Until the middle of the 19th century, emigration was a rare phenomenon, and outside of Russia there was no large Russian diaspora with its own infrastructure, scientific institutions, museums, editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, private archives and archives of emigrant organizations. The history of Russian emigration as a mass phenomenon begins in the middle of the 19th century. Pre-revolutionary emigration, unlike the subsequent one, is not usually divided into waves. In its classification, the chronological principle is not decisive. In exile in the second half of the XIX - early XX centuries. distinguish the following large groups: labor, religious, Jewish, political. The concept of "emigration" is closely related to trips and long-term residence abroad of representatives of the nobility, scientific and other wealthy strata of pre-revolutionary Russia.
In the last third of the 19th century, Paris turned into a major center of Russian political emigration; only representatives of extreme extremist movements were not allowed here. The inoculation of a centuries-old culture brought up in the French tolerance towards representatives of a different nationality, faith, political views. The demographic crisis of the last third of the XIX - early XX centuries. made the French authorities lenient towards foreigners. The Russians enjoyed their special favor since the political rapprochement that emerged in the last third of the 19th century, culminating in 1893 with the conclusion of the Russian-French military-political alliance. Decembrist N. I. Turgenev, Narodnaya Volya P. L. Lavrov, anarchists L. I. Mechnikov, P. A. Kropotkin, I. E. Deniker, as well as Russian Jesuits lived in Paris. All of them came into open conflict with the authorities or with the dominant religion. They were deprived of civil and property rights and expelled in absentia from the country. Returning to his homeland promised arrest, hard labor and exile.
In addition to political ones, scientific emigrants rushed to Paris. The number of Russian explorers in Paris in the 19th century is relatively small, but stars of the first magnitude shine among them: geographer-traveler Pyotr Aleksandrovich Chikhachev, ethnographer and orientalist Nikolai Vladimirovich Khanykov, chemist Vladimir Fedorovich Luginin, biologist Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov, physiologist Ilya Faddeevich Zion, geographer Mikhail Ivanovich Venyukov.
Photo of the staff of the Pasteur Institute in Paris. Center: I. I. Mechnikov
Russian emigrants were among those who changed the minds of educated Europeans and removed the stigma of imitation and primitiveness from Russian culture, and from their people the stamp of brute force, slavish obedience, moral baseness, duplicity and deceit, and this is exactly how he often appeared in the writings of Western travelers . The emigrants became the conductors of Russia's culture and interests abroad. Russian emigrants became members of numerous scientific societies and academies in Western Europe; two, Chikhachev and Mechnikov, received the rare honor of being elected to the Paris Academy of Sciences for foreigners, becoming members of the Institut de France, a community of five French academies. The lawyer and sociologist M. M. Kovalevsky became a member of the Institute of France as a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences.
2 Switzerland
Political emigrants from Russia in the 19th century sought to go to Switzerland. Political emigration is a complex, diverse phenomenon that includes the entire spectrum of social life in pre-revolutionary Russia. The traditional principles of dividing the currents of political emigration into conservative, liberal, socialist or noble, raznochinny, proletarian emigration, etc. do not reflect the entire spectrum of Russian political emigration. It is quite conditionally possible to distinguish two stages in the history of political emigration before 1917: 1. Populist, leading from emigration in 1847 by A. I. Herzen and ending in 1883 with the formation in Geneva of the Emancipation of Labor group, which united the first Russian Marxist emigrants . 2. Proletarian from 1883 to 1917.
The first populist stage is characterized by the absence of political parties with a clearly defined structure and the small number of political emigrants. Basically, they are people. The second stage in the history of political emigration is characterized by the formation of a huge number of different groups, societies and parties of political emigrants. The second stage is also distinguished from the first by its relative mass character - colonies of Russian emigrants, editorial offices of press organs, party organs were formed at that time in all major cities of Europe (Geneva was the main centers of Russian emigration - 109 Russian periodicals, Paris - 95, London - 42). By the beginning of the 20th century, more than 150 Russian political parties operated outside of Russia.
An important event in the history of Russian political emigration was the creation in 1870 by a group of emigrants led by Utin in Geneva of the Russian section of the International. In 1887, the Socialist Literary Fund was organized in Zurich by political emigrants to publish works of a social revolutionary nature. In accordance with the charter, it was a non-partisan organization, with the main goal of explaining the foundations of scientific socialism. The head of the Foundation was P. L. Lavrov, who was also an expert on the documents proposed for publication. The following were published at the expense of the Foundation: “Historical letters of P. L. Lavrov”, works by G. V. Plekhanov and others.
Emancipation of Labor Group
The beginning of the second or "proletarian" stage in the formation of Russian political emigration before 1917 is associated with the formation in 1883 in Geneva of the Emancipation of Labor group. Its origins were former leaders of the populist movement: G. V. Plekhanov, a member of the Land and Freedom organization and leader of the Black Redistribution, P. B. Axelrod, Plekhanov’s colleague in the Black Redistribution, the former editor-in-chief of the Bakunin newspaper Obshchina ”, farmer V.N. Ignatov and others. The group marked the beginning of the Marxist trend in the history of political emigration. Abroad, members of the Emancipation of Labor group published the Library of Modern Socialism and the Workers' Library. The activities of the Emancipation of Labor group prepared both the formation in 1898 and the final formation of the RSDLP in 1903, and the members of the Emancipation of Labor group Plekhanov, Axelrod, Zasulich played an important role in the formation of the RSDLP. The RSDLP created the largest, in comparison with other emigre parties and associations, the infrastructure of party organizations and groups abroad.
Of course, not only political emigrants from Russia lived in Switzerland. The most "Russian" city in Switzerland was Geneva. In 1854, the first Russian Orthodox community was officially established there. In the second half of the 19th century, an ever-increasing number of Russians raised the question of building an Orthodox church. The initiator of the construction was Archpriest Petrov, who served in the church at the Russian mission. A large amount for the construction of the temple was bequeathed by the first wife of Tsarevich Konstantin Pavlovich, Grand Duchess Anna Feodorovna. In 1862, the authorities of Geneva donated a piece of land to the Orthodox community for the construction of a church, and in 1863-1869, the Exaltation of the Cross Church was erected here according to the design of the St. Petersburg architect D. I. Grimm.
3 London
In the 19th century, many political Russian emigrants also found shelter in London. They not only aroused sympathy among the inhabitants of the British capital, but also managed to captivate many representatives of the Western European intelligentsia with their revolutionary ideals. From the beginning of the 1850s to 1865, the most prominent and colorful personality among the Russian colony of the British capital was the writer, publicist, philosopher, revolutionary Alexander Ivanovich Herzen. Herzen's close friend, poet, publicist, revolutionary activist Nikolai Platonovich Ogarev, also lived in London, together with his wife Natalia Alekseevna Tuchkova.
Herzen and Ogarev. 1861
In 1853, Herzen founded the Free Russian Printing House in London, began publishing, together with N.P. Ogarev, the Kolokol newspaper and the Polar Star almanac, which became the mouthpiece of protest, their influence on the revolutionary movement in Russia was enormous. Herzen contributed to the creation of the populist organization "Land and Freedom".
In 1891, in London, the revolutionary populist Sergei Mikhailovich Kravchinsky (pseudonym - Stepnyak) founded the Free Russian Press Foundation, which was engaged in the publication of propaganda literature banned in Russia. The most active employees of the Foundation were Russian revolutionaries Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin and Nikolai Vasilyevich Tchaikovsky.
4 USA
For the period from 1861 to 1915. 3 million 978 thousand people emigrated from Russia to the countries of the New World, mainly to the USA. They were mostly landless peasants, artisans, unskilled workers. Most of them were not ethnic Russians. More than 40% of emigrants were Jews. In the United States, Jewish emigrants settled mainly in the states of the North Atlantic, primarily New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
Political emigration to the United States also existed. In the 70s of the nineteenth century, Narodnaya Volya began to penetrate into America. In the 1970s, several circles and communities of Russian revolutionary emigrants already existed there (the commune of Freya, G. A. Machteta, and others). A notable personality among Russian emigrants in America was the former hierodeacon of the Russian mission in Athens, then an employee of the Herzen Free Printing House and, from 1864, an emigrant to the USA, Agapius Goncharenko. He is also considered the founder of the Russian press in America. The first political emigrant to the United States was Colonel of the General Staff I. V. Turchaninov, who emigrated to the United States in 1856. Subsequently, he entered the history of America as one of the heroes of the war between the North and the South, in which he took part on the side of the northerners, commanding a regiment. Until the early 1880s, the number of Russian political emigrants in America was extremely small. The flow of political emigrants increased after the accession of Alexander III. Among the Russian political emigrants in the United States of this period, one can name N. K. Sudzilovsky, N. Aleinikov, P. M. Fedorov, V. L. Burtsev and others.
In 1893, after the conclusion of an agreement between the governments of the United States and Russia on the extradition of political emigrants, many Russian emigrants were forced to leave the United States or take American citizenship. Political emigration to the United States, as well as all political emigration, is characterized by the gradual retreat of its populist component into the background and by the beginning of the 1890s, the complete dominance of the Social Democrats. In particular, the Russian Social Democratic Society was active in New York in the 1890s, and a group of Russian Social Democrats was active in Chicago.
Emigration in Russia: history and modernity
1. Emigration from the Russian Empire
Russian emigration is usually counted from the 16th century, from the time of Ivan the Terrible. It has been established that Prince Andrei Kurbsky can be considered the first widely known political emigrant. In the 17th century "defectors" appeared - young nobles whom Boris Godunov sent to Europe to study, but they did not return to their homeland. However, until the middle of the 19th century, cases of emigration were rare. It was only after the Peasant Reform of 1861 that leaving Russia became a mass phenomenon.
For all that, there was no such legal concept as “emigration” in pre-revolutionary Russian legislation. The transfer of Russians to another citizenship was prohibited, and the time spent outside the country was limited to five years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the time. If refusal and non-return followed, then the person was deprived of citizenship and subjected to arrest in his homeland, exile until the end of his days and deprivation of property.
Pre-revolutionary emigration is more correctly divided not according to chronology, but according to typological groups: labor (or economic), religious, Jewish and political (or revolutionary). Emigrants of the first three groups mainly went to the USA and Canada, and the fourth - to Europe.
Labor or economic emigration in the pre-revolutionary period was the most massive. It consisted mainly of landless peasants, artisans, and unskilled workers. In total for 1851 - 1915. 4,200,500 people left Russia, of which 3,978.9 thousand people emigrated to the countries of the New World, mainly to the USA, which is 94%. It is noteworthy that the overwhelming majority of pre-revolutionary emigrants were, as a rule, immigrants from other countries living in Russia: Germany (more than 1400 thousand people), Persia (850 thousand), Austria-Hungary (800 thousand) and Turkey (400 thousand people). ).
The number of Russian emigrants who left for religious reasons is approximately 30,000. Until 1917, the largest emigration flows were members of various religious groups persecuted for their beliefs: Dukhobors (a sect of spiritual Christians; rejects Orthodox rites and sacraments, priests, monasticism), Molokans ( a sect of spiritual Christians; they reject priests and churches, pray in ordinary homes) and Old Believers (a part of Orthodox Christians who left the dominant Church in Russia after the reforms of the Moscow Patriarch Nikon). In the 1890s, the Doukhobor movement intensified with the aim of resettling in America. Some of the Dukhobors were deported to Yakutia, but many obtained permission to resettle in America. In 1898-1902. about 7.5 thousand Dukhobors moved to Canada, many of them then moved to the USA. In 1905, some Dukhobors from Yakutia also obtained permission to resettle in Canada. In the first decade of the 20th century, more than 3.5 thousand Molokans emigrated to the United States, they settled mainly in California. The Doukhobors, Molokans and Old Believers largely determined the nature of Russian emigration to America at the beginning of the 20th century. In particular, in 1920 in Los Angeles, out of 3750 Russians living there, only 100 people were Orthodox, the remaining 97% were representatives of various religious sects. The Dukhobors and Old Believers on the American continent, thanks to a rather isolated way of life, were able to preserve to this day Russian traditions and customs to a greater extent. Despite the significant Americanization of life and the expansion of the English language, even now they continue to be islands of Russia abroad.
More than 40% of emigrants were Jews. The emigration of Jews increased significantly after the assassination of the reformer Tsar Alexander II and the Jewish pogroms that followed him. Regarding the departure of the Jews, Permission to the Jews ... (1880) was issued, which allowed them to leave the empire, but punished them with deprivation of the right to return. Jews began to leave mainly for the New World, and many settled in the United States. This choice is not accidental: under the American constitution, Jews had the same civil and religious rights as Christians. The peak of Jewish emigration from Russia to the United States occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. - more than 700 thousand people left the country.
Political emigration from the Russian Empire was quite small and was a diverse and complex phenomenon, as it included all the colors of the social life of pre-revolutionary Russia. It is extremely conditional to divide the history of political emigration before 1917 into two periods: 1. Populist, originating from the emigration in 1847 of the Russian publicist, writer and philosopher A.I. »; 2. Proletarian (or socialist) from 1883 to 1917. The first period is characterized by the absence of political parties with a clearly defined structure and a small number of emigrants (mostly "representatives of the second stage of the revolutionary movement"). The second period of political emigration is much more massive and more complex structured, characterized by a huge number of diverse groups, societies and parties (the most real ones) of political emigrants. By the beginning of the 20th century, more than 150 Russian political parties were operating outside Russia. The main feature of the order of formation of these parties was the formation of parties, first of a socialist orientation, then liberal and, finally, conservative. The Russian government tried in various ways to prevent political emigration, to stop or hinder its "subversive" activities abroad; with a number of countries (in particular, with the United States), it concluded agreements on the mutual extradition of political emigrants, which actually put them outside the law.
The most famous Russian emigrants of the pre-revolutionary period are perhaps Herzen, Gogol, Turgenev (France and Germany, 1847-1883), Mechnikov (Paris, 1888-1916), Lenin, Pirogov and Gorky.
The First World War led to a sharp decline in international migration, primarily labor and especially intercontinental (but internal migration also increased sharply, which is primarily due to the flows of refugees and evacuees fleeing the advancing enemy troops: their subsequent return happened, as usually only partially). She significantly accelerated the revolutionary situation and thereby made her "contribution" to the victory of the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. Mass political emigration began after the October Revolution. The country was left by people who did not agree with the coming to power of the Bolsheviks, who had no reason to equate themselves with the class whose power was proclaimed.
Let's start, of course, with the First Emigrant Wave. It is also called the White Emigration, and it is clear why. After the defeats of the White Army in the North-West, the first military emigrants were units of the army of General Yudenich ...
Waves of emigration from Russia and the CIS countries
In addition to the White emigration, the first post-revolutionary decade also saw fragments of ethnic (and, at the same time, religious) emigration - Jewish (about 100 thousand people, almost all to Palestine) and German (about 20-25 thousand people) ...
Waves of emigration from Russia and the CIS countries
The beginning of this period should be counted from the era of M.S. Gorbachev, but, by the way, not from his very first steps, but rather from the “second”, among which the most important were the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, the liberalization of the press and the rules for entering and leaving the country ...
The historical significance of the theory and practice of public charity in the Russian Empire in the late 18th–early 19th centuries.
At the turn of the XVIII - XIX centuries. in Russia, public charity is beginning to take shape in a certain system with its own secular institutions, special legislation appears ...
The historical significance of the theory and practice of public charity in the Russian Empire in the late 18th–early 19th centuries.
Approaches to the issues of public charity are outlined in the socio-philosophical comprehension at the end of the 18th century. The main problems raised by the thinkers of the 18th century are connected with the role of the individual in helping...
The historical significance of the theory and practice of public charity in the Russian Empire in the late 18th–early 19th centuries.
2.1. The practice of public charity in the Russian Empire at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries The first decade of the reign of Catherine II is characterized by the rise of public thought ...
The historical significance of the theory and practice of public charity in the Russian Empire in the late 18th–early 19th centuries.
The structure of the course work: the work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The first chapter is devoted to the origins, main categories, concept and functions of charity in the Russian Empire in the late 18th - early 19th centuries...
The historical significance of the theory and practice of public charity in the Russian Empire in the late 18th–early 19th centuries.
A comprehensive concept of legal support for public charity, which arose in the second half of the 18th century. during the reign of Catherine II ...
Problems of ideology formation in Russia
The history of the Russian State passed under the sign of ideology. Brief breaks without an idea or with petty, private ideas were timelessness, turmoil...
Status and development prospects of the Russian pension system
A retrospective analysis of the problems of modernization of pension provision in Russia contributes to the development of modern mechanisms for their resolution. Provision in old age and due to illness of persons who did not serve the state in Russia until the 19th century ...
Statistical study of emigration flows
There is a long ideological tradition in Russia of an unfavorable attitude towards emigration. Although now there is a turning point in public moods and going abroad is beginning to be perceived more calmly...
The emigration situation in the Stavropol Territory
The current state of the conceptual apparatus of the topic "migration" is characterized by the presence of many problems. Among them - the lack of development of some definitions; controversy of others...
In general, a generally accepted scheme of division into periods of Russian emigration after 1917, emigration from the Soviet Union, has already taken shape. It consisted of four so-called emigration "waves"...
Emigration in Russia: history and modernity
In addition to natural resources, Russia supplies the international market with its most important strategic resource - people. These are young and educated people, with a high level of income, between the ages of 20 and 40...
Introduction
1. Emigration from the Russian Empire
2. Emigration from the USSR
2.1 First wave (1918-1923)
2.2 Second wave (1941-1945)
2.3 Third wave (1948--1989/1990)
2.4 Fourth wave (1990 -- before the collapse of the USSR)
3. Emigration from modern Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Migrations (lat. migratio, from migro - I move, I move), or the spatial movement of the population, are one of the very complex historical and demographic phenomena that determine many features of modern social, as well as political and economic life.
In the context of demographic science, migrations are identical to the mechanical movement of the population and imply one or another difference in the number of people who arrived in any territory and the number of people who left there for the same period of time (migration balance). Along with the ratio of mortality and fertility, or natural population movement, migration, or mechanical movement of population, are two components that determine the dynamics of the population.
A significant sign of migration is their nature - voluntary or forced, legal or illegal, etc. This is especially true for the 20th century, rich in manifestations of violence and cruelty, which manifested themselves noticeably in migration processes.
Migration of the population is associated, as a rule, with a change of place of residence, therefore, they are divided into: irrevocable (change of permanent place of residence), temporary (resettlement for a limited period), seasonal (movement during certain periods of the year). There are also so-called pendulum migrations (regular trips to the place of work or study outside their locality. At the same time, internal migrations carried out within one state (from village to city, inter-district resettlement, etc.) and external, or international, implying crossing state borders by migrants. With regard to external migrations, the outflow of the population is correlated with emigration, and the inflow - with immigration. In addition, there are such varieties of external migrations as repatriation (return to their homeland) and option (choice of citizenship when changing the state borders of the state). But in this work we will focus on emigration.
Emigration (from lat. emigro - I move out) is a voluntary or forced departure to another country for permanent or temporary (long-term) residence. Emigration does not necessarily mean naturalization and the acquisition or change of citizenship or nationality.
Accordingly, emigrants are citizens who voluntarily or involuntarily left their native country and settled in some other country. Emigrants do not include citizens living abroad on duty, such as diplomats. The number of emigrants does not include representatives of the scientific and creative intelligentsia who go abroad for several months and even years to study, work, and receive treatment. Some simply choose to live or work abroad from time to time, but these are not expats either.
The reasons for emigration can be different, including: personal circumstances, economic, political, war, hunger, poverty, political repression, ethnic conflicts, natural and environmental disasters, family reunification, difficulties in implementing creative, professional, economic and other personal and family plans in the country of residence. The motives for emigration, of course, lend themselves to group interpretation, but there has always been and will always be a personal, purely individual motive - and often a decisive one.
So, let's start talking about Russian emigration.
1. Emigration from the Russian Empire
Russian emigration is usually counted from the 16th century, from the time of Ivan the Terrible. It has been established that Prince Andrei Kurbsky can be considered the first widely known political emigrant. In the 17th century "defectors" appeared - young nobles whom Boris Godunov sent to Europe to study, but they did not return to their homeland. However, until the middle of the 19th century, cases of emigration were rare. It was only after the Peasant Reform of 1861 that leaving Russia became a mass phenomenon.
For all that, there was no such legal concept as “emigration” in pre-revolutionary Russian legislation. The transfer of Russians to another citizenship was prohibited, and the time spent outside the country was limited to five years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the time. If refusal and non-return followed, then the person was deprived of citizenship and subjected to arrest in his homeland, exile until the end of his days and deprivation of property.
Pre-revolutionary emigration is more correctly divided not according to chronology, but according to typological groups: labor (or economic), religious, Jewish and political (or revolutionary). Emigrants of the first three groups mainly went to the USA and Canada, and the fourth - to Europe.
Labor or economic emigration in the pre-revolutionary period was the most massive . It consisted mainly of landless peasants, artisans, and unskilled workers. In total for 1851 - 1915. 4,200,500 people left Russia, of which 3,978.9 thousand people emigrated to the countries of the New World, mainly to the USA, which is 94%. It is noteworthy that the overwhelming majority of pre-revolutionary emigrants were, as a rule, immigrants from other countries living in Russia: Germany (more than 1400 thousand people), Persia (850 thousand), Austria-Hungary (800 thousand) and Turkey (400 thousand people). ).
The number of Russian emigrants who left for religious reasons is approximately 30,000. Until 1917, the largest emigration flows were members of various religious groups persecuted for their beliefs: Dukhobors (a sect of spiritual Christians; rejects Orthodox rites and sacraments, priests, monasticism), Molokans ( a sect of spiritual Christians; they reject priests and churches, pray in ordinary homes) and Old Believers (a part of Orthodox Christians who left the dominant Church in Russia after the reforms of the Moscow Patriarch Nikon). In the 1890s, the Doukhobor movement intensified with the aim of resettling in America. Some of the Dukhobors were deported to Yakutia, but many obtained permission to resettle in America. In 1898-1902. about 7.5 thousand Dukhobors moved to Canada, many of them then moved to the USA. In 1905, some Dukhobors from Yakutia also obtained permission to resettle in Canada. In the first decade of the 20th century, more than 3.5 thousand Molokans emigrated to the United States, they settled mainly in California. The Doukhobors, Molokans and Old Believers largely determined the nature of Russian emigration to America at the beginning of the 20th century. In particular, in 1920 in Los Angeles, out of 3750 Russians living there, only 100 people were Orthodox, the remaining 97% were representatives of various religious sects. The Dukhobors and Old Believers on the American continent, thanks to a rather isolated way of life, were able to preserve to this day Russian traditions and customs to a greater extent. Despite the significant Americanization of life and the expansion of the English language, even now they continue to be islands of Russia abroad.
More than 40% of emigrants were Jews. The emigration of Jews increased significantly after the assassination of the reformer Tsar Alexander II and the Jewish pogroms that followed him. Regarding the departure of the Jews, Permission to the Jews ... (1880) was issued, which allowed them to leave the empire, but punished them with deprivation of the right to return. Jews began to leave mainly for the New World, and many settled in the United States. This choice is not accidental: under the American constitution, Jews had the same civil and religious rights as Christians. The peak of Jewish emigration from Russia to the United States occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. - more than 700 thousand people left the country.
Political emigration from the Russian Empire was quite small and was a diverse and complex phenomenon, as it included all the colors of the social life of pre-revolutionary Russia. It is extremely conditional to divide the history of political emigration before 1917 into two periods: 1. Populist, originating from the emigration in 1847 of the Russian publicist, writer and philosopher A.I. »; 2. Proletarian (or socialist) from 1883 to 1917. The first period is characterized by the absence of political parties with a clearly defined structure and a small number of emigrants (mostly "representatives of the second stage of the revolutionary movement"). The second period of political emigration is much more massive and more complex structured, characterized by a huge number of diverse groups, societies and parties (the most real ones) of political emigrants. By the beginning of the 20th century, more than 150 Russian political parties were operating outside Russia. The main feature of the order of formation of these parties was the formation of parties, first of a socialist orientation, then liberal and, finally, conservative. The Russian government tried in various ways to prevent political emigration, to stop or hinder its "subversive" activities abroad; with a number of countries (in particular, with the United States), it concluded agreements on the mutual extradition of political emigrants, which actually put them outside the law.
The most famous Russian emigrants of the pre-revolutionary period are perhaps Herzen, Gogol, Turgenev (France and Germany, 1847-1883), Mechnikov (Paris, 1888-1916), Lenin, Pirogov and Gorky.
The First World War led to a sharp decline in international migration, primarily labor and especially intercontinental (but internal migration also increased sharply, which is primarily due to the flows of refugees and evacuees fleeing the advancing enemy troops: their subsequent return happened, as usually only partially). She significantly accelerated the revolutionary situation and thereby made her "contribution" to the victory of the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. Mass political emigration began after the October Revolution. The country was left by people who did not agree with the coming to power of the Bolsheviks, who had no reason to equate themselves with the class whose power was proclaimed.
2. Emigration from the USSR
In general, a generally accepted scheme of division into periods of Russian emigration after 1917, emigration from the Soviet Union, has already taken shape. It consisted of four so-called emigration "waves", radically different from each other in terms of geographical structure, reasons, duration, etc.
"Wave" is not a scientific concept, but rather a purely figurative one. This concept is widely known and terminologically developed, but at the same time, it can hardly withstand the load of a scientific concept and term. It would probably be more correct to call them not waves, but periods corresponding to one or another chronological framework; behind the waves, it would be necessary to keep a somewhat different, more characteristic load - surges, outbreaks or limits of emigration.
Therefore, denoting in brackets the chronological framework of a particular wave, one must remember that they indicate nothing more than the time of literally resettlement, that is, the first phase of emigration. There are also other phases no less significant than the first, and they have different chronological boundaries. For example, the phase of the consolidation of emigrants, the formation of their public organizations and the press, etc.
economic emigration labor
2.1 First wave (1918-1923)
The first wave of emigration chronologically covers the period from 1917 to the 1920s. These are, for the most part, military and civilians who fled from the Soviet government that won during the revolution and the Civil War, as well as from hunger. Emigration from Bolshevik Russia, according to various estimates, ranged from 1.5 to 3 million people. The main centers of Russian emigration of the first wave were Berlin, Prague, Belgrade, Paris, Constantinople, Harbin, Shanghai.
This emigration is also called the White emigration, and it is clear for what reason. After the defeats of the White Army in the North-West, the first military emigrants were parts of the army of General Yudenich, isolated in 1918 in Estonia. After the defeats in the East, the next center of the emigration diaspora (approximately 400 thousand people) was formed in Manchuria in Harbin. After the defeats in the South, steamships that followed from the Black Sea in the rear of the retreating Denikin and Wrangel troops, as a rule, headed for Constantinople, which for a time became "Little Russia".
Together with the troops, many civilians were evacuated, mostly from the intelligentsia, including academicians and professors, about 30 bishops and thousands of priests.
In 1922, they were joined by about 150 representatives of the highest culture of Russia (philosophers, thinkers, scientists, writers and poets), illegally expelled from their homeland and deported to Western Europe without any trial or sentence, on the personal order of Lenin, who claimed that the communist state “needs neither philosophers nor mathematicians”, because it can be controlled by “any cook”. Such as: Nikolai Berdyaev, Ivan Ilyin, Sergei Bulgakov, Semyon Frank and others.
This whole huge mass of people of both sexes, including the elderly and children, was illegally deprived of their Russian citizenship by the Soviet authorities, without the slightest judicial decision, by the decree of the communist international tyranny of December 15, 1921.
Thus, a group of approximately 3 million Russian emigrants and refugees arose in the world who found themselves illegally deprived of their citizenship. This circumstance forced the League of Nations refugee affairs manager, Nobel Prize winner Fridtjof Nansen, to create a special passport in 1924, then nicknamed the “Nansen Passport”, with the help of which the “non-subjugation” of Russian white emigrants was confirmed.
Among the political, military, church leaders who left Russia after 1917 were Alexander Kerensky, Pavel Milyukov, Vasily Shulgin, surviving members of the imperial family, Pyotr Wrangel, Alexander Kutepov, Anton Denikin, other representatives of the white generals, church hierarchs Anthony (Khrapovitsky), Evlogy (Georgievsky), Veniamin (Fedchenkov) and many others.
Many figures of Russian science and culture became emigrants. The wave of emigration separated from Russia such artists as Ivan Bunin, Alexander Kuprin, Marina Tsvetaeva, Konstantin Korovin, Ivan Bilibin, Alexander Benois, Marc Chagall, Sergei Rachmaninov, Fyodor Chaliapin and many others.
The emigrants of the first wave hoped for a speedy return to Russia, expecting a quick collapse of the Soviet state. They considered their exile forced and short-lived. For these reasons, they tended to live apart, not wanting to adapt to life in the countries where they lived. Created immigrant colonies.
The first emigration was unique in quantitative and qualitative terms. First, it was the largest emigration that took place in a very short period. Secondly, it was the center of all emigration, professed the idea of statehood, monarchism, estates, churchism and private property. Thirdly, foreign emigration managed to preserve for posterity cultural values, various private archives, which are of invaluable value for all of Russia.
2.2 Second wave (1941-1945)
The second wave of emigration is associated with the Second World War. Its participants were people who left the country during the war (prisoners of war, refugees) and evaded repatriation. According to official data, the number of displaced persons who did not return to their homeland amounted to 130 thousand people, according to some experts - 500-700 thousand people.
During the Great Patriotic War, a large number of Soviet citizens ended up abroad. For some it was against their own will. People fell from the communist dictatorship to the Nazi dictatorship. The capture of large territories of Russia by Germany put the people there in a difficult tragic situation. Jews were killed, and others were taken to Germany for forced labor. Also, people who were afraid of reprisals, who ended up in the German occupation, were forced to emigrate with the German army outside of Russia. People were guided by only one feeling: the desire to be saved, to stay alive.
A feature of the emigration processes of this period was, firstly, that a significant part of the emigrants (including the first wave) left Europe overseas - to the USA, Canada, Australia, South America; secondly, the fact that after the Second World War some of the "old" emigrants ended up in the territories that had ceded to the USSR or were included in the zone of Soviet influence.
We can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory that belonged to the Soviet Union before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was about 8.7 million people.
A large number of people did not live to see the victory, especially among prisoners of war. Many repatriated to their homeland, while others remained in the West, becoming the center of the so-called "Second Wave" of emigration from the USSR.
At the beginning of the war, everything painful in the structure of the Soviet state was revealed. The cruelty of the Stalinist regime towards people living in the territories of the USSR covered by the Germans led to the numerous defection of people to the side of the enemy. This was the greatest tragedy in the history of wars, the tragedy of a great state. People were afraid of cruel repressions and inhuman treatment of their destinies. The thirst for revenge, the desire for liberation from the Stalinist regime forced some soldiers and officers of the Red Army to participate in hostilities as part of the German army.
In the "Second wave" of Russian emigration there were many people who devoted themselves to creativity. Poets: Ivan Elagin, Dmitry Klenovsky, Olga Anstey, Boris Narcissov; prose writers: Leonid Rzhevsky, Sergey Maksimov. Some of them survived Stalin's Gulag.
According to one of the official estimates made by the Office for Repatriation on the basis of incomplete data by January 1, 1952, 451,561 Soviet citizens still remained abroad.
If in 1946 more than 80% of the defectors were inside the western occupation zones in Germany and Austria, now they accounted for only about 23% of their number. So, in all six western zones of Germany and Austria there were 103.7 thousand people, while in England alone - 100.0; Australia -- 50.3; Canada -- 38, 4; USA -- 35.3; Sweden - 27, 6; France - 19.7 and Belgium - 14.7 thousand "temporarily non-repatriated". In this regard, the ethnic structure of defectors is very expressive. Most of them were Ukrainians - 144,934 people (or 32.1%), followed by three Baltic peoples - Latvians (109214 people, or 24.2%), Lithuanians (63401, or 14.0%) and Estonians (58924, or 13.0%). All of them, together with 9,856 Belarusians (2.2%), accounted for 85.5% of the registered defectors. Actually, this is, with some rounding and overestimation, the quota of "Westerners" (in Zemskov's terminology) in the structure of this contingent. According to V.N. Zemskov, "Westerners" accounted for 3/4, and "Easterners" - only 1/4 of the number of defectors. But most likely the proportion of “Westerners” is even higher, especially if we assume that a sufficient number of Poles have crept into the “other” category (33,528 people, or 7.4%). Russians among the defectors are only 31,704, or 7.0%.
In light of this, the scale of Western estimates of the number of defectors becomes understandable, an order of magnitude lower than the Soviet ones and, as it were, oriented towards the number of Russians by nationality in this environment. So, according to M. Proudfoot, about 35 thousand former Soviet citizens are officially registered as "remaining in the West".
The second wave of emigration was numerous. It consisted of "displaced persons" - these are prisoners of war who remained in the West and people who emigrated from the USSR with the retreating army of Hitler (approximately 8-10 million people). To a greater extent, the Great Patriotic War was to blame for all this. But be that as it may, Stalin's fears were justified and tens and hundreds of thousands of former Soviet or sub-Soviet citizens one way or another, by hook or by crook, but avoided repatriation and nevertheless made up the so-called "second emigration."
2.3 Third wave (1948--1989/1990)
Third the wave of emigration chronologically covers the period of the late 1940s to the second half of the 1980s. Artists and creative intelligentsia left the USSR with the third wave of emigration. Emigrant writers belonged to the generation of the "sixties". Most of the emigrants were formed as writers during the Khrushchev "thaw", they condemned the personality cult of Stalin and called for a return to the "Leninist standards of life." It was possible to talk about previously closed topics, like the GUAG, totalitarianism, and the true cost of military victories. But in the mid-1960s, ideological censorship began to intensify. Freedom was restricted. Began persecution, arrests. Many dissidents were sent to forced labor. The dissident movement and the Cold War were the reason why many people voluntarily or forcibly left the country. Although the authorities put great restrictions on traveling abroad. Many famous writers, artists and scientists were among those who had to leave their homeland. Among them: Aksyonov, Dovlatov, Brodsky, Vishnevskaya, Rostropovich, Solzhenitsyn, Shemyakin, Lyubimov, Baryshnikov, Nureyev, Belousova, Protopopov and others.
Their emigration was based on religious, national, socio-political factors. Representatives of the third emigrant wave almost did not find a language with their compatriots in emigration. Unlike A. Solzhenitsyn, he was always close to pre-revolutionary Russia. The dissidents actively discussed the future of Russia among themselves, they organized and opened a large number of emigre newspapers and magazines. All these years, a fierce ideological campaign was waged against them in the Soviet press. Emigrant writers were presented by anyone: traitors, CIA agents, people without honor and conscience. And even at the Moscow International Book Fair, books by dissident writers were confiscated. About one million people left the country. Most of the emigrants went to Israel, France, the USA and Germany, they were dissidents who were not Jews. After many years in exile, some of the dissidents returned to the country, and their citizenship was restored to them. The analysis of dissident emigration or the emigration of creative intelligentsia is much more complicated. With their help, it was possible to widely promote human rights movements in the USSR, publish thousands of documents, manuscripts, and literary works banned in the Soviet Union and make them available to the general public in the West. Thanks to representatives of the emigration of the third wave, foreign organizations were created to support the Russian opposition. Dissidents were used by Western intelligence agencies in the fight against the "Soviet regime and communist ideology." Many emigrants who loved Russia believed that they were fighting for her liberation.
The "third wave" of Russian emigration was due to political processes in the country.
2.4 Fourth wave (1990 - before the collapse of the USSR)
After the fall of the Iron Curtain, in the conditions of democratization and renewal of all aspects of the life of Soviet society, emigration from the Soviet Union increased sharply. According to the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR in 1990, more than 450 thousand people left the country. A significant outflow of the population in a relatively short period of time was called the "fourth wave".
This "perestroika" wave of people leaving the Russian homeland forever. This wave is often referred to as economic emigration. The intensive flow of emigrants of the fourth wave is largely determined by the political instability in the country, which has broken up into independent states, in a number of which there are bloody armed conflicts. Part of the emigrants leave their homeland due to the deteriorating economic situation - in search of free realization of their strengths and abilities, worthy pay for their labor, new opportunities for creativity and entrepreneurship.
Four groups of emigrants can be distinguished:
a) the first group is the "elite" - 1% of well-known scientists who are offered laboratories and institutes abroad;
b) the second group - those who rely on the help of relatives abroad;
c) the third group - those who themselves are looking for a job while still in their homeland;
d) the fourth group - those who leave according to the principle "it doesn't matter where, it will be even worse here."
Approximately half of emigrants get a job abroad in their specialty. Most of all, physicists left, followed by mathematicians, biologists, and other representatives of the exact sciences, as well as doctors, linguists, musicians, and ballet dancers. All of them are relatively easy to adapt to a new country. For economic reasons, people who simply suffer from material instability are leaving Russia.
The fourth wave of emigration is the first voluntary wave of emigration after the revolution. Its distinguishing feature is a clear geographical focus on the United States. Most of the "fourth wave" emigrants who came from Odessa, Moldova, small Ukrainian towns and towns - people of low qualification, without knowledge of the language, preferred to settle together in the Brooklyn area, in New York, they were employed by merchants, petty employees. In such areas, which are weak analogues of the famous Chinese or Arab quarters of the capitals of the whole world, you practically do not hear the English language, but you will find various dialects of Russian, Jewish, and less often Ukrainian. Even the Negroes living in these areas and the police officers on duty know a lot of Russian words. The inhabitants of these areas are found on the benches of boulevards and embankments, and mainly in restaurants with eloquent names: "Odessa", "Primorsky", "Moscow", "Kavkaz". The atmosphere of these establishments was well conveyed by the correspondent of Moskovskiye Novosti: “The elusive spirit of Soviet public catering will waft on those who yearn for their homeland; its indescribable taste in chicken tobacco and salad "Capital" will moisten the sky with tears (cooks of our training, from a culinary college); and when the ensemble, the Soviet VIA, breaks out, and the neighbor will not be heard (yes, clubs of cigarette smoke, but they will bring not what they ordered, but they will cheat), then the feeling of the Motherland will so tighten the throat, so memories will flood ... In short - to those who are sorry (and who doesn’t feel sorry?) of their youth in Soviet Russia (and what else, I wonder, did we all have it?), you have to go to any of the two dozen Russian restaurants in Brighton ... "
In general, the history and life of Russia in the 20th century can be studied in the restaurants of the Russian Diaspora - from the Parisian "Maxim" to the New York "Odessa" and "Caucasus". And not only in restaurants - according to the family way of life, the peculiarities of speech and psychology, habits, traditions, songs, Russian books. What is thrown away by the heirs in the trash in Russia is most often carefully preserved in emigration. So the Russian emigration is a repository and receptacle for the past Russian life.
However, not all Russian emigrants of the fourth wave are nostalgic for taverns in the peculiar Russian-Jewish ghettos of America. A small but very active and most qualified part - programmers, doctors, scientists - spread all over America (preferring university campuses, laboratories, libraries, research centers in Washington, Boston, Seattle, New York) and working very intensively, hard, much more successfully fit into the new environment. This is not given immediately, many scientists, for example, in anticipation of the recognition (conversion) of their candidate or doctoral diplomas received in Russia, get a job as sellers or dishwashers, accumulating social skills and experience of American life, learning the language, then still find work in their specialty and many within five to seven years make an energetic breakthrough, reaching a stable high official and financial position.
The peculiarity of the fourth wave is that the majority of emigrants left Russia by a purely personal and voluntary choice. They retained citizenship, property, and professional business relationships; high intellectual level, "brain drain".
3. Emigration from modern Russia
In addition to natural resources, Russia supplies the international market with its most important strategic resource - people. These are young and educated people, with a high level of income, aged 20 to 40 years. If earlier emigrants left Russia and sought to get abroad for economic, political reasons, then in our time they emigrate for socio-psychological, spiritual factors; they are dissatisfied with the “quality of life”, they do not see opportunities for self-realization. In Russia, the mood for emigration indicates that people are simply tired. They do not associate themselves with the country, they do not feel like masters of their own country.
There are a great many reasons why people decide to leave the territory of Russia forever. Nevertheless, after a number of studies, specialists identify a number of main motives that encourage people to emigrate from Russia.
One of the reasons forcing a person to decide to leave Russia is the banal lack of prospects for a better future. Any person is characterized by the desire to live in a constantly developing society, which is moving confidently towards its well-being and prosperity. Emigration, in turn, gives every person a chance to save himself and his family from the constant pressure from the corrupt state authorities, the oppression of the most difficult conditions, characteristic, rather, not for a full life in a civilized society, but for survival in a primitive environment.
The emigration of women leads to a reduction in the population of Russia. Over the past 15 years, about 1 million women have left Russia. As a rule, immigrant women are young women between the ages of 14 and 29. Many women work as nurses, house cleaners, and are in demand in the marriage markets of Europe, the USA and Asia. The motivation for women to emigrate consists of several factors: a difficult socio-economic situation, low wages, the inability to find a job, difficulties in professional development, and discrimination by employers. The demographic imbalance that has developed in the Russian marriage market also plays a special role. In Russia, the number of women significantly exceeds the number of men. Therefore, the emigration of women from Russia has become massive. Women's emigration for Russia has serious negative consequences in the current demographic situation.
Everyone knows that in Russia it is extremely difficult to legally become the owner of your own, honestly earned housing. The current state policy in Russia, in the opinion of many, was created solely in order to exacerbate the already difficult problems of the population. With regret, we have to admit that even a mortgage is, in fact, a ghostly and unrealistic chance to find a roof over your head.
The gradual but certain degradation of society, the inability to raise and fully educate your child, the steady increase in crime and corruption on the part of the authorities, the decline and actual death of science as such - all these factors, one way or another, encourage a person to emigrate from Russia.
An additional motive for making such a decision is the fact that in recent years representatives of the most significant categories of the population have been leaving Russia more and more often: scientists, promising students, experienced professionals in various fields of activity. Most young people - ambitious boys and girls - strive to marry a civil (citizen) of a foreign state, all with the same goal - to leave the territory of Russia forever. It is easy to guess that with the constantly growing number of emigrating Russians - after the n-th amount of time in the country there will be practically no representatives of a cultural and progressive society, the intelligentsia. Those few who nevertheless dare to remain to resist the existing injustice, as a result, sooner or later will be suppressed - either by the authorities, or representatives of the criminal world, or representatives of a degraded society.
Naturally, highly developed countries and states are the most attractive for emigrants: Canada, Germany, USA, Australia, England, etc. But, given that it is quite difficult for an emigrant to obtain citizenship in these countries, many people pay attention to options such as Greece, Italy, Spain - states that constantly require skilled labor. Separate attention deserves the fact that in these countries many convenient programs are being implemented that are focused specifically on the category of emigrants - in order to greatly facilitate the process of their adaptation to new conditions.
An incomparably high standard of living, reliable protection of civil rights, endless opportunities for raising children and self-realization as a person are just a tiny part of the arguments in favor of considering the decision to emigrate from Russia worthy and justified.
"Brain drain", the departure of the middle class is a very serious and dangerous trend. If it is not reversed in the near future, then it will negatively affect the future fate of Russia. The country expects stagnation in the science-intensive sectors of the economy. In Russia, there may be a shortage of personnel with higher education, since there is already a shortage of personnel in primary and secondary education. All this contributes to the flow of migrants into the country. Which will lead to intellectual losses in Russia.
Conclusion
International migration of the population and labor resources is becoming an important factor in economic, social and demographic development in the world economy of many countries. Migration processes have an ambiguous influence on the economic and political life of Russia. Both positively and negatively, for example, an unfavorable phenomenon - intellectual emigration. The constant increase in the scale of emigration is a characteristic feature of international migration.
Bibliography
Pavel Polyan. Emigration: who and when left Russia in the 20th century // Russia and its regions in the 20th century: territory -- resettlement -- migration / Ed. O. Glezer and P. Polyana. -- M: OGI, 2005. -- pp. 493--519
Zatsepin O. S., Ruchkin A. B. Russians in the USA: Public organizations of Russian emigration in the XX-XXI centuries. -- New York: RACH-C PRESS, 2011. -- 290 p. -- ISBN 978-0-9793-4641-5
L. Bugaev. The mythology of emigration: geopolitics and poetics // Outside. Intellectual emigration in Russian culture of the XX century. Frankfurt am Main. -- Peter Lang, 2006, p. 51-71
Ryazantsev S.V., Tkachenko M.F. Labor migration from Russia and the Russian labor diaspora. - Stavropol: World of Data LLC, 2006
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Migrations, or spatial displacement of the population, are one of the most complex historical and demographic phenomena that determine many features of modern social, as well as political and economic life.
In the context of demographic science, migrations are identical mechanical movement of the population and imply one or another ratio of the outflow and inflow of the population in a particular place (balance of migration). Along with the ratio of births and deaths, or the natural movement of the population, migration, or the mechanical movement of the population, are two components that determine the dynamics of the population.
An essential feature of migration is their nature - voluntary or forced, legal or illegal etc. This is especially true for the 20th century, which was so replete with manifestations of violence and cruelty, which manifested themselves noticeably in migration processes.
At the same time, migrations differ internal carried out within the same state, and external, or international, implying the crossing of state borders by migrants and, as a rule, a significant change in their status. With regard to external migrations, the outflow of the population is associated with emigration, while the inflow is associated with immigration. In addition, there are such varieties of external migration as repatriation and option.
Emigration(from the Latin “emigro” - “I am evicted”) is the departure of citizens from their country to another for permanent residence or for a more or less long period for political, economic or other reasons. Like any type of migration, it can be either forced or voluntary.
Respectively, emigrants- these are those who left or who had to leave their native country and live away from it for a long time, sometimes the rest of their lives. So to speak, "seconded" (for example, diplomats), although they also spend a long time abroad, are not included in the number of emigrants. They also do not include those (as a rule, these are representatives of the wealthy nobility, scientific and artistic intelligentsia) who traveled abroad for study or treatment for several months or even years, or simply preferred to live or work abroad from time to time.
Immigration(from Latin " immigro”-“ I move in ”) is the installation in a certain host state of citizens of another state, which they were forced to leave for a long time or forever for political, religious, economic or other reasons. Accordingly, immigrants are those who came to one or another, alien to him, country and settled in it.
The factors that push people out of one country and the factors that pull them to another country are infinitely variable and form innumerable combinations. The motives for emigration, as well as the motives for immigration, of course, lend themselves to group interpretation and classification (economic, political, religious, national), but there has always been and will always be a personal, purely individual motive - and often decisive.
A form of immigration is repatriation(from Latin " repatriation”-“ return to their homeland”), or return to their homeland and restoration of the rights of citizenship of emigrants from a particular country - its former citizens or representatives of the peoples inhabiting it. Repatriates can be both persons who emigrated directly from this country at one time, as well as their children and other descendants. Therefore, in relation to repatriation, they often operate with the concept of “historical homeland”, or “homeland of ancestors”, which is used to justify, in particular, the immigration of Jews or Armenians from all countries of the world to Israel or the Armenian SSR, or ethnic Germans from the countries of the former USSR , Poland and Romania in Germany,
Another type of international (external) migration that is essential in our case is options(from Latin " optatio- "desire"), or resettlement due to the need for the population to self-determine and choose citizenship and place of residence. As a rule, this happens when a state is liquidated or the borders of two neighboring states are changed, which poses the problem of choosing whether to belong to the old or new statehood, and in some cases, the problem of leaving their homes . Accordingly, the same problem also arises in the mutual exchange of territories between neighboring states, which, of course, also affects the population.
Emigration from the Russian EmpireIt is customary to trace the beginning of the history of Russian emigration to the 16th century - to the time of Ivan the Terrible: the first political emigrant in this case was Prince Kurbsky. The 17th century was also marked by the first “defectors”: they, apparently, were those young nobles whom Boris Godunov sent to Europe to study, but they did not return to Russia. The most famous Russian emigrants of the pre-revolutionary period are, perhaps, Gogol, Herzen, Turgenev (France and Germany, 1847-1883), Mechnikov (Paris, 1888-1916), Pirogov, Lenin and Gorky, and the most famous “business traveler” is most likely Tyutchev.
As a legal concept, emigration was absent in pre-revolutionary Russian legislation. The transfer of Russians to another citizenship was prohibited, and the period of stay abroad was limited to five years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the period. Otherwise, the person lost citizenship and was subject, in case of return, to arrest and eternal exile; his property was automatically transferred to the Board of Trustees. Beginning in 1892, emigration was allowed only in relation to the Jews: but in this case, they were categorically forbidden any form of repatriation.
There were no other emigration regulators. Accordingly, there was no adequate accounting for it either. The statistics recorded only persons with legitimate passports who legally crossed the borders of the empire.
But it must be said that until the middle of the 19th century, cases of emigration themselves were almost isolated. Then they became somewhat more frequent (mainly for political reasons), but the number of those arriving in Russia invariably exceeded the number of those leaving it. And only on the eve of, and especially after, the serf reform of 1861 did the situation seriously change: travel abroad of Russia, and therefore emigration, became a truly mass phenomenon.
Although fitting into these time frames, such a non-trivial case as the mass emigration to Turkey of the so-called "Muhajirs" - mountaineers from the conquered Western Caucasus, still stands somewhat apart. In 1863-1864, 398,000 Circassians, Abaza and Nogais left for Turkey from the Kuban region, whose descendants still live both in Turkey and in other countries of the Middle East, Western Europe and the USA.
Unlike post-revolutionary emigration, pre-revolutionary emigration is usually divided not into chronological waves, but into four typological groups with mixed division bases: labor (or economic), religious, Jewish, and political (or revolutionary). In the first three groups, intercontinental emigration unconditionally prevailed (mainly to the USA and Canada), and in the case of political emigration - from Herzen to Lenin - the European direction always dominated.
Labor, or economic emigration, was undoubtedly the most massive. For 1851-1915. Russia, with its agrarian overpopulation, left 4.5 million people, mostly peasants, artisans and laborers. At the same time, the growth of emigration for some time was not accompanied by the formation and growth of the Russian diaspora, since the vast majority of pre-revolutionary emigrants were themselves foreign nationals, mainly immigrants from Germany (more than 1400 thousand people), Persia (850 thousand), Austria-Hungary (800 thousand) and Turkey (400 thousand people). The same is echoed by the data of V. Obolensky (Osinsky): in 1861-1915, 4.3 million people left the Russian Empire, including almost 2.7 million back in the 19th century. True, most of the emigrants did not leave Russia within its current borders, but from its western provinces - today's Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, and the Baltic countries.
Starting from the 1870s, the European and Asian directions of emigration were replaced by American ones (from 2/3 to 4/5 of those who left). During 1871-1920, about 4 million people moved to Canada, the USA and other countries of the New World. The rate of repatriation of emigrants, according to some estimates, was 18%.
Quantitatively religious emigration, which mainly affected Doukhobors, Molokan and Old Believers, was insignificant. It unfolded at the very end of the 19th century, when about 7.5 thousand Doukhobors moved to Canada and the USA. In the 1900s, 3.5 thousand Molokans moved to the United States (mainly to California).
Emigration Jews from the territory of Russia began after 1870, and from the very beginning it focused on the New World, and primarily on the United States, where, from the moment the American constitution was proclaimed, Jews enjoyed exactly the same civil and religious rights as Christians. Jews made up more than 40% of emigrants from Russia. Among the 1732.5 thousand natives of Russia recorded in the United States by the 1910 census, they accounted for 838, Poles - 418, Lithuanians - 137, Germans - 121, and Russians - only 40.5 thousand people
From this point of view, it is not easy to separate Jewish emigration from, say, labor emigration. It also contained elements of religious and, to a large extent, political emigration. At the same time, the commitment of Jewish emigrants from Russia to the traditions of Russian culture and the Russian language was also something not quite ordinary at that time.
American researcher C. Gitelman rightly notes: " No group of Jews migrated as often, in such large numbers and with such serious consequences as the Jews of Russia and the former USSR. The mass emigration of Russian/Soviet Jews played an important role in the formation of the two largest Jewish communities in the world - the United States and Israel" .
In 1880-1890, 0.6 million Jews arrived in the United States, in 1900-1914 - another 1.5 million, and in total in 1880-1924 - 2.5 million Jews from Eastern Europe, mainly from Russia. Of the 3.7 million Jews living in the United States in 1930, at least 80% came from Eastern Europe, of which the lion's share (from 60% and above) were Jews from Russia, mainly from shtetls. All this was mainly young people, and if by profession, then artisans, small merchants and musicians prevailed among them. In America, many of them retrained as hired workers, which, by the way, led to the formation of a large Jewish proletariat and strong trade unions. The newcomers were greatly assisted by their relatives, as well as Jewish philanthropic organizations created by representatives of Jewish immigrants of the previous wave.
During the years 1870-1890, 176.9 thousand Russian Jews moved to the United States, and by 1905 their number reached 1.3 million. In total, in 1881-1912, according to Ts. Gitelman, 1889 thousand Jews emigrated from Russia, of which 84 % to the USA, 8.5% to England, 2.2% to Canada and 2.1% to Palestine. During this period, we recall, Russian Jews accounted for about 4% of the population of the Russian Empire, but they accounted for up to 70% of all Jewish emigration to the United States, 48% of all immigration to the United States from Russia and 44% of all emigration from Russia.
The majority of Jewish immigrants from Russia settled, in general, in the same place as their predecessors from the previous (“German”) wave: they lived mainly in the northeast of the country - in the states of New York (more than 45%), Pennsylvania (about 10%), New Jersey (5%), as well as in Chicago and other cities. At the same time, they lived, as a rule, in uncomfortable and overcrowded slums, in a kind of ghetto with their own customs and traditions; "Russian" Jews at the local level almost did not mix with "German" Jews.
The quantitative peak of Jewish emigration from Russia to the United States occurred in the 1900s - 704.2 thousand people. From the end of the 19th century, Jewish emigration to Canada increased - 70 thousand people in 1898-1920, which accounted for about 50% of immigration from Russia and 80% of Jewish immigration to Canada. Approximately the same number of Jews emigrated to Palestine before 1914.
Political emigration from Russia was, perhaps, not so numerous (corresponding statistics, of course, no one kept), as complex and representative of the entire wide spectrum of political opposition forces in Russia that is difficult to categorize. At the same time, like no other, it was internally well organized and structured: suffice it to note that in Europe alone, political emigrants from Russia published between 1855 and 1917 287 titles of newspapers and magazines! Moreover, incomparably better than emigration from pre-revolutionary Russia as a whole, it lends itself to conditional periodization. A.V. Popov, in particular, distinguishes two stages: 1) populist, leading from the emigration in 1847 by Herzen and ending in 1883 with the formation in Geneva of the Marxist group "Emancipation of Labor", and 2) proletarian(or more precisely, socialist), much more massive and more complex structured (more than 150 parties of various orientations).
The Russian government tried in every possible way to prevent political emigration, to stop or hinder its "subversive" activities abroad; with a number of countries (in particular, with the United States), it concluded agreements on the mutual extradition of political emigrants, which actually put them outside the law.
The First World War led to a sharp decline in international migrations, primarily labor and especially intercontinental (at the same time, internal migrations sharply increased, which is primarily due to the flows of refugees and evacuees fleeing the advancing enemy troops: their subsequent return was, as a rule, only partial). She sharply accelerated the revolutionary situation and thereby made her "contribution" to the victory of the Bolsheviks and the Left Socialist-Revolutionaries. Immediately after the October Revolution, the mass emigration of the most diverse social groups of the Russian population began, having no reason to identify themselves with the class whose dictatorship was proclaimed.
Waves of emigration from the USSRIn general terms, the traditional scheme of periodization of Russian emigration after 1917, emigration from the Soviet Union, has already taken shape and is generally recognized. It consisted, as it were, of four emigration waves”, sharply differing from each other in terms of reasons, geographical structure, duration and intensity of emigration, the degree of participation of Jews in them, etc.
This is more figurative than scientific concept - "wave". It is widespread and terminologically well-established, but at the same time, it does not easily withstand the burden of a scientific concept and term. It would probably be more correct to call them not waves, but periods corresponding to one or another chronological framework; behind waves but it would be necessary to preserve a slightly different, more characteristic load - intervals of concentrated manifestation of the phenomenon itself, or, in other words, bursts, outbreaks or peaks of emigration.
Therefore, denoting in brackets the chronological framework of a particular wave, one must be aware that they indicate no more than the time of the actual resettlement, that is, the first phase of emigration. At the same time, there are other phases, or stages, no less important in their significance than the first, and they have a different chronological framework. For example, the phase of the consolidation of emigrants, the formation of their public organizations and the press, or the phase of their socio-economic integration into the life of the state that accepted them, in relation to which they are no longer emigrants, but immigrants, etc.
First wave (1918-1922)- military and civilians who fled from the Soviet power that won during the revolution and the Civil Wave, as well as from hunger. Emigration from Bolshevik Russia, according to various estimates, ranged from 1.5 to 3 million people. However (with the possible exception of the "philosophical ships" with a hundred and fifty souls on board), these were still refugees, not deportees. Here, of course, the optional transfers of the population are not taken into account, due to the fact that parts of the territory of the former Russian Empire as a result of the First World War and revolutionary events either went to neighboring states (like Bessarabia to Romania), or became independent states, like Finland, Poland and the countries Baltic States (here we should also mention Ukraine, Belarus, the countries of Transcaucasia and Central Asia, and even the Far Eastern Republic - states with some of which Russia even had option agreements; however, their implementation most often lagged behind the annexation of these countries by the RSFSR).
In 1921, under the auspices of the League of Nations, the Refugees Settlement Commission was established, chaired by Fridtjof Nansen. In 1931, the so-called "Nansen Office" (Nansen-Amt) was founded, and in 1933 the refugee convention was concluded. International (so-called “Nansen”) passports, together with the help of the Nansen Foundation and other organizations, have helped millions of people survive and assimilate, including Jewish refugees from Germany.
Second wave (1941-1944)- persons displaced outside the borders of the USSR during the Second World War and evaded repatriation to their homeland (“defectors”). Our analysis of the forced repatriation of Soviet citizens led us to an estimate of the number of “defectors” at no more than 0.5-0.7 million people, including citizens of the Baltic republics (but not including the Poles, who repatriated from the territory of the USSR shortly after the war).
Third wave (1948 - 1989/1990)- this is, in fact, all the emigration of the Cold War period, so to speak, between the late Stalin and the early Gorbachev. Quantitatively, it fits into approximately half a million people, that is, it is close to the results of the “second wave”.
Fourth wave (1990 - present)- this is, in fact, the first more or less civilized emigration in Russian history. As Zh.A. Zayochkovskaya, " ... it is increasingly characterized by features that are typical of emigration from many countries in our time, it is predetermined not by political, as before, but by economic factors that push people to go to other countries in search of higher earnings, prestigious work, a different quality of life, etc. P.". Its quantitative estimates need to be updated annually, since this wave, although not in full swing, is far from over yet.
A. Akhiezer proposed the following six-link periodization scheme for emigration from Russia - three stages before the revolution and three stages after, namely: 1) before 1861; 2) 1861-1890s; 3) 1890s - 1914; 4) 1917-1952; 5) 1952 - 1992 and 6) after January 1, 1993 - the date of entry into force of the Law on Entry and Exit, adopted by the People's Deputies of the USSR in 1991. Obviously, the fourth stage corresponds to the so-called "first and second waves" of emigration from Soviet Russia, the fifth - the "third wave", the sixth - the "fourth" (partially). It seems that the unification of the first two “waves” into one period is hardly historically justified, as well as the countdown of the last - post-totalitarian - period since 1993: the mentioned Law was more or less pro forma, - Gorbachev's liberalization became a much more significant event from a practical point of view ethnic migrations as early as at the turn of 1986-1987, which led to a sharp jump in emigration already in 1987 and to its very real “boom” already in 1990.
Emigration and Revolution (“First Wave”)
Let's start, of course, with First immigrant wave. She is also called White emigration, and it is clear why. After the defeats of the White Army in the North-West, the first military emigrants were parts of the army of General Yudenich, interned in 1918 in Estonia. After the defeats in the East, another center of the emigration diaspora (approximately 400 thousand people) was formed in Manchuria with its center in Harbin. After the defeats in the South, steamships departing from the Black Sea ports in the rear of the retreating Denikin and Wrangel troops (mainly Novorossiysk, Sevastopol and Odessa), as a rule, headed for Constantinople, which for a time became “Little Russia”.
Before the revolution, the size of the Russian colony in Manchuria was at least 200-220 thousand people, and by November 1920 - already at least 288 thousand people. With the abolition of the status of extraterritoriality for Russian citizens in China on September 23, 1920, the entire Russian population in it, including refugees, moved to the unenviable position of stateless emigrants in a foreign state, that is, to the position of an actual diaspora. Throughout the entire turbulent period of the Civil War in the Far East (1918-1922), there was a significant mechanical movement of the population, which, however, consisted not only in the influx of the population, but also in its significant outflow - due to Kolchak, Semenov and other mobilizations, re-emigration and repatriation to Bolshevik Russia.
The first serious flow of Russian refugees in the Far East dates back to the beginning of 1920 - the time when the Omsk directory had already fallen; the second - in October-November 1920, when the army of the so-called "Russian Eastern Outskirts" under the command of Ataman G.M. Semenov (his regular troops alone numbered more than 20 thousand people; they were disarmed and interned in the so-called "Qiqihar camps", after which they were resettled by the Chinese in the Grodekovo region in the south of Primorye); finally, the third - at the end of 1922, when Soviet power was finally established in the region (only a few thousand people left by sea, the main flow of refugees was sent from Primorye to Manchuria and Korea, to China, they were not allowed to enter the CER, with some exceptions; some even sent to Soviet Russia).
It should be pointed out that, along with the “white”, in China, in particular, in 1918-1922 in Shanghai, for some time there was also a “red” emigration, however, not numerous (about 1 thousand people). After the end of the civil war in Primorye, most of the revolutionaries returned to the Far East. In November 1922, as if to “replace” them, 4.5 thousand white emigrants arrived on the ships of the squadrons of Rear Admirals Stark and Bezoir; in September 1923, they were joined by the remnants of the Far Eastern flotilla with refugees on board. The situation of the emigrant colony in Shanghai, in comparison with Europe and Harbin, was incomparably more difficult, also due to the impossibility of competition with the Chinese in the field of unskilled labor. The second largest, but perhaps the first in terms of enterprise, Russian emigrant colony in inner China was the community in Tianjin. In the 1920s, about two thousand Russians lived here, and in the 1930s already about 6 thousand Russians. Several hundred Russian emigrants settled in Beijing and Hangzhou.
At the same time, in China, namely in Xinjiang in the north-west of the country, there was another significant (more than 5.5 thousand people) Russian colony, which consisted of the Cossacks of General Bakich and former officials of the White Army, who retreated here after the defeats in the Urals and in Semirechye: they settled in the countryside and were engaged in agricultural labor.
The total population of the Russian colonies in Manchuria and China in 1923, when the war had already ended, was estimated at approximately 400 thousand people. Of this number, at least 100 thousand received Soviet passports in 1922-1923, many of them - at least 100 thousand people - were repatriated to the RSFSR (the amnesty announced on November 3, 1921 for ordinary members of the White Guard formations also played a role here). Significant (sometimes up to tens of thousands of people a year) were during the 1920s the re-emigration of Russians to other countries, especially young people striving for universities (in particular, to the USA, Australia and South America, as well as Europe).
The first influx of refugees South of Russia also took place at the beginning of 1920. Back in May 1920, General Wrangel established the so-called "Emigration Council", a year later renamed the Council for the Settlement of Russian Refugees. Civilian and military refugees were settled in camps near Constantinople, on the Princes' Islands and in Bulgaria; military camps at Gallipoli, Chataldzha and Lemnos (Kuban camp) were under British or French administration. The last operations to evacuate the Wrangel army took place from November 11 to 14, 1920: 15 thousand Cossacks, 12 thousand officers and 4-5 thousand soldiers of regular units, 10 thousand cadets, 7 thousand wounded officers, more than 30 thousand officers and officials were loaded onto the ships rear and up to 60 thousand civilians, mainly members of the families of officers and officials. It was this, Crimean, wave of evacuees who found emigration particularly difficult.
At the end of 1920, the card file of the Main Information (or Registration) Bureau already had 190 thousand names with addresses. At the same time, the number of military men was estimated at 50-60 thousand people, and civilian refugees - at 130-150 thousand people.
The most prominent "refugees" (aristocrats, officials and merchants) were usually able to pay for tickets, visas and other fees. Within one or two weeks in Constantinople, they settled all the formalities and went on to Europe, mainly to France and Germany: by the beginning of November 1920, according to the Red Army intelligence, their number had reached 35-40 thousand people.
By the end of the winter of 1921, only the poorest and poorest, as well as the military, remained in Constantinople. Spontaneous re-evacuation began, especially of peasants and captured Red Army soldiers who did not fear reprisals. By February 1921, the number of such re-emigrants had reached 5,000. In March, another 6.5 thousand Cossacks were added to them. Over time, it took on organized forms.
In the spring of 1921, General Wrangel turned to the Bulgarian and Yugoslav governments with a request for the possibility of resettling the Russian army on their territory. In August, consent was received: Yugoslavia (the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes) accepted the Barbovich Cavalry Division, Kuban and part of the Don Cossacks (with weapons; their duties included border service and government work), and Bulgaria - the entire 1- th corps, military schools and part of the Don Cossacks (without weapons). At the same time, about 20% of the army personnel left the army and moved to the position of refugees.
About 35 thousand Russian emigrants (mostly military) were settled in various, mainly Balkan countries: 22 thousand ended up in Serbia, 5 thousand in Tunisia (port of Bizerte), 4 thousand in Bulgaria and 2 thousand each in Romania and Greece.
Worthy of being mentioned statistically insignificant, but politically"loud" emigration action of Soviet Russia as the deportation of humanitarian scientists in 1922. It took place in the autumn of 1922: two famous “ philosophical steamer” brought from Petrograd to Germany (Stettin) about 50 outstanding Russian humanitarians (together with members of their families - about 115 people). Similarly, such prominent politicians as Dan, Kuskova, Prokopovich, Peshekhonov, Ladyzhensky were expelled from the USSR. And to those and to others, apparently, the Decree of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee “On Administrative Expulsion” of August 10, 1922 was applied.
The League of Nations achieved some success in helping Russian emigrants. F. Nansen, the famous Norwegian polar explorer, appointed in February 1921 as Commissioner for Russian Refugees, introduced special identification cards for them (the so-called “Nansen passports”), eventually recognized in 31 countries of the world. With the help of the organization created by Nansen (Refugees Settlement Commission), about 25 thousand refugees were employed (mainly in the USA, Austria, Belgium, Germany, Hungary and Czechoslovakia).
The total number of emigrants from Russia, on November 1, 1920, according to the estimates of the American Red Cross, was 1,194 thousand people; later this estimate was increased to 2092 thousand people. The most authoritative estimate of the number of "white emigration", given by A. and E. Kulischer, also speaks of 1.5-2.0 million people. It was based, among other things, on selective data from the League of Nations, which recorded, as of August 1921, more than 1.4 million refugees from Russia. This number also included 100,000 German colonists, 65,000 Latvians, 55,000 Greeks and 12,000 Karelians. By countries of arrival, emigrants were distributed as follows (thousand people): Poland - 650, Germany - 300, France - 250, Romania - 100, Yugoslavia - 50, Greece - 31, Bulgaria - 30, Finland - 19, Turkey - 11 and Egypt - 3 .
At the same time, V. Kabuzan estimates the total number of those who emigrated from Russia in 1918-1924 at no less than 5 million people, including about 2 million. optants, that is, residents of the former Russian (Polish and Baltic) provinces that became part of the newly formed sovereign states
Separating emigration from option is a very difficult, but still important task: in 1918-1922, the total number of emigrants and repatriates was (for a number of countries, selectively): to Poland - 4.1 million people, to Latvia - 130 thousand people, to Lithuania - 215 thousand people. Many, especially in Poland, were in fact emigrants in transit and did not stay there for long.
In 1922, according to N.A. Struve, the total number of Russian emigration was 863 thousand people, in 1930 it decreased to 630 thousand and in 1937 to 450 thousand people. The territorial distribution of Russian emigration is presented in Table. one.
Table 1. Distribution of Russian emigration by countries and regions (1922-1937, %)
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COUNTRIES AND REGIONS |
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|
Far East |
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|
Germany |
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|
Balkan countries |
|||
|
Finland and the Baltic States |
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|
Countries Center. Europe |
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|
Other European countries |
|||
Source: STRUVE; 1996, p.300-301
According to incomplete data from the Refugee Service of the League of Nations, in 1926, 755.3 thousand Russian and 205.7 thousand Armenian refugees were officially registered. More than half of the Russians - about 400 thousand people - were then accepted by France; in China there were 76 thousand of them, in Yugoslavia, Latvia, Czechoslovakia and Bulgaria approximately 30-40 thousand people each (in 1926 there were about 220 thousand immigrants from Russia in Bulgaria). Most of the Armenians found refuge in Syria, Greece and Bulgaria (respectively, about 124, 42 and 20 thousand people).
Constantinople, which served as the main transshipment base for emigration, eventually lost its significance. The recognized centers of the “first emigration” (it is also called White) were, at its next stage, Berlin and Harbin (before its occupation by the Japanese in 1936), as well as Belgrade and Sofia. The Russian population of Berlin in 1921 numbered about 200 thousand people, it was especially affected during the years of the economic crisis, and by 1925 there were only 30 thousand people left. Later, Prague and Paris came to the fore. The coming to power of the Nazis further pushed the Russian emigrants away from Germany. Prague and, in particular, Paris moved to the first places in emigration. Even on the eve of the Second World War, but especially during the hostilities and soon after the war, there was a tendency for some of the first emigration to move to the United States.
Thus, despite the tangible Asian part, the first emigration can be described without exaggeration as predominantly European. The question of its ethnic composition cannot be quantified, but the noticeable predominance of Russians and other Slavs is also quite obvious. Compared with the pre-revolutionary emigration from Russia, the participation of Jews in the "first wave" is rather modest: the emigration of Jews took place not on ethnic, but rather on general socio-political grounds.
As a historical phenomenon, the “first emigration” is unique both quantitatively and qualitatively. It became, firstly, one of the largest emigration movements in world history, which took place in an unusually short time. Secondly, it marked the transfer to foreign soil of a whole socio-cultural layer, for the existence of which there were no sufficient prerequisites in the homeland: such key concepts and categories as monarchism, class, churchness were preserved and saved by the incredible exertion of forces in exile. and private property. “ Now in exile- W. Davatz wrote, - all the elements of a territorialless Russian statehood were found, not only not in a friendly, but in a hostile environment. This whole mass of people outside the homeland has become a true "Russia in the small", that new phenomenon that does not fit into the usual framework.”.
Thirdly, the widespread behavioral paradigm of this wave (partly due to the unjustified hope that it would be forced and short-lived) was a closure to one’s own environment, a focus on recreating in its composition as many as possible the public institutions that existed in the homeland and the actual (and, of course, temporary) ) refusal to integrate into the new society . Fourthly, the polarization of the emigrant mass itself and, in a broad sense, the degradation of a significant part of it with an amazing predisposition to internal conflicts and strife were also regrettable conclusions that have to be ascertained.
Emigration between the Civil and Patriotic WarsIn addition to the White emigration, the first post-revolutionary decade also saw fragments of ethnic (and, at the same time, religious) emigration - Jewish (about 100 thousand people, almost all to Palestine) and German (about 20-25 thousand people), and the most massive type of emigration - labor, so characteristic of Russia before the First World War, after 1917 on the territory of the USSR practically ceased, or, more precisely, was discontinued.
According to some sources, between 1923 and 1926, about 20 thousand Germans (mostly Mennonites) emigrated to Canada, and according to others, about 24 thousand people emigrated in 1925-1930, of which 21 thousand went to Canada, and the rest - to South America. In 1922-1924, about 20 thousand German families living in Ukraine applied for emigration to Germany, but only 8 thousand received permission from the German authorities. At the same time, the statistics of the immigration of Soviet Germans to Germany in 1918-1933, according to the German Foreign Ministry, is as follows: about 3 thousand people entered in 1918-1922, about 20 thousand in 1923-1928 and about 6 thousand in 1929-1933. There is evidence of mass "campaigns" in the 1920s of thousands of German families seeking to leave the USSR, to Moscow, to the embassies of countries that refuse to admit them: in 1923 - to the German embassy (16 thousand people), and at the end of 1929 years - to the Embassy of Canada (18 thousand people). The appeal of the Dukhobors and Molokans of the Salsk district to leave for the same Canada was also rejected.
Speaking about the 1920s, one should also mention individual "echoes" of the Civil War, which was waged in certain regions of Central Asia until the mid-1930s. So, in the early 1920s (no later than 1924), about 40 thousand dekhan (peasant) households from Tajikistan (or approximately 200-250 thousand people) emigrated to the northern provinces of Afghanistan, which constituted a significant part of the population of Eastern Bukhara and led to to a sharp reduction in cotton crops. Of these, during 1925-1927, only about 7 thousand households, or approximately 40 thousand people, were repatriated. It is significant that the returnees were settled not where they fled from, but mainly in the Vakhsh valley, which was dictated by the interests of the state in its development.
Serious factors of emigration in the 1930s. (at least in Central Asia and Kazakhstan, where the regime of borders was still more or less conventional) were collectivization and the resulting famine. Thus, an extremely difficult situation developed in 1933 in Kazakhstan, where, as a result of famine and collectivization, the livestock population decreased by 90%. The "Great Leap Forward" in animal husbandry (up to the general socialization of livestock, even small ones) and the policy of forced " subsidence"the nomadic and semi-nomadic Kazakh people turned into not only starvation and death from 1 to 2 million people, but also mass migration of Kazakhs. According to Zelenin, it covered at least 400 thousand families, or about 2 million people, and according to Abylkhozhin and others - 1030 thousand people, of which 414 thousand returned to Kazakhstan, about the same settled in the RSFSR and the republics of Central Asia, and the remaining 200 thousand went abroad - to China, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Iran and Turkey. Of course, this was a rather lengthy process that began at the end of 1931 and grew from the spring of 1932 to the spring of 1933.
Emigration and the Great Patriotic War ("Second Wave")As for Soviet citizens proper, never before had so many of them found themselves abroad at the same time as during the years of the Great Patriotic War. True, this happened in most cases not only against the will of the state, but also against their own will.
We can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory that belonged to the Soviet Union before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was, in our estimation, about 8.7 million people
Table 2. Persons who lived on the territory of the USSR before the war and were displaced during the war abroad (to the territory of Germany, its allies or countries occupied by them)
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population |
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|
million people |
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Civil internees |
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Prisoners of war |
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Ostovtsy (Ostarbeiters - “Easterners”) |
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"Westerners" |
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Volksdeutsche |
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|
Ingrian Finns |
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|
"Refugees" |
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|
"Evacuees" |
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Note
Source: Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, labor, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home / Foreword. D. Granina. M.: ROSSPEN, 2002. (Ed. 2nd, revised and supplemented), pp. 135-136.
Let us consider individual contingents of citizens of the USSR who found themselves during the war years in Germany and on the territory of its allies or countries occupied by it (see Table 2). First, this Soviet prisoners of war. Secondly and thirdly, civilians forcibly taken to the Reich: this ostovtsy, or Ostarbeiters, in the German sense of the term, which corresponds to the Soviet term Ostarbeiters-“Easterners”(that is, workers taken out of the old Soviet regions), and Ostarbeiter-“Westernizers” who lived in areas annexed by the USSR in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Fourth, this Volksdeutsche and Volksfinns, that is, the Germans and Finns are Soviet citizens, whom the NKVD simply did not have time to deport after the majority of their fellow tribesmen, who became “special settlers” for many years. Fifth and sixth, these are the so-called “refugees and evacuees”, that is, Soviet civilians who were taken out or independently rushed to Germany after (or rather, in front of) the retreating Wehrmacht. The refugees were mainly people who in one way or another collaborated with the German administration and for this reason had no particular illusions about their future after the restoration of Soviet power; the evacuees, on the contrary, were taken away by force no less than the classic “Ostarbeiters”, thereby clearing the territory left to the enemy from the population, which, otherwise, could be used against the Germans. Nevertheless, in the scanty statistics that we have about them, both categories are usually combined. The seventh, and if in chronological terms - then the first, category was civilian internees- that is, diplomats, employees of trade and other missions and delegations of the USSR, sailors, railway workers, etc. etc., caught by the outbreak of war in Germany and interned (as a rule, directly on June 22, 1941) on its territory. Quantitatively, this category is negligible.
Some of these people did not live to see the victory (especially many of these among prisoners of war), most of them repatriated to their homeland, but many evaded repatriation and remained in the West, becoming the core of the so-called “Second wave” of emigration from the USSR. The maximum quantitative estimate of this wave is approximately 500-700 thousand people, most of them come from Western Ukraine and the Baltic states. (participation in this emigration of the Jews, for obvious reasons, was a vanishingly small value).
Initially concentrated entirely in Europe as part of a larger mass of "DP" or displaced persons, many of the second wave left the Old World during 1945-1951 and moved to Australia, South America, Canada, but especially the USA. The proportion of those who ultimately remained in Europe can only be estimated, but in any case it is by no means more than a third or a quarter. Thus, in the second wave, in comparison with the first, the level of "Europeanness" is significantly lower.
Thus, we can talk about approximately 5.45 million civilians, one way or another displaced from the territory that belonged to the Soviet Union before the war, to the territory that belonged or was controlled before the war by the Third Reich or its allies. Taking into account 3.25 million prisoners of war, the total number of Soviet citizens deported outside the USSR was, in our estimation, about 8.7 million people
Let us try, at least approximately, to bring the demographic balance of forced deportations of Soviet citizens to Germany and their repatriation. Data for a correct comparison of the degree of repatriation for all indicated in Table. We do not have 3 categories, so the following table is compiled largely by experts.
Table 3. Persons who lived on the territory of the USSR before the war and ended up on the territory of Germany and its allied countries during the war, in relation to repatriation to the USSR
|
population |
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|
million people |
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|
TOTAL, including |
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|
Died or killed |
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|
Repatriated by the Germans (“returners”) |
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|
Self-repatriated |
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|
repatriated by the state |
|||
|
Avoided repatriation (“defectors”) |
|||
Note: Calculations are estimated and not final.
Source: Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, labor, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home / Foreword. D. Granina. M.: ROSSPEN, 2002. (Ed. 2nd, revised and additional), p.143.
How many "defectors" of Soviet origin remained after the Second World War in the West?
According to one of the official estimates made by the Office for Repatriation on the basis of incomplete data, by January 1, 1952, 451,561 Soviet citizens still remained abroad. Our estimate - about 700 thousand people - is based on the realistic assumption that a significant part of DP acted at their own peril and risk and tried in every possible way to avoid registration and assistance even from international organizations.
If in 1946 more than 80% of the defectors were inside the western occupation zones in Germany and Austria, now they accounted for only about 23% of their number. So, in all six western zones of Germany and Austria there were 103.7 thousand people, while in England alone - 100.0, Australia - 50.3, Canada - 38.4, USA - 35.3, Sweden - 27, 6, France - 19.7 and Belgium - 14.7 thousand "temporarily not repatriated". In this regard, the ethnic structure of defectors is very expressive. Most of them were Ukrainians - 144934 people (or 32.1%), followed by three Baltic peoples - Latvians (109214 people, or 24.2%), Lithuanians (63401, or 14.0%) and Estonians (58924, or 13.0%). All of them, together with 9856 Belarusians (2.2%), accounted for 85.5% of the registered defectors. Actually, this is, with some coarsening and overestimation, the quota of "Westerners" (in Zemskov's terminology) in the structure of this contingent. According to V.N. Zemskov, "Westerners" accounted for 3/4, and "Easterners" - only 1/4 of the number of defectors. But most likely the proportion of “Westerners” is even higher, especially if we assume that a sufficient number of Poles have crept into the “other” category (33,528 people, or 7.4%). There are only 31,704 Russians among the defectors, or 7.0%.
In light of this, the scale of Western estimates of the number of defectors becomes understandable, an order of magnitude lower than the Soviet ones and, as it were, oriented towards the number of Russians by nationality in this environment. So, according to M. Proudfoot, about 35 thousand former Soviet citizens are officially registered as "remaining in the West".
But be that as it may, Stalin's fears were justified and tens and hundreds of thousands of former Soviet or sub-Soviet citizens one way or another, by hook or by crook, but avoided repatriation and nevertheless made up the so-called " second emigration”.
Emigration and the Cold War (“Third Wave”)
Third wave (1948-1986)- this is, in fact, all the emigration of the Cold War period, so to speak, between the late Stalin and the early Gorbachev. Quantitatively, it fits into approximately half a million people, that is, it is close to the results of the “second wave”.
Qualitatively, it consists of two very dissimilar terms: the first is made up of not quite standard emigrants - forcibly deported ("expelled") and defectors, the second - "normal" emigrants, although "normality" for that time was a thing so specific and exhausting (with extortions for education, with incriminating meetings of labor and even school groups and other types of harassment) that it did not fit well with real democratic norms.
Special and very specific immigrants were all sorts of defectors and defectors. “Wanted list of the KGB” for 470 people, 201 of them - to Germany (including the American zone - 120, the English - 66, the French - 5), 59 to Austria. Most of them got jobs in the USA - 107, in Germany - 88, in Canada - 42, in Sweden - 28, in England - 25, etc. Since 1965, “trials in absentia” of defectors have been replaced by “decrees on arrest”.
Quantitatively dominated, of course, "normal" emigrants. The total indicators of the third wave, according to S. Heitman, are as follows: in 1948-1986, about 290,000 Jews left the USSR, 105,000 Soviet Germans and 52,000 Armenians. Within this period, S. Heitman distinguishes three specific sub-stages: 1948-1970, 1971-1980 and 1980-1985 (see Table 4):
Table 4. Emigration from the USSR of Jews, Germans and Armenians (1948-1985)
|
Periods |
Jews, pers. |
Jews, % |
Germans, pers. |
Germans, % |
Armenians, pers. |
Armenians, % |
Total, pers. |
Total,% |
Average |
Source: Heitman S. The Third Soviet Emigration: Jewish, German and Armenian Emigration from the USSR since World War II // Berichte des Bundesinstituts für ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien No. 21, 1987, p.24 (numbers rounded).
Until the 1980s, Jews constituted the majority, and more often the decisive majority of emigrants from the USSR. At the first sub-stage, which gave only 9% of the "third emigration", although the Jewish emigration was in the lead, it did not dominate (only a 2-fold advantage over the Armenian and quite insignificant - over the German emigration). But on the most massive second m sub-stage (which gave 86% of Jewish emigration for the entire period), even with a friendly, almost 3-fold increase in German and Armenian emigration, Jewish emigration firmly dominated (with a share of 72%), and only in the third sub-stage did it for the first time give way to the leadership of German emigration. .
In some years (for example, in 1980), the number of Armenian emigrants almost did not yield to German emigrants, and unofficial emigration was characteristic of them (the channel of which most likely was non-return after a guest trip to relatives) .
At the first sub-stage, almost all Jews rushed to the "promised land" - Israel, of which about 14 thousand people did not directly, but through Poland. On the second, the picture changed: only 62.8% of Jewish emigrants went to Israel, the rest preferred the United States (33.5%) or other countries (primarily Canada and European countries). At the same time, the number of those who traveled directly with an American visa was relatively small (during 1972-1979 it never exceeded 1,000 people). The majority left with an Israeli visa, but with the actual right to choose between Israel and the United States during a transit stop in Vienna: here the bill was no longer hundreds, but thousands of human souls. It was then that many Soviet Jews also settled in major European capitals, primarily in Vienna and Rome, which served as a kind of transit base for Jewish emigration in the 1970s and 1980s; later, the flow was also directed through Budapest, Bucharest and other cities (but there were also many who, having arrived in Israel, moved from there to the USA).
It is interesting that Jews from Georgia and from the USSR-annexed Baltic states, Western Ukraine and Northern Bukovina (mainly from cities - primarily Riga, Lvov, Chernivtsi, etc.), where - with the exception of Georgia - anti-Semitism was especially "in honor". As a rule, these were deeply religious Jews, often with uninterrupted family ties in the West.
Since the late 1970s, the purely Jewish emigration has been split in two and almost equally, even with some margin in favor of the United States, especially when you consider those who moved there from Israel. The US championship lasted from 1978 to 1989, that is, in those years when the flow of Jewish emigrants in itself was small or negligible. But the huge “backlog” of people on the waiting list and refuseniks, accumulated over previous years, predetermined that, starting from 1990, when Israel accounted for 85% of Jewish emigration, it is again and firmly in the lead. (However, this leadership came to an end only 12 years later, when in 2002 - for the first time in the history of Jewish immigration from the USSR - Germany took the first place among the receiving countries!)
At the same time, in general, the third wave can be considered the most ethnicized (there were simply no other mechanisms to leave, except along Jewish, German or Armenian lines) and at the same time the least European of all of the above: its leaders were alternately Israel and the United States. And only in the 1980s, when the Jewish ethnic migration was overtaken by the German one, did its course turn towards “Europeanization” - a trend that manifested itself to an even greater extent in the “fourth wave” (specific also to the new - German - direction of the Jewish emigration).
Emigration and perestroika (“The Fourth Wave”)
The beginning of this period should be counted from the era of M.S. Gorbachev, but, by the way, not from his very first steps, but rather from the “second”, among which the most important were the withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan, the liberalization of the press and the rules for entering and leaving the country. The actual beginning (more precisely, the resumption) of Jewish emigration under Gorbachev dates back to April 1987, but statistically this affected with some delay. Let us repeat that this period, in fact, continues now, so its quantitative estimates need to be updated annually.
In any case, they turned out to be much more modest than those apocalyptic forecasts about the "ninth wave" of emigration from the former USSR allegedly rolling over Europe with a capacity, according to various estimates, from 3 to 20 million people - an influx that the West even purely economically could not afford endure. In fact, nothing “terrible” happened in the West. Legal emigration from the USSR turned out to be well protected by the laws of all Western countries and is still limited to representatives of only a few nationalities, for which - again, only in a few host countries - a certain legal and social infrastructure has been created.
We are talking primarily about ethnic Germans and Jews (to a lesser extent - about the Greeks and Armenians, to an even lesser extent and most recently - about Poles and Koreans). In particular, Israel created legal guarantees for the immigration (repatriation) of Jews, and Germany - for the immigration of Germans and Jews living in the territory of the b. THE USSR.
Thus, according to the German Constitution and the Law on the Expelled (Bundesvertriebenengesetz), the FRG undertook to accept for settlement and citizenship all persons of German nationality who were subjected to in the 40s. exile from their native lands and those living outside of Germany. They came and come either in the status of “expelled” (Vertriebene), or in the status of “settlers” or the so-called “late settlers” (Aussiedler or Spätaussiedler) and almost immediately, upon the first application, receive German citizenship.
In 1950, about 51,000 Germans lived in the Federal Republic of Germany, who were born in the territory that until 1939 was part of the USSR. This turned out to be important for the start of German immigration from the Soviet Union, since at its first stage the Soviet side met halfway, mainly in cases of family reunification. Actually, German emigration from the USSR to the FRG began in 1951, when 1,721 ethnic Germans left for their homeland. On February 22, 1955, the Bundestag decided to recognize the German citizenship acquired during the war, which extended the “Law on the Expelled” to all Germans living in Eastern Europe. By May 1956, the German embassy in Moscow had accumulated about 80,000 applications from Soviet Germans to leave for the FRG. In 1958-1959, the number of German emigrants amounted to 4-5.5 thousand people. For a long time, the record was the result of 1976 (9704 immigrants). In 1987, the 10,000th milestone (14488 people) “fell”, after which almost every year the bar was raised to a new height (persons): 1988 - 47572, 1989 - 98134, 1990 - 147950, 1991 - 147320, 1992 - 195950, 1993 - 207347 and 1994 - 213214 people. In 1995, the bar resisted (209,409 people), and in 1996 it moved down (172,181 people), which is explained not so much by the policy of recreating favorable conditions for the Germans to live in Kazakhstan, Russia, etc., but by the tightening of the resettlement regulations undertaken by the German government , in particular, measures to attach settlers to the lands assigned to them (including the eastern ones, where about 20% now live), but in particular the obligation to take an exam for knowledge of the German language (Sprachtest) on the spot (at the exam, as a rule , “fails” at least 1/3 of those admitted to it).
Nevertheless, the 1990s became, in essence, the time of the most landslide exodus of Russian Germans from the republics of the former USSR. In total, 1,549,490 Germans and members of their families moved from there to Germany in 1951-1996. According to some estimates, the Germans “by passport” (that is, those who arrived on the basis of § 4 of the “Law on the Expelled”) make up about 4/5 among them: another 1/5 is their spouses, descendants and relatives (mainly Russians and Ukrainians ). By the beginning of 1997, according to the same estimates, less than 1/3 of the Germans who had previously lived there remained in Kazakhstan, 1/6 in Kyrgyzstan, and in Tajikistan the German contingent was practically exhausted. The intensity of German emigration from Russia is much lower; moreover, there is a noticeable German immigration from the Central Asian states to Russia.
Some results and trends
So, what do the Soviet emigration trends look like?
The first trend is internal political: there is an undoubted strengthening of the legitimacy (but still civilized!) of emigration. Cold War emigrants are still "traitors to the motherland", but they leave legally and sanctioned, according to certain rules: therefore, they do not need to be killed, but they can be poisoned and branded as much as you like.
The second trend is mental: from the cross of preserving and safeguarding the specific values of Russian self-identity in exile (with a patriotic-monarchist bias) and from exile itself as a vessel, or a reserve (or even a ghetto) for the latter, to the cosmopolitan attitude of the Jewish (and , partly German) youth for accelerated integration into Western life and the maximum separation from Soviet values, partly still shared by the generation of their own parents, who also emigrated at the same time.
The third trend is cultural and geographical: Russian emigration began as emigration to Europe, but until the 1980s, the role of Europe in the Soviet emigration flow was steadily declining. If in the “first wave” it clearly dominated Asia and America, and internally it was widely represented (Serbia, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Germany or France), then in the “second wave” Europe served as nothing more than a springboard to the New World, mainly , to the USA, South America and Australia (by the way, representatives of the “first wave” also reached there at that time). The "de-Europeanization" of emigration from the USSR intensified even more in the "third wave", but only up to a certain time limit - the beginning of the 1980s, when the role of "Europeanizers" of the emigration flow was assumed by the Soviet Germans, who lived at that time, mainly in the Asian part of the USSR (in the 1990s, they were “joined” by Jews who began to receive Germany).
The position of the Russian Federation on the “migration” map is contradictory: it is referred both to the countries of immigration and to the countries of emigration. For the inhabitants of the former republics of the USSR, Russia is still more attractive and safer, it is they who provide 98% of the "entry" to the Russian Federation.
But in relation to the developed countries of the West, the Russian Federation traditionally acts as a country of “departure”. The emigration flow is significantly inferior to the immigration one. Nevertheless, it is quite important, because. usually the most active, educated, hardworking part of the population leaves. In addition, the analysis of recorded emigration indirectly characterizes hidden emigration. Specialists who go on long-term internships and work in Western firms usually seek to gain a foothold there and stay forever.
The size of emigration jumped noticeably in the late 1980s, when Gorbachev's liberalization of entry and exit to the USSR began to take effect. For the first time in the history of Russia's external migration, emigration acquired civilized features. Over the past 10-12 years, more than 1 million people left the Russian Federation for non-CIS countries only officially and for permanent residence. Annual emigration averaged between 80,000 and 100,000 people, that is, almost the same as in the previous decade from the entire USSR.
In the last two or three years, there has been a trend towards a reduction in entry and exit from Russia, which is accompanied by an increase in the share of Russia's close neighbors. Outbursts of emigration are directly related to crisis phenomena, and its growth is quite possible if these phenomena increase or persist.
The main flow of people leaving the country falls on three countries - Germany, Israel and the United States. For most countries, the increase in entry from Russia took place during the periods of political and economic crises in 1991 and 1993, which pushed citizens who had not yet fully matured to make a decision to leave.
However, the peak of emigration turned out to be extended, for different countries it did not come at the same time. The reasons for this are the presence of large contingents of potential emigrants, legitimate for the three countries of immigration mentioned, and the immigration policy of these states, as well as the socio-economic situation within Russia itself.
The structure of emigration, however, also underwent other gradual changes. Israel and Greece were the first to reach the peak of immigration from Russia in 1990, having accepted Soviet citizens who had long been “ready” for emigration. Then the peak came for the United States (1993), which smoothly regulated the immigration flow from the former USSR. Later than others, this happened with Germany. Less mobile than more urbanized Russian Jews and Greeks, Russian Germans most actively left Russia in 1993-1995.
The trend of the last two years is that, since 1997, there has been a decrease in the combined share of Germany, Israel and the United States - due to an increase in the share of other states. First of all, these are the closest neighbors of Russia, as well as countries whose fate in different historical periods was closely connected with the fate of the Russian state. Poles and Finns, in particular, reached their emigration maximum. Apparently not seeing any special prospects in Russia, they considered that it would be better for them in their ethnic homeland - in Poland or Finland.
The number of people leaving for Canada and Australia is growing especially noticeably, which is associated with the relatively liberal immigration policies of both countries.
In the past two years, another problem has been exposed - Chinese immigration from China (mainly to Primorye), which, according to official data, has increased sharply after the conclusion of a bilateral agreement on this issue, which, according to official data, was approximately twice as large as their departure back. The PRC has joined a small circle of countries, mainly developing countries (Afghanistan, Pakistan, Korea, Bulgaria), which have had a positive balance with the Russian Federation in the past two years, but differs from them in the significant size of the migration exchange with the Russian Federation.
One of the most important emigration factors is ethnicity. Among the countries of entry, there are states, emigration to which is largely ethnic in nature. This is primarily Germany and Israel, and Germany from the countries of the former USSR accepts not only Germans, but also Jews. The main share of rural emigration from Russia falls on Germany: these are Russian Germans from the Volga region, Western Siberia, and the North Caucasus.
The latter combines ethnic and religious principles and to a certain extent can also be considered as religious.
Kabuzan V. M. Russians in the World: Dynamics of Population and Settlement (1719-1989). Formation of ethnic and political boundaries of the Russian people. St. Petersburg: Blitz, 1996. And this is precisely the origin of the Kosovo Adygs, who repatriated to Russia in 1998 after the aggravation of the internal political situation in Kosovo.
Obolensky (Osinsky) V.V. International and intercontinental migrations in pre-war Russia and the USSR. M.: TsSU USSR, 1928, p. 20.
Kabuzan, 1996, p.313.
Popov A.V. Russian Diaspora and Archives. Documents of the Russian emigration in the archives of Moscow: problems of identification, acquisition, description, use. M .: Historical and archive institute of the Russian State Humanitarian University, 1998, pp. 29-30.
With regard to the general periodization of Jewish immigration to the United States, which began on a modest scale back in the middle of the 17th century, this wave constituted its third and most massive stage, stretched by researchers from 1880 to 1924, when US immigration legislation was sharply tightened. The two previous stages were the immigration of Dutch, Spanish and Portuguese Sephardi Jews (from the middle of the 17th to the first quarter of the 19th centuries) and German, as well as Polish and Hungarian Ashkenazi Jews, who spoke mainly Yiddish (from the 1830s to the 1880s). gg.). Of the approximately 250,000 Jews in the United States in 1877, 200,000 were German Jews. More than half of them settled in New York and the northeastern states, 20% each in the north central and south Atlantic states, and another 10% in the western states. It is to this immigration wave of German Ashkenazim that the formation of the most modernized trend in Judaism (reformism) dates back. See: Nitoburg E.L. Jews in America at the turn of the 20th century. M.: Choro, 1996, p.4-8. Pushkareva N.L. Ways of formation of the Russian diaspora after 1945 // Ethnographic review. - 1992. - No. 6. - P.18-19.
See: Felshtinsky Yu. On the history of our closeness. Legislative foundations of the Soviet immigration and emigration policy. London: Overseas Publications Interchange Ltd, 1988, p. 70-78, 83-97.
Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, labor, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home / Foreword. D. Granina. M.: ROSSPEN, 2002. (Ed. 2nd, revised and additional)
Zayonchkovskaya Zh.A. Emigration to foreign countries // Demoscope Weekly No. 27-28, July 30 - August 12, 2001
This “wave” is the subject of a special article by ZhA.Zayonchkovskaya in this section of the monograph. Some of the latest trends in migration exchange with the so-called "far abroad", primarily Jewish and German emigration, are the subject of special articles by the author (Polyan P.M. "Westarbeiters": interned Germans in the USSR (prehistory, history, geography). Textbook for special course, Stavropol, Moscow, SSU Publishing House, 1999, P.M. Polyan, Not of his own free will, History and Geography of Forced Migration in the USSR, M., 2001a, etc.). See other articles by Zh.A. Zaionchkovskaya in this edition. - Ed.
Melikhov, 1997, p.195.
Melikhov, 1997, p.58.
Pivovar E.Yu., Gerasimov N.P. et al., Russian emigration in Turkey, Southeast and Central Europe in the 1920s (civilian refugees, the army, educational establishments). Textbook for students. M .: Historical and Archival Institute of the Russian State Humanitarian University, 1994, p.26, with reference to: GARF, f.5809, op.1, d.100, l.27.
RGVA, f.6, op.4, d.418, sheet 30-30v.; file 596, sheet 187-187; f.33988, op.2, d.213, l.307.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.10, with reference to: GARF, f.5809, op.1, d.98, l.189. Data for 1921 has not been preserved.
Of these, about 25 thousand children, 35 thousand women, up to 50 thousand men of military age (from 21 to 43 years old) and about 30 thousand elderly men (Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p. 12, with reference on the: RGVA, f.33988, op.2, file 596, sheet 187v.; f.7, op.2, d.734, l.10; f.109, op.3, file 360, sheet 4v.; 373, l.20).
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.11, with reference to: RGVA, f.101, op.1, d.148, l.58; f.102, op.3, d.584, l.89-90.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.13, with reference to: RGVA, f.7, op.2, d.386, l.4; f.109, op.3, file 365, sheet 4v.; d.373, l.22; f.33988, op.2, file 213, sheet 364ob.
Brewer, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.19.
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.14, with reference to: GARF, f.5809, op.1, d.87, l.1.
09/28/1922 sailed and 09/30/1922 sailed the ship "Oberburgomaster Haken" with scientists from Moscow and Kazan (30 or 33 people, with family members - about 70), and 11/15/1922 sailed and 11/18/1922 sailed the ship "Prussia" with scientists from Petrograd (17 people, with family members - 44). All deportees were preliminarily arrested (see: Geller M., First warning: hit with a whip // Bulletin of the Russian Student Christian Movement. Paris, 1979, Issue 127. pp. 187-232; Horuzhy S.S. After the break. Ways of Russian philosophy SPb., 1994, pp. 188-208).
Felshtinsky, 1988, p.149.
Brewer, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.35. In 1931, the so-called "Nansen Office" (Nansen-Amt) was founded, and in 1933 the refugee convention was concluded. The International Nansen Passports, together with the help of the Nansen Foundation, have helped millions of people survive and assimilate. Nansen-Amt worked until 1938, taking care of 800 thousand Russian and Ukrainian, as well as 170 thousand Armenian refugees from Turkey (later they had to deal with about 400 thousand Jewish refugees from Germany).
Pivovar, Gerasimova et al., 1994, p.12, with reference to: RGVA, f.7, op.2, d.730, l.208, 251v.; f.109, op.3, d.236, l.182; file 368, sheet 8ob.
Kulischer A., Kulischer E.M. Kriege und Wanderzuge: Weltgeschichte als Volkerbewegung. Berlin, 1932. Following them, A. Polyakov and many other authors give the same assessment.
Kulischer E.M. Europe on the Move: War and Population Changes, 1917-1947. N.Y. Columbia UP, 1948, p.53-56. Interestingly, some of the emigrants were amnestied by the Soviet government and returned to the USSR, for example, 122 thousand Cossacks, led by General Slashchev, who returned in 1922. By 1938, the number of returnees amounted to almost 200 thousand people.
Reported by K. Stadnyuk (Donetsk).
At the beginning of 1930, Canada suspended the reception of Soviet Germans (reported by I. Silina, Barnaul).
Kurbanova Sh.I. Resettlement: how it was. Dushanbe: Irfon, 1993, p.56, with links to the Archive of the Communist Party of Tajikistan ( f.3, op.1, d.5, l.88 and f.3, op.5, d.3, l.187). The same author reports that in 1931 a considerable number of foreign labor force arrived from Afghanistan, Iran and India for the construction of the Vakhsh irrigation system (Kurbanova, 1993, pp. 59-60).
It would be more correct to say - by "saddle"!
Abylkhozhaev Zh.B., Kozybaev M.K., Tatimov M.B. Kazakh tragedy // Questions of history. 1989, No. 7 p.67-69.
Polyan P.M. Victims of two dictatorships: life, labor, humiliation and death of Soviet prisoners of war and Ostarbeiters in a foreign land and at home. M, 2003, pp. 566-576.
GARF. F.9526, op. 1, d.7, p.3 (a similar figure is also known for October 1951). The method for calculating this figure is not disclosed in any way in the report, but it is possible that an attempt was made to somehow take into account those who happily escaped not only Soviet claims, but also Soviet registration. According to other - even less verifiable - information, the number of defectors ranged from 1.2 to 1.5 million people (which, on the contrary, seems to be a definitely overestimated figure).
GARF. F.9526, op. 1, d.7, p.3-4.
Polyan, 2002, pp. 823-825. In addition, 4172 people remained in the European socialist countries (GARF. F. 9526, op. 1, d. 7, pp. 3-6).
Polyan, 2002, p. 823-825.
Because of the "Easterners" posing as "Westerners" (the opposite cases, we believe, are conceivable only in cases of sending intelligence officers to the USSR).
Zemskov V.N. On the question of the repatriation of Soviet citizens in 1944-1951. // History of the USSR No. 4 1990, pp. 37-38.
See: Proudfoot M.J. European Refugees. 1939-1952. A Study on Forced Population Movement. London, 1957, p. 217-218.
The death of Stalin led to a certain softening of the regime. On September 1, 1953, the Special Meeting of the NKVD-MGB of the USSR was abolished, condemning 442,531 people for incomplete 19 years of its existence, of which 10,101 people were sentenced to death. (RGANI , f.89, op.18, d.33, l.1-5). The majority (360,921 people) were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, another 67,539 people to exile and deportation within the USSR, and 3,970 people to other penalties, including forced deportation abroad (See note C dated December 1953 Kruglov and R. Rudenko N. Khrushchev). The most famous deportee is, apparently, Trotsky.
Data from the emigrant magazine "Posev".
Petrov N. Soviet defectors // Sowing No. 1, 1987, pp. 56-60.
Heitman S. The Third Soviet Emigration: Jewish, German and Armenian Emigration from the USSR since World War II // Berichte des Bundesinstituts für ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien No. 21, 1987.
It is interesting that, according to some estimates, the number of Armenians who left the USSR in 1989 and 1990 ranged from 50 to 60 thousand people (summary table compiled by M. Feshbakh according to the data of the Israeli Embassy in the USA; the Ministry of Absorption of Israel; HIAS; the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Internal Affairs Germany; the reception center in Friedland; the Association of Russian Germans; the US State Department and S. Heitman).
According to E.L. Nitoburg, there are a total of 200 thousand people in the United States who actually retain dual citizenship (Nitoburg, 1996, p. 128).
Gitelman, 1995.
It should be noted that earlier Armenian emigration played a more significant role than now. In the 1950s, 12,000 people emigrated to France, and over the next 30 years, 40,000 people emigrated to the United States (see: Heitman .
,1987).
Krieger V. At the beginning of the journey. Part 3: Demographic and migration processes among the German population of the USSR (CIS) // Orient Express (Ahlen) No. 8, 1997 p. 5.
Quoted from: Krieger, 1997.
The above processes of developing new lands and expanding Russian state borders are related to internal migration (one of the main types of migration movement is a set of human movements carried out within the territorial boundaries of states. Usually, in scale, it significantly exceeds international migration). And now let's touch on the international (interstate) migration and emigration of Russian citizens.
Migration and emigration in the pre-revolutionary period.
The history of international (interstate) migration and emigration of Russian citizens dates back several centuries, if we take into account the forced flight abroad of politicians back in the Middle Ages. For example: salvation from the persecution of the Orthodox Church and Moscow's grand ducal power in Lithuania and "among the Germans" at the beginning of the 16th century. Novgorod-Moscow heretics, as well as the transition in 1564 to the side of the Poles, Prince Andrei Kurbsky. His step was dictated by fears for his life associated with the conflict between the prince and Ivan the Terrible over the choice of the main paths for the political development of Russia. The political concept of Kurbsky consisted in the development of the principles of combining the power of the monarch, the institutions of the clerk's apparatus and the further development of estate-representative bodies, both in the center and in the field. The point of view defended by Ivan the Terrible was to assert the principle of the unlimitedness of the monarchy, "autocracy", with the parallel establishment of a strict, forceful regime. The subsequent development of events showed that the point of view of Ivan IV won.
In the "Petrine" era, religious motives were added to the political motives for leaving abroad. The process of economic migration, which is so characteristic of the countries of Central and Western Europe, practically did not affect Russia until the second half of the 19th century, although there are references to Russian settlers of the 16th - 18th centuries. to America, China and Africa. However, these migrations were small in number and associated with the "call of the distant seas" or the search for happiness. At the end of the XVIII century. Russian settlers also appeared in European countries: in France (1774), Germany (in the cities of Halle, Marburg, Jena, etc.), where since the middle of the 18th century. Russian noble youth began to study.
The main center of Russian political emigration in the second quarter of the 19th century. was Paris, and after the revolution of 1848 it became London, where the “first free Russian printing house” founded by A.I. Herzen, thanks to which Russian emigration became a significant factor in the political life of Russia. A characteristic feature of the "noble emigration" from Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century, which left quite legally, was a relatively high standard of living.
In the second half of the 19th century, after the Polish uprising of 1863-1864. a certain number of political "criminals" fled from Russia, who settled mainly in London, Bern, Heidelberg, Tulz, Geneva, Berlin. This new emigration expanded the social composition of the Russian political emigration. Petty bourgeois, raznochintsy, intelligentsia were added to the nobility.
A special flow of Russian political emigration that arose after the assassination of Alexander II and the internal political crisis of the 80s of the 19th century covered almost a quarter of a century. The appearance in exile of one of the first political organizations, the Marxist "Union of Russian Social Democrats Abroad", also belongs to this time.
Speaking of Russians who were abroad in the last quarter of the 19th - early 20th century. First of all, we should mention the economic “settlers”. The reason for their departure was higher wages abroad. Until the early 1880s, the number of those who left Russia for economic reasons did not exceed 10 thousand people, later it began to grow and in 1891 reached its "peak mark" - 109 thousand people. In 1894, it fell sharply, which was associated with a trade agreement between Russia and Germany, which facilitated the border crossing and allowed for a short time to go abroad and return. Labor or economic emigration in the pre-revolutionary period was the most massive. It consisted mainly of landless peasants, artisans, and unskilled workers. In total for the period from 1861. by 1915, 4,200,500 people left Russia, of which 3,978.9 thousand people emigrated to the countries of the New World, mainly to the USA, which is 94%. It should be noted that the majority of emigrants from Russia were not ethnic Russians. More than 40% of emigrants were Jews. According to the qualification of 1910, 1732.5 thousand natives of Russia were registered in the USA, and 2781.2 thousand people of "Russian origin" were registered. Among the natives of Russia: 838 thousand Jews, 418 thousand Poles, 137 thousand Lithuanians, 121 thousand Germans and only 40.5 thousand Russians. Thus, it turns out that no more than 3% of all persons of Russian origin lived in the United States by 1910. Accurately determine the ethnic composition of labor emigration in the late XIX - early XX centuries. does not seem possible. So, in the USA, Ukrainians, Carpatho-Russians, mostly people from the western and southern provinces of the Russian Empire, from Austria-Hungary (Galicia, Bukovina), Transcarpathia, were registered as Russians or Rusyns. They identified themselves with the Russians and, in a broader sense, with the East Slavic culture. Their descendants have largely preserved this continuity to our time. Thus, most of the 10 million parishioners of the Russian Church in America (the American Metropolis), numerous Ukrainian and Carpatho-Russian churches are descendants of labor emigrants. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. Russian peasants in America united mainly around church parishes and peasant brotherhoods, mutual aid societies. Among this category of emigrants there were few educated and literate people: they did not write books and memoirs, but through the generations they carried love and respect for Russia, preserving the traditions of Orthodoxy, as evidenced by dozens of Russian Orthodox churches built by their hands.
It is impossible not to mention the mass emigration abroad of representatives of the national minorities of Tsarist Russia in the 19th century. First of all, Tatars, Germans, Poles and Jews. In many ways, this emigration was caused by religious reasons. But these emigration flows are not the subject of this work. Since, with a big stretch, one can consider the emigration of Mennonite Germans, Crimean Tatars, Poles, most of the Jews, etc., as Russian or Russian emigration, although they emigrated from Russia. We do not consider such groups in our work, because they very quickly lost any connection with Russia and Russian culture. Although the scale of such emigration from pre-revolutionary Russia was significant, it was more correct to use the term “resettlement from Russia” for it. It would hardly be justified to consider the Tatar population of Turkey as the descendants of Russian emigrants, and they themselves identify themselves not even with the Tatars, but with the Turks. Also, how incorrect it would be to consider the American director S. Spielerberg and the magician D. Copperfield as representatives of the Russian diaspora on the American continent, only on the grounds that their ancestors were from Odessa. It would be very problematic to detect any influence of Russian culture among the descendants of German settlers from Russia in the 19th century in Germany and the USA.
The originality and unusualness of Jewish emigration from Russia is due to the fact that it includes all possible typologies of emigration: political, labor, religious, national, often mutually intertwined and difficult to isolate. Another feature of a part of the Jewish emigration is that part of it has been preserving elements of Russian culture and the Russian language for more than 150 years. Evidence of this is the large number of Russian-language newspapers, magazines, and organizations created by her that use the Russian language as a means of communication. The beginning of mass Jewish emigration dates back to the 70s of the 19th century. Moreover, more than 90% of Jewish emigrants went to the United States. In the 70s of all Russian emigrants who arrived in the United States, 42% were Jews, in the 80s they already accounted for 58.2%. The absolute number of Jewish emigrants continues to increase throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries. This was largely due to the restriction of the rights of Jews in the 80s. In particular, the introduction in 1882 of the "Provisional Rules" for the residence of Jews in rural areas. They forbade Jews from settling outside cities, acquiring property, and renting land. In 1887, Jews were forbidden to settle in Rostov-on-Don and in the Taganrog district, in 1891 - in Moscow and the Moscow region. In 1886-1887, decrees were issued restricting the right of Jews to enter gymnasiums and real schools throughout Russia. In the United States, Jewish emigrants settled mainly in the states of the North Atlantic, primarily New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. In 1891-1900. 234.2 thousand Russian Jews left for the United States, which accounted for 36.5% of all Russian emigrants who arrived in the United States. Jewish emigration reaches its peak at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1901-1910. 704.2 thousand Jews arrived in the USA, which accounted for 44.1% of all Russian settlers. Jewish emigration cannot be classified as labor or temporary. There were practically no re-emigrants among the Jews; they deliberately tried to find a new home in the country of entry. This is partly due to the peculiarities of the Russian legislation of that period. In tsarist Russia, emigration was prohibited - only temporary travel abroad was allowed. The only exception to this rule were Jews who, according to the "Rules" of May 8, 1892, received the right to officially leave the country, without the right to return.
A significant episode in the history of Russian political emigration was the activities of Herzen's friend, the high-ranking oppositionist Prince P.V. Dolgorukov. Dolgorukov collaborated with Herzen's Kolokol, providing information compromising the ruling layers of Tsarist Russia from his illegally exported archive. Dolgorukov also published his periodicals “Future”, “Leaf”, “Truthful”, etc. Here are just some of the publications of Prince Dolgorukov: “The Current State of Affairs at Court”, “Emperor Alexander Nikolayevich. His character and way of life. His wife Maria Alexandrovna”, “On what is happening in the Ministry of Finance”, “Mina Ivanovna’s career”, etc.
The beginning of the second or "proletarian" stage in the formation of Russian political emigration before 1917 is associated with the creation in 1883 in Geneva of the Emancipation of Labor group. Its origins were the former leaders of the populist movement: G. V. Plekhanov, a member of the organization "Land and Freedom" and the leader of the "Black Redistribution", P. B. Axelrod, Plekhanov's colleague in the "Black Redistribution", the former editor-in-chief of the Bakunin newspaper "Obshchina", zemledvolets V, N. Ignatov and others. The group marked the beginning of the Marxist trend in the history of political emigration. Abroad, members of the Emancipation of Labor group published the Library of Modern Socialism and the Workers' Library. The activities of the Emancipation of Labor group prepared both the formation in 1898 and the final formation of the RSDLP in 1903, and the members of the Emancipation of Labor group Plekhanov, Axelrod, Zasulich played an important role in the formation of the RSDLP. The RSDLP created the largest, in comparison with other emigre parties and associations, the infrastructure of party organizations and groups abroad. In particular, foreign groups of the RSDLP worked in Geneva, Bern, Paris, Berlin, Munich, Karsruhe, Freiburg, Boston, Budapest, Lvov, Leipzig, Mannheim, Brussels, Nice, San Remo, Hamburg, Lausanne, Bremen, Liege, Hanover, Antwerp , Davos, Copenhagen, Toulouse, Chicago, New York and many other cities in Europe and America. The most famous printed organs of the RSDLP are the newspapers Iskra, Zarya, Vperyod, Proletary, Pravda, Social Democrat, and others. In 1908, the center of Russian political emigration moved from Geneva to Paris.
As already mentioned above, emigration, especially emigration of the 19th - early 20th centuries, is a complex, diverse phenomenon that does not fit into the Procrustean bed of any classification and systematization. The division of emigrants into political, economic, those who left their homeland due to religious oppression, and so on, does not cover all the components of emigration. Motives, reasons that prompted a person to become an emigrant are often very individual. And each person has their own story. The only thing that unites this community, a group of people called emigrants, is that they all left their homeland for a long time, and sometimes for life.
During the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, many figures of Russian science, culture and simply wealthy nobles lived abroad. N.V. Gogol and I.S. Turgenev lived abroad for a long time. K.P. Bryullov, I.I. Mechnikov and many others. The reasons for their emigration are varied. Often this is a search for more favorable conditions for creativity and scientific work, for personal reasons. These diverse motifs often intertwined.
From 1847 until his death in 1883, I.S. Turgenev lived abroad, mainly in France. In 1877, the historian, geographer, member of the Russian Geographical Society, correspondent for the Kolokol magazine, M. I. Venyukov, emigrated to France. In the early 30s of the XIX century, the mother and daughter of the Vereshchagins, Elizaveta Arkadyevna and Alexandra Mikhailovna, went abroad for permanent residence. A. M. Vereshchagina, Lermontov's cousin, during her years in Moscow was friends with him and was in correspondence. In 1837, A. M. Vereshchagina married Baron Karl von Hugel and since then has not returned to Russia, living mainly in Paris and Stuttgart.
Russian microbiologist, Nobel Prize winner I. I. Mechnikov lived in France from 1888 until his death in 1916. Mechnikov in 1888 accepted the proposal of Louis Pasteur and headed the largest laboratory of the bacteriological institute in Paris, since 1903 he was also the deputy director of this institution.
Numerous Russian libraries located in many European cities were also centers of the Russian pre-revolutionary abroad. One of the first Russian emigrant libraries was the "Slavic Library in Paris", founded in 1855 by Russian Jesuits on the initiative of Prince I.S. Gagarin. A significant cultural center of the Russian colony in Paris was the Russian Library. I. S. Turgenev. It opened in January 1875. Its founders were I.S. Turgenev and G.A. Lopatin. In 1883, after the death of Turgenev, the library was named after him. In Rome, in 1902, the “Russian Library named after I.I. N.V. Gogol. The first receipts in the library were from the defunct "Club of Russian Artists in Rome". Thus, the library received several thousand volumes. Readings, concerts, debates were often arranged in the library. P.D. Boborykin, S.M. Volkonsky, V.F. Ern, S.M. Solovyov and others acted as lecturers. On Wednesdays, weekly meetings were held for Russian emigrants in Rome. Library them. Gogol was a non-partisan institution and sought to be equally accessible to all Russian emigrants, regardless of their political views. The membership fee for library members was 15 francs. Since 1912, the "Society of the Russian Library-Reading Room named after L.N. Tolstoy" also existed in Rome. Any Russian emigrant who lived in Rome for at least three months could be a member of the Society.
The Slavika Library at Alexander University in Helsinki possessed the largest book collection of Russian books outside of Russia. From 1828 until 1917, regularly receiving mandatory copies of all books published in the Russian Empire by decree of Nicholas I. In addition, it was replenished not only by legal deposit, but also by donations and nominal gifts. The most valuable of them was the “Alexandrovsky gift”, which came from the son of Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich, Pavel Konstantinovich Alexandrov. He donated 24,000 volumes from two libraries - the Great Gatchina Library and the Library of the Marble Palace - to the Slavika Library, consisting mainly of old books from the 17th and 18th centuries. By 1917, the library had about 350,000 book titles.
It is impossible not to mention another large group of Russian people who became involuntary emigrants. These are Russian people living in the territory of Alaska, who became emigrants by captivity - after the sale of Alaska to America in 1867. The parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church also unwittingly ended up in emigration.
The Russian Orthodox Church in America traces its origins back to the first Orthodox mission in Alaska in 1794. Since the sale of Alaska to America in 1867, the Russian Church in America has been on the territory of another state - the United States. Since that time, its parishioners have been replenished mainly by converted Americans. In fact, since 1867, the ROC in America has become the Local Orthodox Church, i.e. having found "its place", it is in canonical dependence on the ROC. Gradually, churches of the Russian Orthodox Church appear in the original territory of the United States, San Francisco in 1867, New York in 1870, and their parishioners include all the Orthodox living in the United States: Serbs, Greeks, Syrians, immigrants from Austria-Hungary, etc. d. In 1903, the Russian Church in America had 52 churches and 69 chapels. The number of registered parishioners reached 32,000 people, and there were only 876 immigrants from Russia. In order not to embarrass parishioners who do not have Russian citizenship, the Holy Synod, by Decree of January 27, 1906, allowed the practice of commemorating not Emperor Nicholas II, but the President of the United States at services. By 1917, the American Church had about one hundred thousand registered members and 306 churches and chapels. In addition, the Syro-Arab Mission, Serbian and Albanian Missions belonged to the Russian Church.
Summing up the analysis of Russian emigration in pre-revolutionary Russia, we can draw the following conclusions. Emigration, as a phenomenon, a subject of study for historians, demographers and other specialists, appears in Russia only from the middle of the 19th century. It is from the middle of the 19th century that one can talk about such concepts as the Russian emigre press, the literature of the Russian diaspora. During the second half of the last century and the beginning of this century, a rather large Russian diaspora was formed in Europe and America, with its own infrastructure of emigre institutions, editorial offices of newspapers and magazines, archives and libraries. It should be noted that the pre-revolutionary emigration of the 19th and early 20th centuries was the most significant in terms of its size, compared with subsequent emigrations, the number of people who left Russia during this period exceeds 7 million people. This is largely due to the fact that pre-revolutionary emigration was longer in time and was not caused by any political upheavals, unlike subsequent emigrations. At the same time, in tsarist Russia, emigration was not regulated by law. The transfer of Russian citizens to another citizenship was prohibited, and the period of stay abroad was limited to 5 years, after which it was necessary to apply for an extension of the period, otherwise the person was considered to have lost citizenship, and his property passed to the guardian board, and he himself, having returned to Russia, was subject to eternal link. Thus, until 1917, emigration from Russia was of a semi-legal nature and, in fact, was not officially regulated in any way ...
The February Revolution of 1917 put an end to the "anti-tsarist" political emigration. In March 1917, most of the revolutionaries of various political shades returned to Russia. Even Repatriation Committees were set up to facilitate their repatriation. They operated in France, Switzerland, England, USA. But already in November 1917, the opposite phenomenon began to develop - emigration, bearing an anti-Soviet, anti-Bolshevik and anti-communist character. It was called "White emigration" or "First wave of Russian emigration". It should be considered in more detail, since it was the "First Emigration" that played a significant role in the development and preservation of the Russian national culture of its spiritual roots.
