One of the properties of surrounding objects is their shape. The form of objects received a generalized reflection in geometric figures. Geometric figures are standards, using which a person determines the shape of objects and their parts. 230
The problem of introducing children to geometric shapes and their properties should be considered in two aspects: in terms of sensory perception of the shapes of geometric shapes and using them as standards in the knowledge of the shapes of surrounding objects, as well as in the sense of knowing the features of their structure, properties, main connections and patterns in their construction, i.e., the actual geometric material.
In order to know what and how to teach children at different stages of their development, it is necessary first of all to analyze the features of children's sensory perception of the shape of any object, including figures, and then the ways of further development of geometric representations and elementary geometric thinking, and, further, how the transition is made. from sensory perception of form to its logical awareness.
It is known that an infant recognizes by the shape of the bottle the one from which he drinks milk, and in the last months of the first year of life, a tendency is clearly revealed to separate some objects from others and to separate the figure from the background. The contour of an object is that common beginning, which is the starting point for both visual and tactile perception. However, the question of the role of the contour in the perception of form and the formation of a holistic image requires further development.
Primary mastery of the form of an object is carried out in actions with it. The form of an object, as such, is not perceived separately from the object, it is its integral feature. Specific visual reactions of tracing the contour of an object appear at the end of the second year of life and begin to precede practical actions. The actions of children with objects at different stages are different. Toddlers tend primarily to grab the object with their hands and begin to manipulate it. Children 2.5 years old, before acting, in some detail visually and tactile-motorly get acquainted with objects. There is a special interest in the perception of form (perceptual actions). However, the importance of practical action remains paramount. From this follows the conclusion about the need to direct the development of perceptual actions of two-year-old children. Depending on the pedagogical guidance, the nature of the perceptual actions of children gradually reaches a cognitive level. The child begins to be interested in various features of the object, including the shape. However, for a long time he cannot single out and generalize this or that feature, including the shape of various objects.
Sensory perception of the form of an object should be directed not only to seeing, recognizing the forms along with its other features, but also to be able, by abstracting the form from the thing, to see it in other things as well. “This perception of the shape of objects and its generalization is facilitated by the knowledge of standards by children - geometric shapes. Therefore, the task of sensory development is the formation in the child of the ability to recognize, in accordance with the standard (one or another geometric figure), the shape of various objects.
When does a child begin to distinguish geometric shapes? The experimental data of L. A. Wenger showed that children of 3-4 months have such an opportunity. Focusing on the new figure is evidence of this.
Already in the second year of life, children freely choose a figure according to
a sample of such pairs: a square and a semicircle, a rectangle and a triangle. But children can distinguish between a rectangle and a square, a square and a triangle only after 2.5 years. The selection of figures of a more complex shape based on the model is available approximately at the turn of 4-5 years, and the reproduction of a complex figure is carried out by individual children of the fifth and sixth year of life.
At first, children perceive geometric figures unknown to them as ordinary objects, calling them by the names of these objects: a cylinder - a glass, a column, an oval - a testicle, a triangle - a sail or a roof, a rectangle - a window, etc. Under the teaching influence of adults, the perception of geometric shapes is gradually rebuilt . Children no longer identify them with objects, but only compare them: a cylinder is like a glass, a triangle is like a roof, etc. Finally, children begin to perceive geometric shapes as standards that determine the shape of objects (a ball, an apple is a ball , a plate, a saucer, a round wheel, and a square scarf, etc.).
Knowledge of the structure of an object, its shape and size is carried out not only in the process of perceiving one or another form with vision, but also through active touch, feeling it under the control of vision and designating it with a word. The joint work of all analyzers contributes to a more accurate perception of the shape of objects. In order to better know an object, children tend to touch it with their hands, pick it up, turn it; moreover, viewing and feeling are different depending on the shape and construction of the object being known. Therefore, the main role in the perception of an object and determining its form is played by an examination carried out simultaneously by visual and motor-tactile analyzers, followed by designation with a word. However, among preschoolers, there is a very low level of examination of the shape of objects; most often they are limited to cursory visual perception and therefore do not distinguish figures that are close in similarity (an oval and a circle, a rectangle and a square, different triangles).
In the perceptual activity of children, tactile-motor and visual techniques gradually become the main way of recognizing the form. Examination of the figures not only provides a holistic perception of them, but also allows you to feel their features (character, directions of lines and their combinations, formed corners and peaks), the child learns to sensually distinguish the image as a whole and its parts in any figure. This makes it possible in the future to focus the child's attention on a meaningful analysis of the figure, consciously highlighting the structural elements in it (sides, corners, vertices). Children are already consciously beginning to understand such properties as stability, instability, etc., to understand how vertices, corners, etc. are formed. Comparing three-dimensional and flat figures, children already find commonality between them. (“The cube has squares”, “A bar has rectangles, a cylinder has circles,” etc.).
Comparing a figure with the shape of an object helps children understand that different objects or parts of them can be compared with geometric shapes. So, gradually the geometric figure becomes the standard for determining the shape of objects.
Sensory perception of the shape of objects, geometric figures, their recognition and designation of a word in the conditions of systematic teaching of children increase significantly. So, according to T. Ignatova, 90% of 4-year-old children identified and named the geometric figure found in the bag by touch, while before training, only 47% of 3-4-year-old children completed this task and only 7.5% of children could name a geometric figure.
Therefore, the task of the first stage of teaching children 3-4 years old is the sensory perception of the shape of objects and geometric shapes.
The second stage of teaching children 5-6 years old should be devoted to the formation of systematic knowledge about geometric figures and the development of their initial techniques and methods of "geometric thinking".
Finding out the geometric representations of younger schoolchildren who have not yet studied elementary geometric knowledge, A. M. Pyshkalo, A. A. Stolyar come to the conclusion that it is quite possible to develop “geometric thinking” even at preschool age. There are several different levels in the development of "geometric knowledge" in children.
The first level is characterized by the fact that the figure is perceived by children as a whole, the child still does not know how to distinguish individual elements in it, does not notice the similarities and differences between the figures, perceives each of them separately.
At the second level, the child already identifies the elements in the figure and establishes relationships both between them and between individual figures, but does not yet realize the commonality between the figures.
At the third level, the child is able to establish connections between the properties and structure of figures, connections between the properties themselves. The transition from one level to another is not spontaneous, running parallel to the biological development of a person and depending on age. It proceeds under the influence of purposeful learning, which helps to accelerate the transition to a higher level. Lack of training hinders development. Therefore, education should be organized in such a way that, in connection with the assimilation of knowledge about geometric figures, elementary geometric thinking also develops in children.
Analytical perception of a geometric figure, the ability to distinguish in it the expressed and clearly tangible elements and properties create conditions for further in-depth knowledge of its structural elements, the disclosure of essential features both within the figure itself and between a number of figures. So, on the basis of highlighting the most important, essential concepts in objects (S. L. Rubinshtein).
Children more and more clearly assimilate the connections between "simple" and "complex" geometric figures, see in them not only differences, but also find commonality in their construction, a hierarchy of relationships between "simple" and more and more "complex" figures.
Children also learn the relationship between the number of sides, angles and the names of figures ("The triangle is called so because it has three corners"; "The rectangle is called so because it has all right angles"). Counting the angles, the children correctly name the shapes: “This is a hexagon, this is a pentagon, a polygon, because it has many angles - 3, 4, 5, 6, 8 and more, then it already looks like a circle.”
The assimilation of the principle of designating figures with a word forms in children a general approach to any new figure, the ability to attribute it to a certain group of figures. Children's knowledge is systematized, they are able to correlate the particular with the general. All this develops the logical thinking of preschoolers, forms an interest in further knowledge, and ensures the mobility of the mind.
Knowledge of geometric shapes, their properties and relationships expands the horizons of children, allows them to more accurately and versatilely perceive the shape of surrounding objects, which positively affects their productive activities (for example, drawing, modeling).
Of great importance in the development of geometric thinking and spatial representations are actions to transform figures (make a square from two triangles or add two triangles from five sticks).
All these types of exercises develop spatial representations and the beginnings of children's geometric thinking, form their ability to observe, analyze, generalize, highlight the main, essential, and at the same time bring up such personality traits as purposefulness, perseverance.
So, in preschool age, the perceptual and intellectual systematization of the forms of geometric figures is mastered. Perceptual activity in the cognition of figures is ahead of the development of intellectual systematization.

Familiarization of children with the shape of objects in the best way occurs with a combination of various teaching methods and techniques. Visual methods and techniques are used: “Look and find the same figure”, “What does the figure look like”, etc. Practical methods and techniques are widely used in teaching: “Find, bring, show ... lay out, draw, make a pattern” and others. Along with visual and practical, verbal methods and techniques are used: “What is it called, how are they different, how are they similar; describe, tell...

N. A. Sakulina proposed a methodological model for teaching children to examine objects, defining the form as their main feature. This model has five components:

1. holistic perception of the subject;

2. analysis of the object - isolating the characteristic essential features, determining the shape of individual parts of the object (round, square, triangular, long, rounded ...), likening this part to a geometric figure that is closest in shape;

3. motor-tactile sensation of form - circling movements with simultaneous pronunciation, i.e. examination of the subject;

4. again a holistic perception of the subject;

5. building a model from given shapes or parts.

Based on this scheme for teaching children, a specific methodology was developed - a sequence in the formation of knowledge about geometric figures (3. E. Lebedeva, L. A. Venger, L. I. Sysueva, V. V. Kolechko, R. L. Nepomnyashchaya).

1. Demonstration of a geometric figure and naming it.

2. Examination of a geometric figure through specific practical actions.

3. Showing several more of the same geometric shapes, but different in color and size. Comparison of geometric shapes. At the same time, the attention of children is drawn to the independence of the form from the size and color of the figure.

4. Comparison of geometric figures with objects similar in shape; finding among the surrounding objects those that are close in shape to this figure.

5. Comparison of objects in shape with each other using a geometric figure as a standard.

6. Comparison of familiar geometric shapes, determination of common qualities and differences (oval and circle, square and rectangle, etc.).

7. Fixing the properties of geometric shapes by measuring, sculpting, drawing, laying out, building, etc.

Children should learn the basic steps for examining the shape of objects. Examination of a geometric figure is carried out through specific practical actions (circling around the contour). An important element of the survey is the comparison of figures that are different in shape and size. After the children have learned to compare geometric shapes with objects similar in shape, it is necessary to provide them with the opportunity to consolidate the properties of geometric shapes in drawing, modeling, application, and design.

Children should be taught to correctly show the elements of geometric shapes (angles, sides, bases, etc.). When recalculating corners, the child should point only to the top of the corner. The teacher does not explain what a vertex is, but shows the point where the two sides meet. Showing the sides, the child should run his fingers along the entire segment - from one vertex of the corner to the other. The angle itself as part of the plane is shown simultaneously with two fingers - thumb and forefinger. In three-dimensional figures, children identify and name the sides and bases.

In each age group, the method of familiarization with geometric shapes has its own characteristics.

In the second younger group, children learn to distinguish between a ball and a cube; circle and square, using the technique of pairwise comparison: a ball and a cube, a cube and a bar - a brick; circle and square; ball and circle; cube and square. In this case, the object should be held in the left hand, and circle it along the contour with the index finger of the right hand. To demonstrate geometric shapes, it is necessary to use figures of different sizes and colors.

Children look at and compare the ball and the cube, find common and different things in these objects (figures). When addressing a question to the children, the teacher draws their attention to the features of the figures: “What is this?”, “What color are the balls?”, “Which one is smaller?”

On the instructions of the teacher, one child picks up a small ball, and the other - a large one. Children pass the balls in a circle: a small ball catches up with a large ball. Then the direction of movement changes. In the process of such games, children clarify the features of the ball - it is round, it has no corners, it can be rolled. Children compare balls of different colors and sizes. Thus, the teacher leads them to the conclusion that the form does not depend on the color and size of the object.

Similarly, children's knowledge about the cube is clarified and generalized. Children take the cube in their hands, trying to roll it. He doesn't roll. The cube has corners and sides (faces), it stands steadily on the table, floor. From cubes you can build houses, columns, putting one cube on another.

The most important point in introducing children to the form is the visual and tactile-motor perception of the form, a variety of practical actions that develop its sensory abilities.

In organizing work to familiarize children with the shape of an object, a significant place is occupied by the demonstration (demonstration) of the figure itself, as well as methods for examining it. The teacher teaches children, when examining an object, to hold the object in their left hand, trace it around the contour with the index finger of their right hand.

Various didactic games and exercises are organized to develop children's skills in examining the shape of an object and accumulating relevant ideas. So, in order to assimilate the name and clarify the main features of individual geometric shapes, the teacher organizes games: “Name the geometric figure”, “Magic bag”, “Domino figures”, etc.

In the game "Magic Bag", the teacher teaches children to choose figures by touch, to find according to the model. Geometric figures familiar to children are placed on the table, and the same ones are folded into the bag. First, attention is drawn to the geometric shapes placed on the table. The children name them. Then, at the direction of the teacher, the child finds one in the bag that is on the table and shows it. If the child cannot complete the task, then the teacher once again recalls the methods of examining the figure: with his right hand he slowly circles around the edge (contour) (you can also help with your left hand). When the game is repeated, the number of geometric shapes increases.

In the games “Find an object of the same shape”, “What is in the bag?”, “Geometric lotto”, children practice finding objects according to geometric patterns. Such tasks are difficult, but generally accessible to children. They develop their ability to analyze the environment, to abstract when perceiving the shape of objects. The child, perceiving the print that hangs on the wall in front of him, is distracted from the plot of the picture, and highlights only the shape of the frame (square).

In their free time, children of this age group are very fond of games with split pictures, mosaics, and building materials.

In the methodology of teaching children of the middle group, a more detailed examination of geometric shapes is distinctive. Children are introduced to new geometric shapes by comparing their models with those already familiar or with each other: a rectangle with a square, a cylinder with a cube or a ball. From a direct comparison of objects with geometric patterns, children move on to a verbal description of their shape, to a generalization.

The order of viewing and comparing figures can be as follows: what is it? What colour? What size(s)? What are they made of? What is the difference? How are they similar?

The main techniques can be: practical actions with objects (roll, put); imposition and application; contouring, palpation; exercises in grouping and ordering - didactic games, exercises for mastering the features of geometric shapes; comparison of the shapes of objects with geometric patterns; complex shape analysis. Children are required to provide a detailed verbal designation of their actions (describe the shape of an object consisting of 2-4 parts: a tumbler, a car, etc.).

L. A. Venger, L. I. Sysueva, T. V. Vasilyeva developed 3 types of tasks in the field of familiarizing children of the fifth year of life with the shape of objects and geometric figures:

§ assignments for the assimilation of geometric shapes;

§ assignments for comparing the shapes of real objects with geometric shapes;

§ assignments for spatial analysis of a composite form.

In the older group, the examination of the geometric figure becomes even more detailed and detailed. An important element of the technique is the measurement by a conditional measure. Work on the formation of ideas and concepts about geometric shapes is based on the comparison and opposition of geometric shapes. Models are first compared in pairs, then 3-4 figures of each type are matched at once, for example, quadrangles. Of particular importance is the work on the image and reconstruction of geometric shapes: laying out of sticks, strips of paper. Based on the identification of essential features of geometric shapes, children are led to the general concept of "quadrangles". As a result of certain work, children acquire the ability to transfer the acquired knowledge to an unfamiliar situation, to use it in independent activities, in design classes.

Older preschoolers learn to divide a complex pattern into its constituent elements, name their shape and spatial position, make a pattern of complex shape from geometric shapes of one or two types, different in size (size).

The methodology for the formation of geometric knowledge in the group of the sixth year of life does not fundamentally change. However, the examination becomes more detailed and detailed. Along with a practical and direct comparison of known geometric figures, imposition and application, measurement by a conditional measure is widely used as a methodological technique. All work on the formation of ideas and concepts about geometric shapes is based on the comparison and comparison of their models.

So, introducing children to a rectangle, they are shown several rectangles, different in size, made of different materials (paper, cardboard, plastic). “Children, look at these figures. These are rectangles. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that the shape does not depend on the size. Children are offered to take a figure in their left hand, and circle the contour with the index finger of their right hand. Children identify the features of this figure: the sides are equal in pairs, the angles are also equal. Check this by bending, laying one on top of the other. Count the number of sides and angles. Then they compare the rectangle with the square, find similarities and differences in these figures.

A square and a rectangle have four corners and four sides, all corners are equal. However, a rectangle differs from a square in that all sides of a square are equal, and only opposite sides of a rectangle are equal, in pairs.

Particular attention in this group should be given to the image of geometric shapes; laying out from counting sticks, strips of paper. This work is carried out both with demonstration (near the teacher's table) and handouts.

In one of the classes, the teacher lays out a rectangle on a flannel-legraf from stripes. “Children, what is the name of this figure? How many sides does a rectangle have? How many corners? Children show sides, corners, vertices of a rectangle. Then the teacher asks: “How and what shapes can be obtained from a rectangle (create smaller rectangles, squares, triangles)?” In this case, additional strips of paper are used. Children count the sides in the resulting figures.

Based on the identification of essential features of geometric shapes, children are led to the generalized concept of "quadrilateral". Comparing a square and a rectangle with each other, the children establish that all these figures have four sides and four corners. This number of sides and angles is a common feature that underlies the definition of the concept of "quadrilateral". Next, the children compare quadrilaterals of different shapes. Children are convinced of the equality of sides and angles when superimposing one on the other.

At older preschool age, children develop the ability to transfer the acquired knowledge to a previously unfamiliar situation, to use this knowledge in independent activities. Knowledge about geometric shapes is widely used, refined, consolidated in the classroom for fine arts and design. Such activities allow children to acquire skills in dividing a complex pattern into its constituent elements, as well as create complex shapes from one or two types of geometric shapes of different sizes.

So, during one of the classes, children are given envelopes with a set of models of geometric shapes. The teacher shows the application of a "robot" made up of squares and rectangles of different sizes and proportions. First, all together sequentially examine the sample. It is established from which parts (figures) each part is made (Fig. 32). In the same sequence, children create an ornament. The teacher shows two or three ornaments and invites the children to choose one of them, having carefully examined it, lay out the same ornament.

In volumetric figures (such as a cylinder, a cube), children identify and name the sides and bases. At the same time, they can be shown with several fingers or with the whole palm.

Children perform practical actions, manipulate geometric shapes, redesign them. In the process of such training, the "mathematical" speech of children is enriched. Familiarization with the form, as a rule, occupies a part of the lesson in mathematics, as well as in design, visual activity. During classes, superimposing, applying, drawing along a contour, shading, and measuring are widely used. Children cut out flat geometric figures, voluminous ones are molded from plasticine, clay. This work is closely related to teaching children the elements of writing: tracing cells, drawing circles, ovals, drawing straight and oblique lines. Children get acquainted with checkered notebooks, consider how the pages in the notebook are lined. The teacher invites the children to find and circle the cells in different parts of the page: top, bottom, left, right, middle; draw seven squares one cell in size with gaps between them in two (three) cells. At the same time, he shows different ways to complete the task: marking the initial contour with dots, drawing lines from left to right and from top to bottom.

Future schoolchildren are taught to distinguish and name polygons (triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon), name and show their elements (sides, angles, vertices), divide geometric shapes into parts, compare with each other, classify by size and shape. The work is aimed primarily at improving the quality of this knowledge: completeness, awareness. Geometric material is widely used during classes as a demonstration and handout in the formation of numerical concepts, dividing the whole into parts, etc.

Throughout preschool age, children are taught to examine the simple and complex shape of objects, adhering to a certain sequence: first, the general contours and the main part are distinguished, then the shape, spatial position, and relative size of other parts are determined. They should be taught to notice not only similarities, but also differences in the shape of an object from a familiar geometric figure. This is of great importance for improving the visual and other types of independent activities of children.

You already know the basic rules for sizing. Consider now, using the example of a drawing of an object - a support (Fig. 116) - some additional information about applying dimensions.

Rice. 116. Dimensioning

How to determine what dimensions and where to put on the drawing of an object? An analysis of the shape of the object will help us to find this out (see II).

The object shown in Figure 116. a can be mentally divided into a parallelepiped with a cubic hole and a cylinder (Fig. 116, b). Their dimensions are applied on the drawing: for a parallelepiped and a cubic hole - length, width and height; for a cylinder, base diameter and height.

Now the dimensions of each part are indicated. But are they enough to craft an item? No. It is also necessary to apply dimensions that determine the relative position of the parts of the object, i.e., coordinating dimensions: 16, 18, 5 and 6 mm.

Dimensions 16 and 18 mm determine the position of the cylinder relative to the parallelepiped, which is the base of the object. Dimensions 5 and 6 mm determine the position of the cube relative to the parallelepiped.

Note that the dimensions that determine the height of the cylinder and the cubic hole do not need to be applied in this case. The height of the cylinder is defined as the difference between the total height of the object (36 mm) and the thickness of the parallelepiped (14 mm) and is equal to 22 mm. The height of the cubic hole is determined by the height of the base, i.e. it is equal to 14 mm.

Each dimension in the drawing is indicated only once. For example, if in the main view (Fig. 116, a) the size of the base of the cylinder with a diameter of 20 is plotted, then it is not necessary to apply it in the top view.

At the same time, the drawing must contain all the dimensions necessary for the manufacture of the item. Very often, schoolchildren forget to apply dimensions such as 16, 18, 5 and 6 mm, without which it is impossible to determine the relative position of the parts of the object in the drawing.

Dimensions must be included on the drawings. Overall dimensions are those that determine the limiting (largest and smallest) values ​​​​of the external (and internal) outlines of products. In figure 116, these are sizes 67, 32, 36.

You know that when applying dimensions, smaller dimensions are placed closer to the image, and larger ones are further away. So, size 14 in the main view (Fig. 116, a) is closer to the image, and 36 is further. By following this rule, it is possible to avoid unnecessary intersections of dimension and extension lines.

Thus, the overall dimensions, which are always larger than others, are located farther from the image than the others. Without overall dimensions, the drawing is not finished.

Figure I17, a and b shows two examples of applying the dimensions of a shaft-type part. In the first case, correct, in the second - unsuccessful, with errors. Errors are highlighted in color.

Rice. 117. Dimensioning

Dimensions must be applied in such a way that it is convenient to read the drawing and, in the manufacture of the part, not to find out anything by calculations. In the first drawing (Fig. 117, a), the length of the part -100 mm - is immediately visible. On the second (Fig. 117, b), it must be counted.

The dimensions that determine the length of the cylinders - the components of the part, in the first case, are applied taking into account the manufacture of the part. How will you make this part in the workshops? First machine a 40 mm diameter cylinder to a length of 45 mm, and then a 20 mm diameter cylinder to a length of 25 mm. The same on the other side. In the second case, this is not taken into account when applying dimensions.

Dimensions are applied, as a rule, outside the contour of the image and so that the dimension lines, if possible, do not intersect with each other. The numbers are written above the dimension lines, then the drawing is easy to read. In Figure 117, b, this is not consistent everywhere. Diameter sizes 30, 40, 20 (right) are located inside the outline of the image. Sizes with a diameter of 20 are marked below the dimension line. Dimension with a diameter of 50 is set far to the right, which led to the intersection of many extension lines and made it difficult to understand the drawing. In this case, it is more convenient to apply it, as in Figure 117, a.

Rice. 118. Applying chamfer dimensions

The axial (dash-dotted) line should go beyond the contour of the image by about 3 mm and not cross the dimension number. In Figure 1 17, b, this is not sustained. Extension lines are also unsuccessfully drawn, they do not go beyond the dimension lines or are drawn too far.

For parts that have the shape of bodies of revolution, often the end edges are cut into a cone. This element is called a chamfer. Its purpose is to facilitate the assembly of parts, protect the edges from damage, and the worker's hands from cuts.

The most common bevels at an angle of 45 °. Their dimensions are applied by writing, for example, 2X45 °, where 2 is the height of the chamfer (Fig. 118, a). If there are several identical chamfers, their size is applied once, indicating the quantity (Fig. 118, b).

The dimensions of the chamfers at other angles are indicated by linear and angular dimensions, and not by the inscription (Fig. 118, c).

1. How does the analysis of the shape of an object help determine the dimensions necessary for drawing a part on a drawing?
2. What dimensions are applied on the drawing of a cylinder, cone, rectangular parallelepiped?
3. Thanks to what signs can a cylinder and a cone be depicted in one projection? a prism with a square base?
4. What dimensions in Figure 116 determine the relative position of the parts of the part?
5. What are the overall dimensions? Do they need to be included in the drawing?
6. How are bevels measured at a 45° angle?

Introduction

At present, one of the main tasks of the general education school is the development of the student's personality, the provision of modern high-quality education in accordance with his interests and needs. Obviously, it is rather difficult to ensure quality when the learning process is carried out without interest and under pressure. The solution to this problem, first of all, requires changes in the design of the educational process, the use of pedagogical technologies that ensure productive interaction between the subjects of education and support for the individual development of each student. The foregoing necessitates a revision of approaches to the organization of technological training in a general education school, as a result of which students must acquire social and personally significant skills that allow them to solve life problems and carry out transformative activities. With individual learning, it is possible to most fully realize the individual capabilities of the student, take into account his personal properties. At present, such a type of individual learning as the formation of individual educational routes is becoming relevant. Thus, the purpose of our study is to get acquainted with the concept of an individual form of education, to get acquainted with the types of individual education, as well as to consider in detail the concept of an individual educational route.

Individual form of education

The concept of the form of education

The activity of students in mastering the content of education is carried out in various forms of education, the nature of which is determined by various factors: the goals and objectives of education; the number of students covered by training; features of individual educational processes; the place and time of students' educational work; provision of textbooks and teaching aids, etc.

In didactics, attempts are made to define the organizational form of learning.

The most reasonable is the approach of I.M. Cheredov to the definition of organizational forms of education. Based on the philosophical understanding of the form as an internal organization and content, covering a system of stable connections of the subject, he defines the organizational form of learning as a special design of the learning process, the nature of which is determined by its content, methods, techniques, means, activities of students. Such a construction represents the internal organization of the content, which is the process of interaction between the teacher and students when working on a certain educational material.

Consequently, the forms of learning should be understood as constructions of segments of the learning process, which are realized in a combination of the teacher's control activity and the controlled learning activity of students to assimilate a certain content of the educational material and master the methods of activity.

The learning process is realized only through organizational forms that perform an integrative role, ensuring the unification and interaction of all its components. A set of forms, united on the basis of the connection between students and teachers through educational material and complementing each other, constitutes the organizational system of education.

The result of the interaction between the teacher and the student is:

professional development of the teacher;

learning by pupils and students of knowledge, skills and abilities;

development of mental processes of pupils and students;

development of moral qualities of pupils and students;

The form of education means the form of organization of work of students under the guidance of a teacher, which can be:

collective;

group;

individual;

The form of education is realized as an organic unity of a purposeful organization:

teaching aids;

teaching methods;

Functions of learning forms:

1. Educational - educational. The form of education is designed and used in order to create the best conditions for the transfer of knowledge, skills and abilities to students, the formation of their worldview, the development of talents, practical abilities, active participation in production and social life.

2. Educational. This function is provided by the introduction of students with the help of the training system in a variety of activities. As a result, all spiritual and physical forces are actively involved in the work: intellectual, emotional-volitional, effective-practical.

3. Organizational, which consists in the fact that the need to match the volume and quality of the content of education with the age capabilities of students requires the teacher to provide a clear organizational and methodological presentation of the material, a strict selection of aids.

4. Psychological - consists in developing a certain activity biorhythm among students, the habit of working at the same time. Habitual time and familiar conditions of training give rise in students to a mental state of emancipation, freedom, optimal tension of spiritual forces.

5. The meaningful form of training sessions in conjunction with active methods performs a developing function. It is especially effectively implemented when a variety of forms is used in the study of a topic in the educational process. The variety and variety of forms generates a wealth of conditions for mental, labor, and play activities, which makes it possible to include the whole complex of mental processes in the work.

6. The forms of organization of the educational process ensure the collective and individual activities of students, performing an integrating - differentiating function. The educational process, implemented in various forms, is basically a process of collective cognitive activity. Students learn together, exchange information in practical matters, learn mutual understanding and mutual assistance. At the same time, learning is a process of developing the capabilities of the individual. Therefore, each form of collective training should have the ability to individualize the activities of students.

7. The systematizing and structuring functions of organizational forms of education consist in the fact that they require the distribution of all educational material into parts and topics, its structuring and systematization both in general and for each lesson.

8. The stimulating function of the form of organization of training sessions manifests itself with the greatest force when it corresponds to the peculiarities of the age of students, the specifics of the development of their psyche and body.

Organizational forms and systems of education are historical: they are born, develop, are replaced by one another depending on the level of development of society, production, science and educational theory and practice.

Form is a sign of an object, accessible to visual and muscular-tactile perception.

In the form of an object, more or less typical features are distinguished: roundness or elongation, stability or dissection, symmetry of parts or asymmetry.

The specific tasks of mental education when getting acquainted with the form are:

Formation of ideas and knowledge about form as a sign of an object and beauty;

Development of the ability to see, distinguish, compare, group objects according to their shape;

· Development of the ability to see the form in combination with other signs in life, in objects of art;

Development of vocabulary and coherent speech and teaching children to use the exact names of forms and their features, figurative, expressive words, generalized words-concepts;

Teaching children how to apply knowledge about the form in a variety of activities;

· Education of cognitive interests.

The ability of a child to perceive, to see the form in an object is not innate, but is formed in the process of education and training.

Familiarization of children with the form as a sign of an object and a generalizing concept has a certain sequence, repetition and complication from one age group to another.

Junior group.

The teacher teaches children to see and distinguish objects by their shape, introduces the basic geometric shapes - a ball and a cube - and names them himself. The teacher organizes visual and tactile-muscular perception, cognitive actions with objects, teaches how to examine objects, test them in games, in classes with building materials, with toys.

In classes with an individual child or with a small subgroup, the teacher shows the ball and says: “This is a ball” - and performs actions with it, emphasizing its shape.

Cognitive practical actions should be performed repeatedly. The period of practical testing should not be shortened. In repeated classes, in games, the teacher again calls the figure and its features.

In subsequent lessons, in games, the teacher asks the children to show, bring. Put the balls in the basket. According to the action performed, he checks whether the children have learned the name and whether they correlate the word with the object. In the future, he exercises the children in the name of the form of the object.

By organizing games with balls and other toys, the teacher exercises the children in distinguishing them by shape and at the same time includes a new one - color - into the familiar and teaches them to distinguish balls by color. In the next lessons, the teacher offers balls of different sizes - large and small, then calls the words "big - small" and uses the word to reinforce the difference.

A lot of game activities are organized by the educator with objects of a cubic shape - he encourages to inspect the cubes, rearrange, move. Visually-motor perceiving the cube, the child feels the edges and planes and practically learns the features of this figure.

The definition of shape and size can already be included in one lesson, since the previous mastery of the shape of the ball contributed to the development of children's attention, the ability to look and see. Both in subsequent lessons and in games, the teacher exercises the ability of children to choose large and small cubes from building material.

Then the teacher organizes a comparison of the ball and the cube as two different figures.

In the future, he reinforces the idea of ​​​​a ball and a cube in various classes, in games ..

Thus, educator ml. gr. in accordance with the program, teaches children to distinguish between a ball and a cube in shape and call them the exact word, teaches them to apply the acquired ideas in various activities.

Middle group.

The teacher consolidates ideas about the ball and the cube and improves the methods of sensorimotor examination of objects based on visual and tactile-muscular perception. Introduces children to new shapes: rectangle, square, triangle, cylinder - and teaches to distinguish between straight, naked, square, triangular objects. With the expansion and complication of the content, the requirements for the mental activity of children expand and become more complicated, and new qualities of cognitive activity are formed. The educator teaches to see the same form in objects of different content.

And in the middle group, the educator first introduces objects in which various forms are expressed, and especially those with which children need to be introduced in accordance with the requirements of the program.

The teacher introduces children to new figures in the usual and already familiar way for children.

The new quality of form as a common feature of many surrounding objects should be revealed on the basis of content familiar to the child.

Mastering ideas about the basic forms of objects, the ability to group objects according to their forms does not occur only in the classroom, in didactic games, it requires "practice" in life.