life; for the more power the government had, the sooner, they believed, it would force the citizens to obey itself. 4 Now the ephors have the right to punish anyone they please, and they have the power to carry out the sentence immediately. They are also given the power to remove from office before the end of their term of office, and even to imprison any magistrates. However, only a court can sentence them to death. Having such great power, ephors do not allow officials, as is the case in other policies, during their service year to do whatever they see fit, but like tyrants or leaders of gymnasium competitions, they immediately punish those who are convicted of illegality.
Translation by L. G. Pechatnova.
Aristotle points to a number of shortcomings that often paralyzed the activities of the ephorate, including cases of corruption among the ephors.
(Aristotle. Politics, P, 66, 14 - 16, 1270 b )
The situation is also bad with ephoria. This power is in charge of the most important branches of government; it is replenished from among the entire civilian population, 2 so that very poor people often end up in the government, who, due to their insecurity, can easily be bribed, and in the past such bribery often happened, and recently they took place in the Andros case, when some of the ephors, seduced by money, destroyed the whole state, at least as far as it depended on them. 3 Since the power of the ephors is extremely great and similar to the power of tyrants, the kings themselves were forced to resort to demagogic methods, which also resulted in harm to the state system: democracy arose from the aristocracy. 15. Of course, this government body gives stability to the state system, because the people, having access to the highest power, remain calm ... 16. However, the election to this position should be made from all citizens 4 and not in the too childish way in which it is done currently. Moreover, the ephors decide on the most important legal cases, while they themselves turn out to be random people; therefore, it would be more correct if they did not pass their sentences on their own, but following the letter of the law. The very way of life of the ephors does not correspond to the general spirit of the state: they can live too freely, while in relation to the rest there is rather excessive severity, since they, not being able to withstand it, secretly, bypassing the law, indulge in sensual pleasures.
Translation by S. A. Zhebelev.
EDUCATION AND PUBLIC LIFE IN SPARTA
The desire to unify all Spartan citizens and prepare them exclusively for a military career led to the creation of a unified system of public education in Sparta. This system included a circle of customs, official prohibitions and regulations that determined the daily life of every Spartan from birth to death. For the Spartan state with its pronounced military character, the barracks system for educating the younger generation turned out to be very effective. Xenophon (Lak. pol. 2 - 4) and Plutarch tell about the features of the education of young people in Sparta.
(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 16 - 18)
16. The father was not in the right to manage the upbringing of the child himself - he took the newborn to a place called “forest”, where the oldest relatives in the fillet were sitting. They examined the child and, if they found him strong and well-built, they ordered him to be brought up, immediately assigning him one of nine thousand allotments. 1 If the child was frail and ugly, he was sent to Apothetes (as the cliff on Taygetus was called), considering that his life was not needed either by himself or by the state, since he was denied health and strength from the very beginning. 2 For the same reason, women washed their newborns not with water, but with wine, testing their qualities: they say that those who are sick with epilepsy and generally sick die from unmixed wine, while healthy ones become tempered and become even stronger. The nurses were caring and skillful, the children were not swaddled to give freedom to the members of the body, they were raised unpretentious and not picky about food, not afraid of the dark or loneliness, not knowing what self-will and crying are. Therefore, sometimes even strangers bought nurses from Laconia ... Meanwhile, Lycurgus forbade the Spartan children to be placed in the care of educators bought for money or hired for a fee, and the father could not raise his son as he pleases. As soon as the boys reached the age of seven, Lycurgus took them away from their parents and divided them into detachments so that they lived and ate together, learning to play and work next to each other. At the head of the detachment, he put the one who surpassed the others in quick wits and was the bravest in fights. The rest looked up to him, obeyed his orders and silently endured punishment, so that the main consequence of this lifestyle was the habit of obedience. Old men often looked after the children's games and constantly quarreled them, trying to cause a fight, and then they carefully observed what qualities each had by nature - whether the boy was brave and stubborn in fights. They learned literacy only to the extent that it was impossible to do without it, 3 otherwise, all education was reduced to the requirements of unquestioning obedience, steadfastly endure hardships and prevail over the enemy. With age, the requirements became more and more stringent: the children were cut short, they ran barefoot, they learned to play naked. At the age of twelve, they were already walking around without a chiton, receiving a himation once a year, dirty, neglected; baths and ointments were unfamiliar to them - for the whole year they used this blessing for only a few days. They slept together, in silts and detachments, on bedding, which they prepared for themselves, breaking the reed panicles on the banks of the Eurotas with their bare hands. In winter, the so-called lycophone was thrown to the reed and mixed in: it was believed that this plant had some kind of warming power. 17. At this age, the best young men have lovers. Old people also aggravate their supervision: they attend gymnasiums, attend competitions and verbal skirmishes, and this is not for fun, because everyone considers himself to some extent the father, educator and leader of any of the teenagers, so there was always someone to reason with and punish the delinquent. Nevertheless, from among the most worthy husbands, a pedon is also appointed - supervising the children, and at the head of each detachment the teenagers themselves put one of the so-called irens - always the most reasonable and brave. (Irenes are those who have matured for the second year already, Mellirens are the oldest boys). Irene, now in her twenties, commands her subordinates in fights and orders them when it's time to take care of dinner. He orders the big ones to bring firewood, the little ones - vegetables. Everything is obtained by theft: some go to the gardens, others with the greatest caution, using all their cunning, make their way to the common meals of their husbands. If the boy was caught, he was severely beaten with a whip for negligent and awkward theft. They also stole any other provisions that came to hand, learning how to deftly attack sleeping or gaping guards. The punishment for those who got caught was not only beatings, but also hunger: the children were fed very poorly, so that, enduring hardships, they themselves, willy-nilly, became adept at insolence and cunning ... 18. While stealing, the children observed the greatest caution; one of them, as they say, having stolen a fox, hid it under his cloak, and although the animal tore his stomach with claws and teeth, the boy, in order to hide his deed, was fastened until he died. The reliability of this story can be judged by the current ephebes: I myself saw how not one of them died under blows at the altar of Orthia. 2
Translation by S. P. Markish
Citizens in Sparta, even in their daily lives, had to follow certain, strictly regulated regulations. Their whole life was spent in full view of fellow citizens, the role of the family was reduced to a minimum. Being freed from material concerns and not even having the right to engage in crafts by law, the Spartans spent most of their time hunting, in gymnasiums, at public tables, the so-called. sissies. Sissitia were a kind of dining clubs, participation in which was strictly mandatory for all Spartan citizens. Thanks to public education and public dinners, Sparta managed to unify the entire life of its citizens and achieve, if not actual, then at least apparent equality. Perhaps due to their outlandish nature, sissitia were described in such detail by ancient authors.
(Xenophon. Lacedaemon polity, 5, 2 - 7)
... Noticing that the order that he found among the Spartans, when they, like all other Hellenes, ate at home, leads to effeminacy and carelessness, Lycurgus introduced joint meals. He forced them to eat in front of everyone, believing that there would be fewer violations of prescribed laws. He set the amount of food so that it would not lead to excesses, but would not be insufficient either. Hunting prey is often added to this, and the rich sometimes substitute wheat for bread. 1 Thus, when the Spartans dine together in tents, their table is never devoid of food or luxurious. As for drinks, Lycurgus, having forbidden excessive drinking, relaxing the soul and body, allowed the Spartans to drink only to quench their thirst, believing that the drink was then harmless and most pleasant ... In other states, people mostly spend time with their peers, as with them they feel more free. Lycurgus mixed all ages in Sparta, believing that young people can learn a lot from the experience of their elders. It was customary to talk about the exploits accomplished in the state in filitias; so that in Sparta arrogance, drunken antics, shameful acts and foul language are extremely rare. Eating out also has the following benefits: people returning home are forced to take a walk; they must think about not getting drunk, knowing that they cannot stay where they dined.
Translation by M. N. Botvinnik.
(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 12)
... Fifteen people gathered for meals, sometimes a little less or more. Each companion brought monthly medimn of barley flour, eight hoi 2 wines, five minas of cheese, two and a half minas of figs, and, finally, a very insignificant amount of money for the purchase of meat and fish. 3 If one of them made a sacrifice or hunted, a part of the sacrificial animal or prey came to the common table, but not all of it, because he who lingered on the hunt or because of the sacrifice could not dine at home, while the rest had to be present. The Spartans strictly observed the custom of joint meals until late times ... They say that whoever wanted to become a participant in the meal was subjected to the following test. Each of the companions took a piece of bread crumb in his hand and, like a pebble for voting, silently threw it into a vessel, which was brought up, holding on his head, by a servant. As a sign of approval, the lump was simply lowered, and whoever wanted to express his disagreement, he first strongly squeezed the crumb in his fist. And if at least one such lump was found, corresponding to a drilled pebble, 4 the seeker was denied admission, wishing that everyone sitting at the table would find pleasure in each other's company ... 5 Of the Spartan dishes, the most famous is black stew. The old people even refused their share of meat and gave it to the young, while they themselves ate plenty of stew. There is a story that one of the Pontic kings bought himself a Laconian cook just for the sake of this stew, but after tasting it, he turned away in disgust, and then the cook told him: “The king, in order to eat this stew, you must first bathe in Evrota.” Then, moderately drinking dinner with wine, the Spartans went home without lighting lamps: they were forbidden to walk with fire, both in this case and in general, so that they would learn to move confidently and fearlessly in the darkness of the night. Such was the arrangement of common meals.
Translated by S. P. Markish.
For the first time, the ideals of military prowess were embodied in his elegies by Tirteus, the Spartan poetVIIin. BC, participant in the Second Messenian War. Tyrtaeus valued military prowess above all human virtues. His famous marching songs, the so-called. embateries, and military elegies had a huge impact on the education in the spirit of high patriotism of many generations of Spartans. The poetic heritage of Tyrtaeus was canonized very early, becoming an obligatory element of Spartan school education.
(Tirtei, Fragments 6 - 9).
Since you are all descendants of Hercules, who were not defensible in the battles,
Be cheerful, Zeus has not yet turned away from us!
Do not be afraid of huge enemy hordes, do not know fear,
Let each one keep his shield right between the first fighters,
Considering a hateful life, and the gloomy messengers of death -
Dear, how sweet the golden rays of the sun are to us!
All of you are experienced in the affairs of the many-tearful god Ares,
You are well aware of the horrors of a hard war,
Young men, you saw men and those who were running;
You have had enough of the spectacle of both!
Those warriors who dare, closing tightly in rows,
To engage in hand-to-hand combat between the front fighters,
In a smaller number they die, and those standing behind are saved;
The despicable coward's honor dies instantly forever:
There is no one who could tell all the torment to the end,
What goes to the lot of a coward who has acquired shame!
It's hard to decide because an honest warrior from the rear to hit
Husband running back from the field of bloody massacre;
The dead man, lying in the dust, is covered with shame and shame,
Behind, pierced through the back with a spear point!
Let, stepping wide and resting your feet on the ground,
Everyone stands still, biting his lip tightly,
Thighs and lower legs from below, and your chest together with your shoulders
A convex circle of a shield, strong with copper, covering;
With his right hand let him shake the mighty lance,
The formidable sultan shook his head above his head;
Let him learn powerful things among the feats of arms
And there is no distance of flying arrows with a shield;
Let him go to hand-to-hand combat and with a long pike
Or strike the enemy to death with a heavy sword!
Putting his foot to his foot and leaning his shield on the shield,
Terrible sultan - oh sultan, helmet - oh comrade helmet,
Tightly closing chest to chest, let everyone fight with enemies.
Squeezing a spear or sword hilt with your hand!
Forward, O sons of fathers, citizens
Men of the illustrious Sparta!
Hold up the shield with your left hand,
Shake your spear bravely
And do not spare your life:
After all, it is not in the customs of Sparta.
Translation by V. V. Latyshev
PROPERTY RELATIONS AMONG SPARTIANS
With the name of Lycurgus, ancient tradition connects the rebirth of the entire Spartan society. It consisted, firstly, in the formation of a military caste, which included all the Spartans, secondly, in the artificial equalization of their standard of living and, thirdly, in the complete isolation of Sparta from the entire outside world. The absence of its own coinage and the prohibition of the import of foreign currency artificially retarded the development of a commodity-money economy in Sparta and put Sparta among the most economically backward policies of Greece. Important remarks about this side of the life of Spartan society are found in Plutarch.
(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 9, 1-6)
9, 1-6 Then he / Lycurgus / took up the division of movable property in order to completely destroy all inequality, but, realizing that the open seizure of property would cause sharp discontent, he overcame greed and greed by indirect means. Firstly, he put out of use all gold and silver coins, leaving only iron coins in circulation, and even that, with its enormous weight and size, assigned an insignificant value, so that to store an amount equal to ten mines, 1 a large warehouse was required, and for transportation - pair harness. As the new coin spread, many types of crime in Lacedaemon disappeared. Who, in fact, could have the desire to steal, take bribes or rob, since it was unthinkable to hide the uncleanly acquired, and it did not represent anything enviable, and even broken into pieces did not receive any use? After all, Lycurgus, as they say, ordered the iron to be tempered by dipping it in vinegar, and this deprived the metal of its strength, it became brittle and no longer good for anything, because it was no longer amenable to any further processing. Then Lycurgus expelled useless and superfluous crafts from Sparta. However, most of them would have already retired after the generally accepted coin, not finding a market for their products. It was pointless to carry iron money to other Greek cities - they did not have the slightest value there, and they only made fun of them - so that the Spartans could not buy anything from foreign trifles, and in general merchant cargo stopped coming to their harbors. Within Laconia, neither a skilled orator, nor a wandering charlatan-foreteller, nor a pimp, nor a gold or silver craftsman 2 appeared - after all, there was no more coin there! But because of this, luxury, gradually deprived of everything that supported and nourished it, withered and disappeared by itself. Wealthy citizens lost all their advantages, since wealth was closed to the people, and it was hiding locked up in their homes without any business.
Translation by S. P. Markish
ORIGIN AND POSITION OF HELOTS
Already in antiquity, there was an amazing diversity of opinions regarding the origin of the helots. However, without exception, all ancient the authors agreed on one thing: helotia in Sparta is a special form of slavery, different from its classical version and arising as a result of the enslavement of the Laconian and Messenian Greeks by the Dorian conquerors. The position of the Spartan helots seems to have been far more humiliating than that of the slaves in any other Greek city. In a fragment of Myron from Priene, preserved by Athenaeus (borderII – IIIcenturies n. BC), shows the whole range of measures aimed at the physical and moral-psychological suppression of the helots.
(Athenaeus, XIV , 657 D )
The impudence and arrogance with which the Lacedaemonians behaved towards the helots is also testified by Myron of Priene in the second book of his Messenian studies: “And everything that they entrust to the helots is connected with shame and humiliation. So they are supposed to wear dog-skin hats and dress in animal skins. Every year helots receive a certain number of blows, even if they have not committed any crime. This is done so that the helots always remember that they are slaves. In addition, if one of them begins to differ greatly from a slave in appearance, then he himself is punished by death, and a fine is imposed on his master for not stopping the excessive development of his helot in time.
Translation by L. G. Pechatnova
The fear that the helots instilled in the Spartans forced the latter to live in an atmosphere of constant stress. Perceiving the helots as internal enemies, the Spartans had the deepest distrust of them. The extent of this mistrust is shown by a passage from a lost political treatise by Critias, an active participant in the tyranny of the Thirty in Athens and a famous laconophile. This fragment is cited in his speech “On Slavery” by the sophist writerIVin. Libanius.
(Libanius, XXV , 63)
The Lacedaemonians gave themselves complete freedom against the Helots to kill them, and of them Critias says that in Lacedaemon there is the most complete slavery of some and the most complete freedom of others. After all, because of what else, - says Critias himself, - if not because of distrust of these very helots, the Spartiate takes away the handle of the shield from them at home? After all, he does not do this in war, because there it is often necessary to be extremely efficient. He always walks with a spear in his hands, to be stronger than the helot if he rebels, armed with only a shield. They also invented for themselves constipation, with the help of which they believe to overcome the intrigues of the helots.
It would be the same as living together with someone, experiencing fear of him and not daring to take a break from the expectation of dangers. And how can those who, both during breakfast, and in sleep, and during the administration of any other need, are armed with fear in relation to slaves, how can such people ... enjoy true freedom? ... Just as their kings are by no means were free, in view of the fact that the ephors had the power to bind and execute the king, so all the Spartans lost their freedom, living in conditions of hatred from the slaves.
Translation by A. Ya. Gurevich.
SPARTAN TERROR AGAINST THE HELOTS
According to Thucydides (IV, 80), most of the activities of the Spartans were aimed mainly at protecting against helots. One of the main forms of intimidation of the helots in Sparta was the so-called cryptia, or secret murder of slaves. With the invention of cryptia, the Spartan terror against the helots took on a legalized character. The most complete description of cryptia belongs to Plutarch.
(Plutarch. Lycurgus, 28)
That's how cryptos happened. 1 From time to time, the authorities sent young people, who were considered the most intelligent, to roam the neighborhood, providing them with only short swords and the most necessary supply of food. During the day they rested, hiding in secluded corners, and at night, leaving their shelters, they killed all the helots they captured on the roads ... Aristotle especially dwells on the fact that the ephors, taking power, first of all declared war on the helots in order to legitimize the murder of the latter. 2 In general, the Spartans treated them roughly and cruelly. They forced the helots to drink unmixed wine, and then brought them to common meals to show the youth what intoxication is. They were ordered to sing cheesy songs and dance ridiculous dances, forbidding the entertainments befitting a free man. Even much later, during the campaign of the Thebans in Laconia, 3 when the captured helots were ordered to sing something from Terpander, Alkman, or the Laconian Spendont, they refused, because the gentlemen did not like it. So, those who say that in Lacedaemon the free man is free to the end, and the slave is completely enslaved, have correctly defined the current state of affairs. But, in my opinion, all these strictnesses appeared among the Spartans only later, namely, after a great earthquake, 4 when, as they say, the helots, having set out together with the Messenians, terribly outraged throughout Laconia and almost destroyed the city. I, at least, cannot attribute such a vile deed as cryptia to Lycurgus, 5 having formed an idea of \u200b\u200bthe character of this man from that meekness and justice, which otherwise mark his whole life and are confirmed by the testimony of a deity.
Translated by S. P. Markish.
In addition to cryptia, the Spartans had other ways to intimidate helots in the arsenal of the Spartans. The most famous case is the destruction of two thousand helots, who were previously promised freedom by the Spartans for military service. This action was a consequence of the panic that seized the Spartans due to the exodus of helots to the Athenian-occupied Pylos (425 BC).
(Thucydides, IV , 80, 2 – 4)
At the same time, the Spartans received a welcome excuse to remove part of the helots from the country, so that they would not take it into their heads to raise an uprising now that Pylos was in the hands of enemies. For most of Lacedaemonian activities were, in essence, designed to keep the helots in check. Frightened by the insolence of the numerous youth of the helots, the Lacedaemonians also resorted to this measure. They offered to select a certain number of helots who considered themselves the most capable in military affairs, promising them freedom (in fact, the Lacedaemonians only wanted to test the helots, believing that just the most freedom-loving ones were most likely capable, in the consciousness of their own dignity, of attacking their masters). Thus, about 2,000 helots were selected, who, with wreaths on their heads (as if they had already received freedom), went around the temples. A little later, however, the Lacedaemonians slew these helots, and no one knew where or how they died.
Translation by G. A. Stratanovsky.
PLUTARCH(c. 46 - c. 120), ancient Greek writer and historian. The main work is "Comparative Lives" of prominent Greeks and Romans (50 biographies). The rest of the numerous works that have come down to us are united under the conditional name "Moralia".
PLUTARCH(c. 46 - c. 120), ancient Greek writer, author of moral-philosophical and historical-biographical works. From the huge literary heritage of Plutarch, which amounted to approx. 250 compositions, no more than a third of the works have survived, most of which are united under the general name "Moral". Another group - "Comparative Lives" - includes 23 pairs of biographies of prominent statesmen of Ancient Greece and Rome, selected according to the similarity of their historical mission and the similarity of characters.
Biography
The ancient tradition did not preserve the biography of Plutarch, but it can be reconstructed with sufficient completeness from his own writings. Plutarch was born in the 40s of the 1st century in Boeotia, in the small town of Chaeronea, where in 338 BC. e. there was a battle between the troops of Philip of Macedon and the Greek troops. In the time of Plutarch, his homeland was part of the Roman province of Achaia, and only the carefully preserved traditions of antiquity could testify to its former greatness. Plutarch came from an old wealthy family and received a traditional grammatical and rhetorical education, which he continued in Athens, becoming a student at the school of the philosopher Ammonius. Returning to his native city, from his youthful years he took part in its administration, holding various magistracies, including the prominent position of eponymous archon. Plutarch repeatedly went on political missions to Rome, where he struck up friendly relations with many statesmen, among whom was a friend of Emperor Trajan, the consul Quintus Sosius Senekion; Plutarch dedicated his "Comparative Biographies" and "Table Talks" to him. Proximity to influential circles of the empire and growing literary fame brought Plutarch new honorary positions: under Trajan (98-117) he became proconsul, under Hadrian (117-138) - procurator of the province of Achaia. A surviving inscription from the era of Hadrian testifies that the emperor granted Plutarch Roman citizenship, classifying him as a member of the Mestrian family.
Despite a brilliant political career, Plutarch chose a quiet life in his native city, surrounded by his children and students, who made up a small academy in Chaeronea. “As for me,” Plutarch points out, “I live in a small town and, so that it does not become even smaller, I willingly stay in it.”
Plutarch's public activities earned him great respect in Greece. Around the year 95, fellow citizens elected him a member of the college of priests of the sanctuary of Delphic Apollo. A statue was erected in his honor at Delphi, from which, during excavations in 1877, a pedestal with a poetic dedication was found.
Plutarch's lifetime refers to the era of the "Hellenic renaissance" of the early 2nd century. During this period, the educated circles of the Empire were seized by the desire to imitate the ancient Hellenes both in the customs of everyday life and in literary creativity. The policy of Emperor Hadrian, who provided assistance to the Greek cities that had fallen into decay, could not but arouse among Plutarch's compatriots the hope of a possible revival of the traditions of the independent policies of Hellas.
The literary activity of Plutarch was primarily of an educational and educational nature. His works are addressed to a wide range of readers and have a pronounced moral and ethical orientation associated with the traditions of the teaching genre - diatribe. Plutarch's worldview is harmonious and clear: he believes in a higher mind that governs the universe, and is like a wise teacher who never tires of reminding his listeners of eternal human values.
Small works
The wide range of topics covered in Plutarch's writings reflects the encyclopedic nature of his knowledge. He creates "Political Instructions", essays on practical morality ("On envy and hatred", "How to distinguish a flatterer from a friend", "On love for children", etc.), he is interested in the influence of literature on a person ("How young men get to know poetry") and questions of cosmogony ("On the generation of the world soul according to Timaeus").
The works of Plutarch are imbued with the spirit of Platonic philosophy; his writings are full of quotations and reminiscences from the works of the great philosopher, and the treatise "Platonic Questions" is a real commentary on his texts. Plutarch is concerned about the problems of religious and philosophical content, to which the so-called. Pythian dialogues ("On the sign "E" in Delphi", "On the decline of the oracles"), the essay "On the daimonia of Socrates" and the treatise "On Isis and Osiris".
The group of dialogues, dressed in the traditional form of conversations of companions at a feast, is a collection of entertaining information from mythology, deep philosophical remarks and sometimes curious natural science ideas. The titles of the dialogues can give an idea of the variety of questions Plutarch is interested in: "Why do we not believe in autumn dreams", "Which hand of Aphrodite was hurt by Diomedes", "Various legends about the number of Muses", "What is the meaning of Plato in the belief that God always remains a geometer" etc.
To the same circle of Plutarch's works belong "Greek questions" and "Roman questions", containing different points of view on the origin of state institutions, traditions and customs of antiquity.
"Comparative Lives"
The main work of Plutarch, which became one of the most famous works of ancient literature, was his biographical writings.
"Comparative Lives" absorbed a huge historical material, including information from the works of ancient historians that have not survived to this day, the author's personal impressions of ancient monuments, quotations from Homer, epigrams and epitaphs. It is customary to reproach Plutarch for an uncritical attitude to the sources used, but it must be borne in mind that the main thing for him was not the historical event itself, but the trace it left in history.
This can be confirmed by the treatise "On the Malice of Herodotus", in which Plutarch reproaches Herodotus for partiality and distortion of the history of the Greco-Persian wars. Plutarch, who lived 400 years later, in an era when, in his words, a Roman boot was raised over the head of every Greek, wanted to see the great generals and politicians not as they really were, but the ideal embodiment of valor and courage. He did not seek to recreate history in all its real fullness, but found in it outstanding examples of wisdom, heroism, self-sacrifice in the name of the motherland, designed to strike the imagination of his contemporaries.
In the introduction to the biography of Alexander the Great, Plutarch formulates the principle that he put as the basis for the selection of facts: “We do not write history, but biographies, and virtue or depravity is not always visible in the most glorious deeds, but often some insignificant deed, word or joke better reveal the character of a person than battles in which tens of thousands die, the leadership of huge armies and the siege of cities.
The artistic skill of Plutarch made "Comparative Lives" a favorite reading for young people who learned from his writings about the events of the history of Greece and Rome. The heroes of Plutarch became the personification of historical eras: ancient times were associated with the activities of the wise legislators Solon, Lycurgus and Numa, and the end of the Roman Republic seemed to be a majestic drama driven by the clashes of the characters of Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Antony, Brutus.
It can be said without exaggeration that thanks to Plutarch, European culture developed an idea of ancient history as a semi-legendary era of freedom and civic prowess. That is why his works were highly valued by the thinkers of the Enlightenment, the figures of the Great French Revolution and the generation of the Decembrists.
The very name of the Greek writer became a household name, since "Plutarchs" in the 19th century called numerous publications of biographies of great people.
In the era of the Roman Empire, Greek historians stood above the Latin ones, although even the writers of Hellas then clearly showed that the minds of people were fettered by despotism and superstition. Lacquer rhetoric and sophistry does not hide the lack of courageous frankness in their works, their judgments are guided by flattering servility, the root vice of that demoralized age.
Bust of Plutarch in his hometown, Chaeronea
The most important of the Greek writers of the imperial period is Plutarch (c. 45-127 AD), a prolific historian and moralist, whose writings were very popular. Plutarch was born in the Boeotian city of Chaeronea, studied in Athens, expanded his knowledge of human life by long travels, settled in Rome, intensively studied the works of ancient writers, talked with Favorin, with other scientists and rhetoricians, acquired great erudition and was imbued with an enthusiastic love for the old times. Greece and Rome, which warmed his works. The persecution of philosophers and scientists under Domitian made life in Rome unbearable for him. Plutarch returned to Chaeronea and lovingly took up the affairs of his native small town. He was a priest of Pythian Apollo; this personal connection with the Delphic temple strengthened his desire to glorify ancient Greece. He considered this the task of his life. It is said that the emperor Trajan made him consul; Hadrian, his student and friend, gave him a high government position in Greece. Plutarch died, it seems, in the first years of the reign of this emperor.
The works of Plutarch are divided into historical and so-called moral. Historical works are written in the form of "Comparative Biographies" ("Parallel Biographies"). They are called comparative because Plutarch usually takes two famous people, a Greek and a Roman, who, it seems to him, have some resemblance to each other, and, having written their biographies, he considers what is the closeness between them and what is the difference. So he combined the biographies of Theseus and Romulus, Lycurgus and Numa, Alcibiades and Coriolanus, Aristides and Cato the Elder, Pyrrhus and Mary, Lysander and Sulla. Some biographies have perished; e.g. biographies Scipio the Younger and old poets.
Comparative Lives of Plutarch. German edition of 1470
The name "moral" given to the rest of Plutarch's writings does not cover all their very diverse content. With the exception of works whose authenticity is more or less doubtful (for example, “On Education”, “Sayings of Kings and Generals, “Sayings of the Spartans”, “Proverbs”), we have about 70 treatises of Plutarch on various departments of knowledge. Some of them refer to Greek and Roman antiquities, customs, institutions, for example: "On the happiness of the Romans", "On the happiness and gifts of Alexander". Others express thoughts on worldly issues, for example: “How to read poets”, “How to distinguish friends from flatterers”, “What benefit can you get from enemies”, “On virtue and vice”, “On mastery over anger”, “On parental love", "On talkativeness" and so on. Some relate to religious issues, for example: "On the decline of the oracles", "On fate", "On Isis and Osiris", "On superstition" and so on. Some others deal with philosophical questions, for example: " On the demon of Socrates", " On Plato's Timaeus", " On the teachings of the philosophers", and so on.
Plutarch understood the greatness of ancient Greece and ancient Rome; he extolled the exploits of the Greeks and Romans of former ages, exposing them as ideal times. But at the same time, he knew how to please his contemporary people of the highest circle, to which he himself belonged in terms of education and social position. He wrote entertainingly, his works had a pleasant effect on fantasy and feeling. In biographies, Plutarch pays his main attention to the characterization, therefore he cites many anecdotes, small details, and goes into reasoning. In his own words, sometimes an unimportant incident, one joke, one phrase characterizes a person better than all his victories. Due to his extensive learning, he collected many such details. Plutarch compiled from them very entertaining character sketches; describing people, he usually idealizes them, and the deeper the impression these images produce. He had an enormous erudition, but used his sources without criticism and chose sometimes bad sources. Despite this shortcoming, Plutarch's comparative biographies are extremely important, because the works of many of the writers he used have not come down to us. The biographies of Plutarch are attractive for their romantic coloring, which excites the imagination, for their warm love for the ancient world, for their pure morality and humanity. He writes in such a way that he inspires young and impressionable minds with love for the great people of the ancient world, admiration for them. His language has an Attic purity, which Plutarch took great care to observe. But his periods are sometimes heavy in their length, and his story is often verbose, drawn out, full of rhetorical embellishments and quotations.
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Biography
Plutarch came from a wealthy family who lived in the small town of Chaeronea in Boeotia. As a young man in Athens, Plutarch studied philosophy (mainly with the Platonist Ammonius), mathematics, and rhetoric. In the future, the Peripatetics and Stoics had a significant influence on the philosophical views of Plutarch. He himself considered himself a Platonist, but in fact he was more of an eclecticist, and in philosophy he was mainly interested in its practical application. Even in his youth, Plutarch, together with his brother Lamprey and teacher Ammonius, visited Delphi, where the cult of Apollo, which had fallen into decay, was still preserved. This journey had a serious impact on the life and literary work of Plutarch.
Shortly after returning from Athens to Chaeronea, Plutarch received an assignment from the city community to the Roman proconsul of the province of Achaia and successfully carried it out. In the future, he faithfully served his city, holding public positions. Teaching his own sons, Plutarch gathered young people in his house and created a kind of private academy, in which he played the role of mentor and lecturer.
Plutarch was well known to his contemporaries both as a public figure and as a philosopher. He repeatedly visited Rome and other places in Italy, had students, with whom he taught classes in Greek (he began to study Latin only “in his declining years”). In Rome, Plutarch met the Neo-Pythagoreans, and also struck up friendships with many prominent people. Among them were Arulen Rusticus, Lucius Mestrius Florus (an associate of Emperor Vespasian), Quintus Sosius Senetion (personal friend of Emperor Trajan). Roman friends rendered the most valuable services to Plutarch. Having become purely formally a member of the Mestrian family (in accordance with Roman legal practice), Plutarch received Roman citizenship and a new name - Mestrius Plutarch. Thanks to Senekion, he became the most influential person in his province: Emperor Trajan forbade the governor of Achaia to hold any events without prior approval from Plutarch. This position allowed Plutarch to freely engage in social and educational activities in his homeland in Chaeronea, where he held not only the honorary position of an eponymous archon, but also more modest magistracies.
In the fiftieth year of his life, Plutarch became a priest of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. In trying to restore the sanctuary and the oracle to their former importance, he earned the deep respect of the Amphictyons, who erected a statue of him.
Creation
According to Lampria's catalogue, Plutarch left behind about 210 writings. A significant part of them has come down to our time. According to the tradition coming from the publishers of the Renaissance, Plutarch's literary heritage is divided into two main groups: philosophical and journalistic works, known under the general name "Moralia" (ancient Greek. Ἠθικά , lat. Moralia), and biographies (biography).
Moralia traditionally includes about 80 compositions. The earliest of them are rhetorical in nature, such as praises of Athens, discourses about Fortuna (ancient Greek. Τύχη ), its role in the life of Alexander the Great and in the history of Rome (“On the luck and valor of Alexander the Great”, “On the glory of Alexander”, “On the luck of the Romans”).
Plutarch outlined his philosophical positions in works devoted to the interpretation of the works of Plato (“On the Origin of the Soul in Plato’s Timaeus”, “Platonic Questions”, etc.), and criticism of the views of the Epicureans and Stoics (“Is the saying good: “Live inconspicuously?” ”, “Against Kolot”, “On the fact that even a pleasant life is impossible if you follow Epicurus”, “On the contradictions among the Stoics”). Without going deep into theoretical reasoning, Plutarch cites in them a lot of valuable information on the history of philosophy.
For educational purposes, other essays were conceived containing advice on how to act in order to be happy and overcome shortcomings (for example, “On excessive curiosity”, “On talkativeness”, “On excessive timidity”). The compositions on the topics of family life include "Consolation to the wife", written in connection with the death of his daughter. Plutarch's pedagogical interests are reflected in a number of works ("How a young man should listen to poets", "How to use lectures", etc.). Thematically approaching them are the political writings of Plutarch, in which a large place is occupied by instructions for rulers and statesmen (“On Monarchy, Democracy and Oligarchy”, “Instructions on State Affairs”, etc.)
Along with popular works in dialogic form, Moralia also includes others stylistically similar to scientific treatises. So, the treatise "On the face on the lunar disk" presents various astronomical ideas popular for that time; at the end of the treatise, Plutarch refers to the theory adopted in Plato's Academy (Xenocrates of Chalcedon), seeing the homeland of demons in the Moon.
Plutarch was also interested in the psychology of animals ("On the Intelligence of Animals").
Plutarch was a deeply pious man and recognized the importance of traditional pagan religion for the preservation of morality. He devoted numerous works to this topic, including “Pythian” dialogues concerning the oracle of Apollo in Delphi (“On “E” in Delphi”, “On the fact that the Pythia no longer prophesies in verse”, “On the decline of oracles”), dialogue “Why the deity delays in retribution”, etc. In the treatise “On Isis and Osiris”, Plutarch outlined various syncretic and allegorical interpretations of the mysteries of Osiris and ancient Egyptian mythology.
Plutarch's interest in antiquities is evidenced by the writings "Greek Questions" (ancient Greek. Αἴτια Ἑλληνικά , lat. Quaestiones Graecae) and "Roman Questions" (other Greek. Αἴτια Ῥωμαϊκά , lat. Quaestiones Romanae ), which reveal the meaning and origin of the various customs of the Greco-Roman world (much space is devoted to cult issues). Plutarch's predilection for anecdotes, which also manifested itself in his biographies, is reflected in the collection of Lacedaemon winged sayings. One of the currently popular works is “Table Talks” (in 9 books), where the traditional form of symposium (feast) for Greek literature allows the writer to raise and discuss (using a large number of quotations from authorities) a variety of life and scientific topics.
Plutarch's Moralia traditionally includes works by unknown authors attributed to Plutarch in antiquity and widely known under his name. The most important of them are the treatises “On Music” (one of the main sources of our knowledge about ancient music in general) and “On the Education of Children” (a work translated into many languages back in the Renaissance and considered authentic until the beginning of the 19th century). In relation to non-authentic writings, modern scholars use the (conditional) name Pseudo-Plutarch. Among those - who lived presumably in the II century AD. e. unknown author of the works “Small comparative biographies” (another name is “Collection of parallel Greek and Roman stories”) and “On rivers”, containing a lot of information on ancient mythology and history, which, as is generally recognized in science, are completely invented by him. The collection of winged sayings "Apothegms of kings and generals" is not authentic either. In addition to those mentioned, under the name of Plutarch, many other works that do not belong to him (mostly anonymous) have been preserved.
Comparative biographies
Plutarch owes his literary fame not to eclectic philosophical reasoning, and not to writings on ethics, but to biographies (which, however, are most directly related to ethics). Plutarch outlines his goals in the introduction to the biography of Aemilius Paulus (Aemilius Paulus): communication with the great people of antiquity has educational functions, and if not all the heroes of biographies are attractive, then a negative example is also valuable, it can have an intimidating effect and turn to the path of the righteous life. In his biographies, Plutarch follows the teachings of the Peripatetics, who in the field of ethics attributed decisive importance to human actions, arguing that every action gives rise to virtue. Plutarch follows the scheme of peripatetic biographies, describing in turn the birth, youth, character, activity, death of the hero. Nowhere is Plutarch a historian critical of the facts. The huge historical material available to him is used very freely (“we write a biography, not a history”). First of all, Plutarch needs a psychological portrait of a person; in order to visually represent him, he willingly draws on information from the private life of the persons depicted, anecdotes and witty sayings. The text includes numerous moral arguments, various quotations from poets. This is how colorful, emotional narratives were born, the success of which was ensured by the author's talent for storytelling, his craving for everything human and moral optimism that elevates the soul. Biographies of Plutarch have for us a purely historical value, because he had many valuable sources, which were subsequently lost.
Plutarch began to write biographies in his youth. At first, he turned his attention to the famous people of Boeotia: Hesiod, Pindar, Epaminondas. Subsequently, he began to write about representatives of other regions of Greece: the Spartan king Leonid, Aristomene, Arata Sicyon. There is even a biography of the Persian king Artaxerxes II. During his stay in Rome, Plutarch wrote biographies of Roman emperors intended for the Greeks. And only in the later period did he write his most important work “Comparative Biographies” (ancient Greek. Βίοι Παράλληλοι ; lat. Vitae parallelae). These were biographies of prominent historical figures of Greece and Rome, compared in pairs. Currently, 22 pairs and four single biographies of an earlier period are known (Arat Sicyon, Artaxerxes II, Galba and Otho). Among the couples, some are well composed: the mythical founders of Athens and Rome - Theseus and Romulus; the first legislators - Lycurgus Spartan and Numa Pompilius; the greatest commanders - Alexander the Great and Gaius Julius Caesar; the greatest orators are Cicero and Demosthenes. Others are compared more arbitrarily: "children of happiness" - Timoleon and Aemilius Paul, or a couple illustrating the vicissitudes of human destinies - Alcibiades and Coriolanus. After each pair, Plutarch apparently intended to give a comparative description (synkrisis), a brief indication of the common features and main differences between the characters. However, for several couples (in particular, for Alexander and Caesar), the juxtaposition is missing, that is, it has not been preserved (or, less likely, it has not been written). In the text of biographies there are cross-references, from which we learn that there were originally more of them than in the body of texts that has come down to us. Lost biographies
