The behavioral side of children with general underdevelopment of speech is a particular problem, because. this complicates the process of correcting their existing disorders, creating serious problems in the way of their development and education.
Speech disorders are quite common among various deviations in personality development. They either act as an independent primary defect, or accompany other forms of developmental pathology.
Modern research points to an increase in the number of children with deviations in the formation and development of speech, various in their manifestations and severity. the most common violation is the general underdevelopment of speech. Among the children attending speech therapy classes at our Center, they make up approximately 70% of the total.
The general underdevelopment of speech, which in different cases has a different nature of the defect, is characterized by a commonality of typical manifestations.
As you know, underdevelopment of speech is subdivided by R.E. Levina into three levels, while all components of speech are unformed. And at each level of development in children, researchers noted psychological and pedagogical features.
Children with the first level of development are practically speechless, they are characterized by negativism, the absence of forms and means of communication. In this regard, the social adaptation of children is difficult.
Children with the second level of development already have a certain vocabulary of commonly used words, own some grammatical categories. Their general and speech activity is higher than in children with the first level, but they are still characterized by insufficient stability of attention, difficulties in its distribution, weakness of mnestic activity, etc. Children may be samotically weakened, they have deficiencies in the motor sphere and other specific features.
Children with the third level of development communicate quite freely, but their speech is far from perfect, which is evident when trying to use extended coherent speech.
T.B. Filicheva singled out the fourth level of development, which has already become part of the practice of modern speech therapy, presented a description of such children (and there are quite a lot of them): children have residual effects of mild speech underdevelopment.
The mental development of children with general underdevelopment usually proceeds generally more safely than the development of their speech. However, children with OHP are inactive, they usually do not show initiative in communication. In Research Yu.F. Garkusha and V.V. Korzhevina notes that:
- preschoolers with OHP have communication disorders, manifested in the immaturity of the motivational-need sphere;
- the existing difficulties are associated with a complex of speech and cognitive impairments;
- the predominant form of communication with adults in children aged 4-5 is situational and business-like, which does not correspond to the age norm.
Defective speech activity leaves an imprint on the formation of the affective-volitional sphere in children. There is a lack of stability of attention, limited possibilities of its distribution. With a relatively intact semantic, logical memory in children, verbal memory is reduced, and the productivity of memorization suffers. They forget complex instructions, elements, and sequences of tasks.
The presence of general underdevelopment of speech in children leads to persistent violations of the activity of communication. At the same time, the process of interpersonal interaction of children becomes more difficult.
In children with general underdevelopment of speech (especially I and II levels), interaction with the social environment is difficult, the ability to adequately respond to ongoing changes and increasingly complex requirements is reduced. They have difficulty achieving their goals within existing norms, which can lead to imbalances in behavior.
The relevance of this problem is due to the insufficient development of issues related to the behavior of children of preschool and primary school age with general underdevelopment of speech, ways to correct their disorders, serious problems are created in the way of their development and education.
Speaking about the behavior of preschool children with general underdevelopment of speech, it should be noted that their behavior is aggressive. At the same time, it was revealed that such children are afraid of aggression, they have a need for protection. Almost all children with OHP have a high need (perhaps unmet) for communication. The behavior of children is hyperactive, there is motor disinhibition, impulsivity, a reduced level of self-control, general anxiety, children have a negative attitude towards the situation of testing knowledge, achievements, abilities, some children have low physiological resistance to stress. Some children arrive in a state of emotional tension, which is often situational.
In the classroom, many children quickly get tired and begin to spin, talk on abstract topics, i.e. stop accepting the material. Others, on the contrary, sit quietly, calmly, but do not answer questions or answer inappropriately, do not perceive tasks, and sometimes cannot repeat the answer after a speech therapist.
Thus, in the behavior of preschool children, due to the limited possibilities of psycho-speech development, a number of features are noted: conflict, aggressiveness, irascibility or passivity and isolation.
The behavior of children of primary school age with general underdevelopment of speech also has a number of distinctive features.
L.M. Shipitsina, L.S. Volkova, as a result of research, note some features of emotional and personal qualities in primary schoolchildren of grades I-II with general underdevelopment of speech.
Unlike children with normal speech development, many children with OHP are characterized by passivity, sensitivity, dependence on others, and a tendency to spontaneous behavior.
First grade students with OHP have lower working capacity, which in half of the children correlates with the severity of stress reactions and the dominance of negative emotions.
As a rule, violations of oral speech with its underdevelopment lead to violations of writing and reading in younger students.
K. Becker, M. Sovak distinguish two groups of behavioral disorders in writing defects.
- In children of the first group, there is a reluctance to study, school fears, isolation, disorganization, slowness, nervousness, which may be accompanied by such psychosomatic phenomena as asthenia, malnutrition, urinary incontinence.
- Children of the second group have disobedience, aggressiveness towards others at school and at home.
Thus, speech disorders not only reduce and impair the child's performance, but can also lead to behavioral disorders and social maladjustment, in connection with which differentiated psychoprevention and psychocorrection of the personality development features that these children have are of particular importance.
Significant improvements in the results of speech therapy influence are observed with the parallel work of a speech therapist with a psychologist. Psychologist classes activate the child's need for communication, relieve anxiety, aggressive behavior, increase self-confidence and success.
In this regard, diagnostic and correctional work with children with speech pathology is carried out in our Center in a complex manner, which makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of correctional work.
"Adaptation of children with speech disorders
in the conditions of the educational process"
In solving the problem of improving the quality of education and upbringing, the study of schoolchildren, the timely identification of the reasons for the lagging behind of individual students and the choice of the most effective ways to eliminate these backlogs, are of no small importance.
One of the common reasons for the failure of secondary school students is a variety of violations of oral and written speech. Speech disorders are a serious obstacle to students' mastery of writing and reading at the initial stages of learning, and at later stages (high school) - in mastering the grammar of their native language and the program of humanitarian subjects.
When examining elementary school children, it was revealed that 1/3 of the students are unsuccessful in the Russian language. These are, first of all, children whose pronunciation deficiencies are accompanied by underdevelopment of phoneme formation processes (impaired intelligibility of speech and abnormal mastery of the sound composition of a word).
Even greater difficulties in learning are experienced by children with OHP, which manifests itself in violations not only of the pronunciation, but also of the lexical and grammatical side of speech. At school, such children become unsuccessful students only because of their abnormal speech development. Education is also affected by the unfavorable situation in families and the accompanying diagnoses of MMD, mental retardation, and pedagogical neglect.
It is not necessary to expect high results from them, because. not only speech, but also mental processes are disturbed. These children are restless, quickly tired, some have deviations in behavior. Such students need a differentiated and individual approach. Each mistake must be corrected by the teacher together with the student. At the same time, the essence of the mistake he made is explained, and the repeated writing out of his mistakes and all kinds of exercises in copying texts do not lead to proper success. Children should be prepared for written exercises by oral sound analysis.
Presence of a problem How it affects learning activities
1. Blurred, sluggish Unclear answers, embarrassed by his speech, painfully reacting
articulation em on remarks concerning speech.
2. Insufficient level Poorly remembers verses heard or read
memory development text.
3. Decrease in the level of con- The child cannot concentrate on
concentration of attention, one task, with difficulty moves from one task to another,
unstable attention is often distracted.
4. Extremely low level Poorly distinguishes similar-sounding speech sounds,
formation of the background - does not differentiate soft and hard consonants, all this
matic perception affects writing.
5. Insufficient level Poor understanding of the hidden meaning of the text, with difficulty deciding
verbal-logical task, because one must not only read, but also understand the meaning
reading thinking.
6. Lack of formation
spatial orientations, difficulties in solving certain types of problems
tidings.
7. Slow pace of work - He does homework for a long time, does not have time to write dictations in class, does not
keeps up with class work.
Low working capacity Gets tired quickly, working capacity lasts for 10 minutes.
8. Low level of self-Does homework only with mom, does not check their work
knows how to control.
9. Education is not formed - Psychologically, the child is not ready for school, the school is for him,
ny motive. First of all, change, friends
Low level of learning No desire to study, because the child experiences constant
motivation failure
Selective training Tries to do only those tasks that he likes
Motivation.
10. Increased anxiety - The child is constrained, afraid to answer in class, afraid of control -
ness. nyh. Frequent tears, does not want to go to school, afraid to answer
At the blackboard.
11. Emotional restlessness - Very excitable, restless, mood changes quickly.
endurance, hyperdynamism
mimic syndrome.
12. The process of reading is not Reading by syllable, there is no understanding of what has been read.
formed
13. Hidden left-handedness The process of writing is difficult, reduces the level of space
Vein representations.
Stuttering children constitute a special group among students of educational schools with speech disorders. Stuttering manifests itself mainly when the stutterer addresses someone, or answers a question, and out of communication, the discontinuity of speech disappears. It should be noted that the strengthening or weakening of stuttering in the same child depends on who exactly he speaks with (adults, children, acquaintances or not) and how exactly (answers individual questions, or shares his impressions, or addresses to the interlocutor, or the lesson answers, etc.). At school, the child enters into a group unfamiliar to him. High demands are placed on the student's speech, it occurs with the attention of the teacher and the class directed at him and is carried out through more complex statements. Under these conditions, stuttering children are increasingly aware of their shortcomings, which in some cases leads to its aggravation. The tactless remarks of teachers also have a negative impact on the speech of stutterers. Gradually, uncertainty arises and consolidates in one's own speech, in one's abilities. The behavior of the child changes: he prefers to remain silent, avoids assignments related to the need to speak, becomes uncommunicative, and sometimes a violator of discipline (due to impulsiveness and insufficient organization of his behavior).
Numerous observations indicate that it is the wrong approach that is sometimes the cause that exacerbates stuttering (misunderstanding on the part of the teacher, a rare so-called "sparing" survey, only a written survey). All this leads to increased stuttering and gaps in the knowledge of the program material.
To prevent this from happening, you need to:
You can't demand a quick answer. You need to prepare the child for the answer in advance. For example: Sidorov will answer now, and then Ivanov.
Think over the system of questions, their clarity and logic.
Compliance with pedagogical tact.
Do not comment in front of the whole class.
It is necessary to give feasible public assignments, to involve in participation in amateur performances.
establish contact with parents.
periodically find time for individual conversation.
How to help children with speech disorders who are studying in a comprehensive school?
First, you need to contact a speech therapist. It is very important when the speech therapist and the teacher work in tandem and maintain constant contact. We must take into account the interests of the child, and unite our efforts in helping him.
Secondly, throughout the course of special classes, the child needs a favorable treatment. After numerous twos and threes, unpleasant conversations at home, ridicule at school, he should feel at least a small, but success. Therefore, it is desirable that at least for a while the teacher refuses to correct me in the notebooks of this student in red.
This, firstly, "noises" the information, which is contained in specific errors, which interferes with the teacher himself. Secondly, a red-written notebook for a child with dysgraphia is an additional stress factor. Very often, children say that they do not want to study because everything is useless - they are considered to be lagging behind. (You can offer a letter with a simple pencil. The teacher marks the fields. The corrected error does not reduce the grade in the journal).
Thirdly, it is desirable to refuse checks on reading speed. Well, if the teacher conducts it without accents, hidden. And it happens that creates the atmosphere of the exam. In our children who are speech pathologists, this approach can cause neurosis.
Therefore, if it is necessary to conduct a check, do it in the most gentle way possible.
Fourth, I want to draw your attention to the dosage of the material. And for weak children, you need to give examples of how to perform this or that exercise.
WHAT NOT TO DO!
When a child makes a lot of mistakes, parents often hear recommendations from teachers to read and write more. And parents fulfill them literally - all weekends and holidays are busy with dictations, thoughtlessly writing off huge texts.
The approach to a child suffering from dyslexia and dysgraphia should be completely different. At the first stages, the work is mainly oral: exercises for the development of phonemic perception, sound analysis of the word. Dictation here will only bring harm. Numerous mistakes that will inevitably be made when writing them are fixed in the memory of the child. For this reason, it is undesirable for children with dysgraphia to give exercises with uncorrected text to find errors in it.
If you are asked to read a text or write a lot at home, advise parents that the child does this not in one go, but intermittently, breaking the text into parts. This will enable students with writing disabilities to do better with their homework.
Exercise "Correction test" (promotes concentration) you can advise parents or give in the lesson at least five days a week, preferably every day, for five minutes, and after 2-3 months the number of errors decreases. It is better to start a corrective test with one or two different letters, then mixed in pronunciation or spelling. The result is sure to come.
In general, it must be said that one cannot expect quick results when working with such children. We must be patient.
Each child requires an individual approach.
One will be happy to sit at the table at home or at school and do all the exercises that you offer him. Another in 7-10 minutes will not know where to put his arms and legs.
Mobile children should not be forced to perform any additional tasks. They would have to be patient to do the lessons. And the development of phonemic perception, and sound-letter analysis, and the development of memory, attention - all this can be done in any environment.
For example: a teacher at the beginning of the lesson, as a warm-up, can ask the children anything about the school building, about the school corridor; check the memory and attention of your students, and you will see that some do not know how many floors are in the building; make them not only look, but also see. Developing auditory attention, ask for a minute not to talk without explaining the reason; then ask what he heard during this time, what sounds, voices.
Any games and simple actions aimed at the development of speech and such important mental processes as memory, attention, perception are useful for the child. But they will only be useful when performed on the upswing, without violence.
It happens that a child who is not successful at school does a great job with specialists. And this happens because they simply began to teach it differently, taking into account all its features.
I am sure that excellent results can be achieved in working with children suffering from writing disorders when a teacher, a psychologist, a speech therapist, and, of course, parents unite together. And they work together.
Thus, it is in our power to eliminate gaps in knowledge, to create conditions for the successful assimilation of program material. One should only pay more attention to the so-called "difficult children".
In order to establish a measure of non-adaptive behavior of persons with speech disorders, personality accentuations of stutterers and patients suffering from rhinolalia were studied using the technique of G. Shmishek (1970).
It was possible to establish that in all the groups examined, with the exception of adult stutterers, the accentuations were slightly increased on average. It was possible to identify two distinct trends: a decrease in accentuations with age (children suffering from rhinolalia, according to this indicator, are adjacent to younger schoolchildren, since their average age is 10.0 ± 2.4 years), while a relative increase in accentuations in female groups compared to with male groups. Among younger schoolchildren, this difference is not yet expressed. They become reliable among girls compared to boys of senior school age and in women compared to men. No relationship between the severity of accentuations and the degree of speech defect was found in any group.
An analysis of the representation of individual accentuations showed that most often stutterers have emotivity (on average for all groups 15.3 points), cyclothymism and exaltation, indicating their increased emotional excitability, instability. It was these features that could be assumed on the basis of the results of assessing their attention and memory. The existing accentuations can be considered as primary factors causing some deviations in the course of mental processes in stutterers.
When comparing the indicators of accentuations of stutterers with other categories of subjects, the following was revealed. Different groups of subjects differ not only in the average severity of accentuations (the highest in patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases and peptic ulcer disease, and the smallest in athletes), but also in the coefficient of variability in the severity of accentuations. So, for example, in athletes with the lowest average, the contrast between individual of them is greatest; hyperthymia (14.1 points) and exaltation (13.9 points) are most pronounced, but dysthymia (7.8 points) and anxiety (4.5 points) are especially low.
Since accentuations can be considered as a manifestation of mental adaptation tactics in any particular life situation, in particular illness, the difference in the behavior of the examined groups of subjects illustrates different tactics of the subject's interaction with the environment. The accentuation profiles of speech therapists, stutterers, and athletes are clearly shown in Figure 11. One can see the similarity of the profiles of the first two categories of subjects and the significant difference from them of these athletes, for whom, in all likelihood, the presented profile is adaptive. However, these data should be recognized as conditionally normative, since they reflect the adaptation of the individual to very specific circumstances and cannot serve as a standard of behavior, for example, for stutterers.
Attention is drawn to the "total" severity of most accentuations in patients with cardiovascular diseases, which can be considered as a sign of a significant decrease in the adaptive capabilities of this category of patients, not only due to their increase, but also due to their lack of differentiation. However, a comparison within the group correlation of accentuations of stutterers and speech therapists shows that, despite the similarity of the average profile, a significant difference is revealed between them; indicators of accentuations of stutterers are significantly more interconnected. The data of factor analysis of accentuations of adult stutterers show that the first factor is formed by the characteristics of the emotional-affective series (characteristics attributed by K. Leonhard to temperament), manifested in dysthymia and anxiety without pronounced mood swings and exaltation, which is consistent with the results just described.
Rice. Fig. 11. The severity of accentuations in scale points in three categories of subjects: the abscissa axis - the numbers of accentuations (I. Hyperthymia; II. Emotivity; III. Anxiety; IV. Demonstrativeness; V. Dysthymia; VI. Overpersistence; VII. Overaccuracy; VIII. Cyclothymia; IX. Uncontrollability X. Exaltation); y-axis - severity of accentuations in points
Thus, despite the moderate severity, the accentuations of stutterers indicate a decrease in their mental adaptation due to a decrease in the differentiation of reactions to various life situations. In a certain sense, we can talk about the manifestation of a deficit of accentuations in them.
Speech is realized in the process of interpersonal interactions (communication), which are subject to certain patterns. To evaluate them allows the test of multidimensional quantification of interpersonal relations by T. Leary.
The methodology involves a quantitative assessment of eight primary characteristics presented in Table 16. The maximum severity of each characteristic (octants) corresponds to 16 points, i.e. the maximum number of statements related to one characteristic, which the subject considers characteristic of him.
Table 16. List of characteristics of interpersonal behavior in the interpretation of the test by T. Leary
Significant differences between children and adults, as well as their dependence on the gender of stutterers in this indicator, have not been identified. The average score for all the examined groups was 7.6 ±3.0. The characteristics obtained indicate that, in general, stutterers do not have maladaptive variants of interpersonal relationships. They correspond to a moderate degree of expression of communicative features.
When comparing the results of a survey of stutterers of different ages and children suffering from rhinolalia, for individual octants, it turned out that octants are represented in all groups by fairly homogeneous values, the difference between the extreme indicators is, with rare exceptions, no more than one and a half to two points. The most contrasting relationships are observed in the group of children suffering from rhinolalia, between octants VII and VIII, amounting to a difference in points equal to 2.9. These indicators indicate a combination of a tendency to excessive conformity and responsiveness.
When calculating the secondary indicator of dominance, it turned out to be maximum in stutterers of senior school age (2, 9) and minimum negative, i.e. turning into subordination in children suffering from rhinolalia (-0, 4). The greatest benevolence is found by adult stutterers (2, 2), and the least, bordering on hostility, by stutterers of senior school age (-0, 2).
Comparison of the rank distributions of the severity of communicative traits with different adaptive tactics of behavior made it possible to establish a significant predominance of dominance in individuals with phlegmatic adaptive tactics compared to others. Comparison using rank correlation data of stutterers, healthy individuals and patients with neuroses showed that all three groups differ from each other. In general, in stutterers, lack of independence, selflessness and meekness are more pronounced compared to other factors, which brings them closer to healthy individuals. Patients with neuroses are more likely to have such contradictory traits as meekness and stubbornness. Comparison of stutterers and patients with neuroses in terms of how the picture of communicative relations changes when performing a test with a focus on the "ideal self" showed that stutterers express a desire for greater dominance compared to the "real self", and this brings them closer to patients with neuroses. Stutterers show greater satisfaction with benevolence than patients with neurosis, which can be associated with the specifics of social assessments of the compared contingents of patients, i.e. the opinions about themselves that they hear from others.
It should be noted some differences between stuttering men and women. The former are characterized by lack of independence, disinterestedness, dominance, while the latter are characterized by meekness, intransigence, and stubbornness. In expanded form, these characteristics can be presented for men as the following: extroverted friendly behavior, willingness to cooperate, tendency to conformism, preference for good social relations; responsible, delicate behavior, choosing a friendly way of communication, helping others, making emotional contacts; active competent behavior and authority based on a person's ability. Stuttering women are characterized by somewhat different forms of behavior: modesty, timidity, emotional restraint, the ability to obey; acceptable manifestations of cruelty, harshness, when she takes into account the situation; acceptable critical approach to social relations.
The primary indicators of patients with neuroses according to the Leary test are generally more adaptive than those of stutterers, and demonstrate predominantly compliance, skepticism and good-heartedness.
Secondary integrative indicators differ. For men with neuroses, when evaluating the "real self", subordination and slightly expressed hostility are characteristic, for women - subordination (to a lesser extent compared to men) and goodwill. When evaluating the "I'm ideal" in comparison with "I'm real", there is a desire of men and women to dominate, more pronounced in men, as well as a desire to become more benevolent.
For stuttering men, when evaluating the “I am real”, moderate dominance is characteristic, and for women - moderate subordination, but both of them, like patients with neurosis, tend to dominate, in this case, unlike patients with neurosis, this desire is more expressed in women. As for benevolence, it is moderately expressed in stuttering men and women in the assessment of "I am real" and the tendency to its increase is slightly expressed in the assessment of "I am ideal", i.e. stutterers are more satisfied with their benevolence than patients with neurosis, which may be due to a specific system of social assessments of the compared contingents of patients.
Thus, the structure of communicative relations of patients with neurosis and patients with speech disorders differs both in primary and secondary indicators. At the same time, the primary indicators turn out to be more intense, with a tendency to maladaptive variants in stutterers. Patients with neuroses are approximately equally dissatisfied with their subordination and measure of benevolence; stutterers are mainly dissatisfied with their lack of dominance, in their opinion, and they are mostly satisfied with their benevolence.
Similar information.
6.4.2. Adaptive behavior of persons with speech disorders
Any form of psychological assistance is carried out based on the preserved mental properties of a person. The most universal protective mental mechanisms include the adaptive forms of behavior that he has (in the form of an alloy of innate and acquired traits). The most adequate for their assessment [methods developed in line with the study of temperament. Temperament, by definition, belongs to the function of the most general organization of behavior. But the adaptive nature of this behavior has not been explicitly formulated. Most often, its hereditary conditionality and, for the most part, immutability or slow change over the course of life were emphasized. In practice, with this understanding, the optionality of temperament was seen, its meaning was reduced to the style of behavior and its emotional coloring. At the same time, a significant number of works devoted, for example, to the role of temperament as a person’s inclination to behave in one way or another, regardless of the situation in choosing the appropriate profession or optimization professional activity (Klimov E.A., 1969; Vyatkin V.A., 1978; and others), indicates that it was adaptive behavior that was studied. The analysis, including various literary data, made it possible to show that the most common adaptive forms of behavior can be reduced to four main ones, which are most similar to the four classical temperaments. Their adaptive essence lies in the transformation of the external environment (choleric behavior), its study (sanguine behavior), persistent adherence to the developed or accepted norms (phlegmatic behavior) and, finally, in the ability to measure their behavior with a specific situation (melancholic behavior).
The limitations that the temperament of a particular subject imposes on his adaptive capabilities are well known. IP Pavlov (1953, 1954), developing the concept of the physiological foundations of temperament, paid considerable attention to the interpretation of various mental illnesses, primarily neuroses, from the point of view of the most general properties of the higher nervous activity of patients, i.e. temperament. Simultaneously, laboratory studies of the same regularities were carried out on animals. As a result of experimental studies and clinical observations, or rather, the interpretation of clinical cases from the standpoint of the developed concept of temperament, it was suggested that certain temperaments predispose to the development of neurosis - extreme, as I. P. Pavlov called them: choleric and melancholic. Ideas about premorbid features predisposing to the development of speech disorders, in the form of features of higher nervous activity, developed mainly in relation to stuttering (Davidenkov S.N., 1963). They were most clearly formulated by S.E. Taibogarov and S.M. Monakova, who described the development of stuttering in persons belonging to the four classical temperaments (1978). The authors proceed from the fact that stuttering can occur in people of any temperament, but its most severe forms occur in the case of the extreme (according to I.P. Pavlov) of them - choleric and melancholic. Therefore, the question about the features of individual adaptive behavioral tactics in relation to stuttering is related to the question of whether they predispose to the development of stuttering.
If a personality is a complex biosocial formation (Myasishchev V.N., 1960; Simonov P.V., Ershov P.M., 1984), then it is of considerable interest to compare the results of a physiological or psychological assessment of temperament. To assess the strength, balance and mobility of nervous processes (Practical studies in psychology. - M., 1977), a questionnaire is used, consisting of three lists (scales) of questions, 16 in each. Each question had to be answered yes or no. One positive answer was worth one point. During processing, the sum of positive answers was calculated for each scale. According to the interpretation proposed by the authors of the questionnaire, taking into account the criteria for evaluating the indicators of such a questionnaire by the well-known temperament researcher Ya. Strelyau (Vyatkin B.A., 1978), indicators of the main nervous processes. constituting the physiological basis of temperament, are considered pronounced if the sum of points for each of them exceeds 50%. In addition, the type of the nervous system (as the ratio of introversion and neuroticism) can be determined by the method of G. Eysenck.
An analysis of the behavior of children in the group of preschool children with speech disorders, as well as among healthy children, made it possible to distinguish four groups according to the style of behavior.
To the first group included children with a strong, balanced and mobile type of higher nervous activity. They quickly “grab” new material, navigate well in an unfamiliar environment, easily come into contact with others, are capable of purposeful behavior, and are quite cheerful. Their problems are related to the lack of perception of the partner, as well as the fact that it is difficult for them to work in which they have lost interest. They have insufficiently developed self-criticism, the ability to see and recognize their failure, shortcomings. Such children were 24% of preschoolers with speech disorders and 67% of healthy ones.
Children second group(44% of preschool children with speech disorders and 25% of healthy ones) are characterized by stable behavior, an increased tendency to normativity, and the performance of repetitive actions. Therefore, they can receive encouragement, but in some cases they can irritate teachers with their pedantry and slowness.
The third group - children whose leading feature was shyness. They are sensitive, easily hurt, and often have wet eyes. It is difficult for them to make a decision, ask a question, make a choice. Such children react sharply to criticism, comments addressed to them, empathize with other children and adults, they always “feel sorry for someone”. The number of preschool children with speech disorders in this group (11%) was significantly higher than among healthy children (3%).
fourth group children are characterized by explosiveness, impulsiveness, increased reactivity, touchiness. They are overly active, mobile, can hardly sit in one place, follow firm rules, for example, in a game, they are burdened by monotonous work. Participation in activities for them is often more important than the result. In this group, as in the previous one, preschoolers with speech disorders are more represented than healthy ones (respectively 21 and 5%).
Thus, among preschoolers with speech disorders, more often than among healthy children, an unstable type of behavior is observed (groups 3 and 4). Children with this type of behavior have an increased predisposition to the occurrence of neuroses. In addition, the unequal style of adaptive behavior determines the originality of interpersonal interaction, cognitive activity, speech activity and performance of preschoolers with speech disorders.
A study of the higher nervous activity of stuttering men and women - their strength, poise and mobility, which are the basis of behavior, showed that they are expressed to a high degree, with the exception of a certain lack of strength of nervous processes in women. The seven-factor typological questionnaire revealed a relative deficiency of the excitatory process compared to the inhibitory process, especially in men. A tendency to the predominance of the 1st signal system over the 2nd signal system was found in all stutterers, which is also typical for healthy individuals (Terekhova T.P., 1956).
Since all the methods discussed above, including the method of G. Eysenck, allow us to assess the predominant type of higher nervous activity of the subject (temperament), they can be compared with each other according to this indicator. In percentage terms, the degree of compliance was the following values: 80, 68 and 48%. That is, the results of the first three methods turned out to be most closely related, and their connection with the method of G. Eysenck was less pronounced. In all likelihood, this is due to the greater conditionality of the indicators of G. Eysenck's methodology by social factors.
Various aspects of temperament differ little from each other, and their average values are about 10 points. Even the largest difference observed between sanguine and melancholy scores among stuttering men (4.2 points) was not statistically significant. There are no significant differences between the indicators of adaptive behavioral tactics of stutterers and persons without speech pathology in all aspects, i.e. the data obtained do not allow us to speak about the belonging of stutterers to any particular category according to these indicators.
It could be assumed that with age, temperamental traits soften in stutterers, primarily melancholic and choleric types, presumably predisposing to the onset of stuttering, while in children they are preserved to a greater extent. An analysis of the severity of various temperaments in the age range from 5 to 50 years not only does not confirm this assumption, but demonstrates the opposite fact: melancholic features decrease at a younger age. which corresponds to the observations of V. I. Garbuzov (Garbuzov V. I., Zakharov A. I., Isaev D. N., 1977). It seems that this fact confirms the interpretation of classical temperaments as tactics of adaptive behavior that are formed in a person in the process of development.
An analysis of the results of assessing the tactics of adaptive behavior in stutterers showed that it does not differ from that in healthy individuals, i.e. the assumption that these traits predispose to the development of stuttering is not confirmed. There is no connection between the adaptive behavioral tactics of stutterers and the forms and severity of the speech defect. At the same time, a number of reliable links were found between individual adaptive behavioral tactics and various manifestations of the behavioral aspect of EVA, which will be shown in the further presentation of the material.
The experience of using for the analysis of specific behavior of people ideas about their inherent adaptive tactics of behavior has shown that the final result depends, on the one hand, on the relative degree of severity (dominance) of certain tactics of behavior or their combinations, on the other hand, on the ability to use tactics proportionate to the objective situation. Thus, maladaptive behavior as a result of the behavioral aspect of EVA occurs either in the case of a person’s rigid implementation of any preferred behavioral tactic regardless of the situation, or in the case of enumeration of various tactics that also do not correspond to the situation. Maladaptive behavior of the second type often occurs due to the "fault" of the situation, due to its excessive variability and the complexity of qualification (recognition) by the subject.
The scales that characterize individual tactics of adaptive behavior include items that characterize the subject's speech. These characteristics correspond to generally accepted ideas. So, for example, A. I. Krasnogorsky (1958), who specifically studied this issue, proposed the following characteristics of the speech behavior of children of different temperaments: a choleric person has a fast, passionate, speech with confused intonations; a sanguine person speaks loudly, quickly, clearly, accompanying the speech with lively gestures, expressive facial expressions; the phlegmatic person's speech is calm, even, with stops, without sharply expressed emotions, gestures and facial expressions; melancholic speech is weak, quiet, sometimes reduced to a whisper.
To clarify the relationship between general and verbal behavior, it was necessary to establish the degree of their correspondence. For this purpose, a correlation was calculated between the frequency of confirmation of an item characterizing speech and the total score for the severity of this tactic of behavior on the entire scale. A significant correlation of the corresponding features of speech with a general indicator characterizing the tactics of behavior in stuttering and healthy high school students was revealed, and in stuttering this correlation is observed in three of the four variants of tactics, while in ordinary high school students only in two. Attention is drawn to the fact that in the group of speech therapists, the correlation significance indicators are close to reliable in relation to choleric and melancholic tactics, which, from the point of view of I.P. Pavlov, are “suppliers of neuroses”. If this trend is taken into account, then the connection between “verbal choleric temperament” and the general choleric temperament and the absence of correlations within the sanguine temperament turns out to be common for all samples of subjects.
Additionally, correlations were calculated for the speech items of the questionnaire with some other psychological characteristics, including neuroticism and introversion, and for stutterers, also with the severity of their speech defect. The relationship between the severity of "speech temperaments" and the severity of the speech defect was not revealed, which refutes the idea of a predisposition to stuttering of persons with certain temperaments.
Significant correlations with other characteristics were found. "Temperamental" characteristics of speech have various connections in all groups of subjects. In the group of stutterers, positive and negative correlations are revealed, while in the group of healthy schoolchildren only positive ones, and in the group of speech therapists, negative correlations are completely absent. The largest number of connections in the group of stutterers in the phlegmatic "verbal temperament" - a strong positive correlation with introversion (0.69), parental ego-state (0.41); negative associations with choleric "speech temperament" (-0.7) and sanguine (-0.41). A rather strong negative connection connects the choleric "speech temperament" with the parental ego state. A strong positive correlation connects the melancholic "speech temperament" with the artistic personality type.
In the group of healthy high school students, there are much fewer connections, and they mainly relate to choleric and sanguine Manifestations in speech and mental and artistic types in general temperament, which, as is known, is associated with the functions of the cerebral hemispheres.
In the group of speech therapists, a relatively large number of correlations are revealed, in which melancholic and phlegmatic "speech temperaments" are predominantly involved. It is noteworthy that the phlegmatic "speech temperament" is actively involved in various relationships also among stutterers. A similar positive correlation of phlegmatic "verbal temperament" with introversion. Interestingly, unlike stutterers, speech therapists find multiple positive correlations between phlegmatic and melancholic "speech temperaments" and various manifestations of speech anxiety. In all likelihood, this can be explained by the attitude towards the revealed connection developed in the process of logo-corrective work. It is significant that it was revealed not as a result of a direct survey, but indirectly by comparing the answers to different questionnaires.
Thus, the characteristics of temperament in the speech of stutterers and non-stutterers have complex and diverse connections with other psychological characteristics that can be attributed to the range of manifestations of general temperament and, above all, its emotional characteristics. A direct connection between the quality of speech and temperament is not revealed. We should expect more mediated relationships between speech and temperament, in particular, through situations of verbal communication in which temperament takes an active part.
Control questions and tasks
1. Describe the direction of psychology that develops questions of the organization of human behavior.
2. What do you know about the features of the motor organization of the behavior of people with speech disorders?
3. Give examples of behavioral disorders in various speech disorders.
4. What is the importance of knowledge about the organization of behavior in the process of corrective speech therapy work? 5. What is the role of individual characteristics of behavior in the course of a speech disorder?
Belyakova L.I., Kumalia I. Comparative analysis of the state of motor and speech functions in stuttering preschoolers // Defectology.-1985.-№1.
Bernstein N.A. Essays on the physiology of movements and the physiology of activity. - M., 1966.
Volkova G.A. Logopedic rhythm. - M., 1985.
Volkova G.A. Features of the behavior of stuttering children in conflict situations // Theory and practice of correctional education of preschoolers with speech disorders: Interuniversity collection. scientific Proceedings / Ed. L.I. Belyakova, G. S. Humennaya. - M., 1991.
Garbuzov V.I., Zakharov A.I., Isaev D.N. Neurosis in children and their treatment. - L., 1977.
Efimov O.I., Korvyakova N.F. Comparative analysis of linguistic, spatial and motor activity of stuttering children // Stuttering. Experimental research and methods of rehabilitation: Sat. scientific Proceedings of the Moscow Research Institute of the Ear, Throat and Nose; Leningrad Research Institute of Ear, Throat, Nose and Speech. - M., 1986.
Zaitseva L.A. The role of the social microenvironment in the occurrence of stuttering in the works of various authors (review) // Disorders of speech and methods of elimination. - M., 1975.
Kalyagin V. A. The results of psychological testing of adult patients with stuttering // Problems of the pathology of voice and speech. - M., 1983.
Kalyagin V.A., Stepanova G.M. Evaluation of the features of speech and personality of stutterers with the help of personality psychodiagnostic tests // Defectology. - 1996. - No. 3.
Krasnogorsky A.I. Higher nervous activity of the child. -L., 1958.
Kumala I. Differentiated assessment of psychomotor and speech development of a stuttering preschooler: Abstract of the thesis. dis.... cand. ped. Sciences - M., 1986.
Moreno J. Sociometry: An experimental method and the science of society. - M., 1958.
Myasishchev V. N. Personality and neuroses. - L., 1960.
Pavlov I. P . Full coll. op.: In 6 volumes - M.; L., 1953. - T. 3. - Book. 2.
Rychkova N.A. The state of voluntary motor activity in stuttering preschoolers: Abstract of the thesis. dis.... cand. ped. Sciences. - M., 1985.
Taibogarov S.E., Monakova S.M. Stuttering. - Alma-Ata, 1978.
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Data on the degree of frustration tolerance of stuttering schoolchildren and adults were also obtained. In terms of the direction of reactions, adults approach healthy subjects. They have approximately equally, as well as in the norm, manifest extrapunitive and impunitive reactions. Stuttering schoolchildren have more frequent extrapunitive reactions, i.e. the tendency to attribute tension to some external circumstance. The reactions of stutterers are somewhat less differentiated by type than in the norm, especially in adults - they show approximately equally all three types of reactions. Stuttering women, as well as boys and girls, have the least pronounced self-protective reaction, as in the norm, but unlike the norm, there is no clear predominance of fixation on an obstacle compared to an orientation towards satisfying a need.
An analysis of the responses of stutterers depending on the nature of the stimulus showed the following. In the presence of an obstacle, stutterers, regardless of age and gender, tend to respond with an outwardly accusatory reaction or, less often, a neutral one, trying to avoid self-accusation. This behavior brings them closer to healthy subjects. In the case of an accusation, stutterers, like healthy people, tend to accept the accusation, and this tendency increases with age. Impunitive reactions are noticeably less pronounced in stutterers compared to the norm. Unlike people without speech pathology, stutterers of any age and gender in a situation of accusation prefer a self-protective reaction, rather than fixation on an obstacle.
It was possible to show some differences in the direction and type of reactions of stuttering children in situations of communication with peers and with adult partners. Usually, stuttering boys and girls in communication with peers and younger ones show externally accusatory reactions, and when communicating with older ones, the number of such reactions decreases, accompanied by a decrease in the number of impunitive reactions due to intrapunitive ones, i.e. aimed at self-blame.
The type of reaction undergoes the following changes depending on the age of the partner. In stuttering boys, a constructive reaction aimed at resolving the conflict is replaced by a reaction of fixation on an obstacle, i.e. communication with an adult, as it were, paralyzes his constructive activity. In girls, when communicating with peers, all types of reactions are on average equally represented, and an adult partner, in the event of an accusation on his part, causes a reaction of fixation on an obstacle even more often than in boys. In this case, some suppression of self-protective reactions occurs.
Along with the psychological reaction to the situation of frustration, the nature of the verbal responses of stutterers when performing the Rosenzweig test was studied. The number of recorded words-reactions in response to picture stimuli was used as a characteristic of speech in this work.
It turned out that the average number of words for all test stimuli in male stutterers is less than in female stutterers, while normally it is the same (Shafranskaya E.D., 1976). Moreover, in stuttering schoolchildren it is more pronounced than in adults. Since girls are known to be more verbally productive than boys, it is possible that written language allows them to compensate for the limitations of oral speech.
When analyzing the possible influence of some psychological and linguistic factors presented in the test on the number of words in the answers of the subjects, it was found that with an increase in the number of words in the stimuli, the number of words in the answers of all groups of subjects clearly increases. One can also see the above-mentioned difference in the number of words in the answers of male and female stutterers and the absence of such a difference among non-stutterers. Attention is drawn to the fact that the measure of the increase in the number of words in the answers of different groups of subjects is not the same. The most pronounced differentiation in the number of words in the answers of male adults and children with stuttering, as well as in the answers of stuttering women. It is less significant among healthy females and males. It was possible to show that social distance significantly decreases in stutterers as their age increases, i.e., despite the increase in feelings about their speech, they develop their ability to make contact with others.
6.3.2 Relationship with the teacher
An essential side of the relationship of persons with impaired ch'uh is their relationship with a speech therapist, who is sometimes perceived by them as a real teacher. They were assessed using a modification of the Khanin-Stambulov (1977) methodology, designed to assess the emotional, gnostic and proper behavioral side of the relationship with the teacher. It is obvious that these subscales correspond to three aspects of the internal picture of the defect. In total, using this technique, the attitude of 102 stuttering children (28 boys and 9 girls of primary school age, 48 boys and 17 girls of senior school age) and the attitude of 108 stutterers (24 boys and 6 girls of primary school age) towards their class teacher were revealed. 60 boys and 18 girls of senior school age). It was possible to establish a significantly better attitude towards the speech therapist of girls of senior school age compared with boys of the same age. Also, the attitude towards speech therapists among girls and boys becomes significantly more positive with age. The attitude of older children towards speech therapists is significantly better than their attitude towards the class teacher. The same pattern is characteristic of boys of primary school age, but at a lower level of significance. For all children, emotional contact is the weakest, with the exception of older girls, in whom, on the contrary, it prevails over the other two parameters in relations with a speech therapist.
There is an image of a stutterer who, once again admitted to a hospital for treatment, exclaims: “Finally, I am back where they understand me and can let me speak.” Indeed, there are numerous observations, including those described in the literature, indicating that the speech of a stutterer depends on his microsocial relations. Here, the size of the group in which communication takes place, and its composition, a benevolent or hostile attitude towards a stutterer, the degree of acquaintance and some other points are important (Zaitseva L.A., 1975; Missulovin L.Ya., 1988; Khavin A.V. ., 1974). Practice confirms that in some cases the mere presence of a doctor or speech therapist already leads to a significant improvement in the speech of some patients. At the same time, there are also extreme cases of disorganization of speech, up to its termination, due to the patient's excessively acute concern about his speech defect. For example, a young girl during the dance is terrified of its termination, as she is convinced that everyone present is looking forward to when she stops dancing and discovers her defect in the conversation. Some young people admit that at times they do not want to live, because their speech does not leave them hope for either a personal life or a professional career.
6.4 Maladaptive and adaptive behaviors
6.4.1 Maladaptive behaviors
In order to establish a measure of non-adaptive behavior of persons with speech disorders, personality accentuations of stutterers and patients suffering from rhinolalia were studied using the technique of G. Shmishek (1970).
It was possible to establish that in all the groups examined, with the exception of adult stutterers, the accentuations were slightly increased on average. It was possible to identify two distinct trends: a decrease in accentuations with age (children suffering from rhinolalia, according to this indicator, are adjacent to younger schoolchildren, since their average age is 10.0 ± 2.4 years), while a relative increase in accentuations in female groups compared to with male groups. Among younger schoolchildren, this difference is not yet expressed. They become reliable among girls compared to boys of senior school age and in women compared to men. No relationship between the severity of accentuations and the degree of speech defect was found in any group.
An analysis of the representation of individual accentuations showed that most often stutterers have emotivity (on average for all groups 15.3 points), cyclothymism and exaltation, indicating their increased emotional excitability, instability. It was these features that could be assumed on the basis of the results of assessing their attention and memory. The existing accentuations can be considered as primary factors causing some deviations in the course of mental processes in stutterers.
When comparing the indicators of accentuations of stutterers with other categories of subjects, the following was revealed. Different groups of subjects differ not only in the average severity of accentuations (the highest in patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases and peptic ulcer disease, and the lowest in athletes), but also in the coefficient of variability in the severity of accentuations. So, for example, in athletes with the lowest average, the contrast between individual of them is greatest; hyperthymia (14.1 points) and exaltation (13.9 points) are most pronounced, but dysthymia (7.8 points) and anxiety (4.5 points) are especially low.
Since accentuations can be considered as a manifestation of mental adaptation tactics in any particular life situation, in particular illness, the difference in the behavior of the examined groups of subjects illustrates different tactics of the subject's interaction with the environment. The accentuation profiles of speech therapists, stutterers, and athletes are clearly shown in Figure 11. One can see the similarity of the profiles of the first two categories of subjects and the significant difference from them of these athletes, for whom, in all likelihood, the presented profile is adaptive. However, these data should be recognized as conditionally normative, since they reflect the adaptation of the individual to very specific circumstances and cannot serve as a standard of behavior, for example, for stutterers.
Attention is drawn to the "total" severity of most accentuations in patients with cardiovascular diseases, which can be considered as a sign of a significant decrease in the adaptive capabilities of this category of patients, not only due to their increase, but also due to their lack of differentiation. However, a comparison within the group correlation of accentuations of stutterers and speech therapists shows that, despite the similarity of the average profile, a significant difference is revealed between them; indicators of accentuations of stutterers are significantly more interconnected. The data of factor analysis of accentuations of adult stutterers show that the first factor is formed by the characteristics of the emotional-affective series (characteristics attributed by K. Leonhard to temperament), manifested in dysthymia and anxiety without pronounced mood swings and exaltation, which is consistent with the results just described.
Thus, despite the moderate severity, the accentuations of stutterers indicate a decrease in their mental adaptation due to a decrease in the differentiation of reactions to various life situations. In a certain sense, we can talk about the manifestation of a deficit of accentuations in them.
Speech is realized in the process of interpersonal interactions (communication), which are subject to certain patterns. To evaluate them allows the test of multidimensional quantification of interpersonal relations by T. Leary.
The methodology involves a quantitative assessment of eight primary characteristics presented in Table 16. The maximum severity of each characteristic (octants) corresponds to 16 points, i.e. the maximum number of statements related to one characteristic, which the subject considers characteristic of him.
Table 16. List of characteristics of interpersonal behavior in the interpretation of the test by T. Leary
|
Behaviors |
|||
|
adaptive |
maladaptive |
||
|
leadership tendency |
despotism |
||
|
self-confidence |
narcissism |
||
|
exactingness |
cruelty |
||
|
skepticism |
negativism |
||
|
compliance |
passive obedience |
||
|
gullibility |
addiction |
||
|
kindness |
excessive conformity |
||
|
responsiveness |
sacrifice |
Significant differences between children and adults, as well as their dependence on the gender of stutterers in this indicator, have not been identified. The average score for all the examined groups was 7.6 ±3.0. The characteristics obtained indicate that, in general, stutterers do not have maladaptive variants of interpersonal relationships. They correspond to a moderate degree of expression of communicative features.
When comparing the results of a survey of stutterers of different ages and children suffering from rhinolalia, for individual octants, it turned out that octants are represented in all groups by fairly homogeneous values, the difference between the extreme indicators is, with rare exceptions, no more than one and a half to two points. The most contrasting relationships are observed in the group of children suffering from rhinolalia, between octants VII and VIII, amounting to a difference in points equal to 2.9. These indicators indicate a combination of a tendency to excessive conformity and responsiveness.
When calculating the secondary indicator of dominance, it turned out to be maximum in stutterers of senior school age (2, 9) and minimum negative, i.e. turning into subordination in children suffering from rhinolalia (-0, 4). The greatest benevolence is found by adult stutterers (2, 2), and the smallest, bordering on hostility, by stutterers of senior school age (-0, 2).
Comparison of the rank distributions of the severity of communicative traits with different adaptive tactics of behavior made it possible to establish a significant predominance of dominance in individuals with phlegmatic adaptive tactics compared to others. Comparison using rank correlation data of stutterers, healthy individuals and patients with neuroses showed that all three groups differ from each other. In general, in stutterers, lack of independence, selflessness and meekness are more pronounced compared to other factors, which brings them closer to healthy individuals. Patients with neuroses are more likely to have such contradictory traits as meekness and stubbornness. Comparison of stutterers and patients with neuroses in terms of how the picture of communicative relations changes when performing a test with a focus on the "ideal self" showed that stutterers express a desire for greater dominance compared to the "real self", and this brings them closer to patients with neuroses. Stutterers show greater satisfaction with benevolence than patients with neurosis, which can be associated with the specifics of social assessments of the compared contingents of patients, i.e. the opinions about themselves that they hear from others.
It should be noted some differences between stuttering men and women. The former are characterized by lack of independence, disinterestedness, dominance, while the latter are characterized by meekness, intransigence, and stubbornness. In expanded form, these characteristics can be presented for men as the following: extroverted friendly behavior, willingness to cooperate, tendency to conformism, preference for good social relations; responsible, delicate behavior, choosing a friendly way of communication, helping others, making emotional contacts; active competent behavior and authority based on a person's ability. Stuttering women are characterized by somewhat different forms of behavior: modesty, timidity, emotional restraint, the ability to obey; acceptable manifestations of cruelty, harshness, when she takes into account the situation; acceptable critical approach to social relations.
The primary indicators of patients with neuroses according to the Leary test are generally more adaptive than those of stutterers, and demonstrate predominantly compliance, skepticism and good-heartedness.
Secondary integrative indicators differ. For men with neuroses, when evaluating the "real self", subordination and slightly expressed hostility are characteristic, for women - subordination (to a lesser extent compared to men) and goodwill. When evaluating the "I'm ideal" in comparison with "I'm real", there is a desire of men and women to dominate, more pronounced in men, as well as a desire to become more benevolent.
For stuttering men, when evaluating the "I am real", moderate dominance is characteristic, and for women - moderate subordination, but both of them, like patients with neurosis, tend to dominate, in this case, unlike patients with neuroses, this desire is more pronounced in women . As for benevolence, it is moderately expressed in stuttering men and women in the assessment of "I am real" and the tendency to its increase is slightly expressed in the assessment of "I am ideal", i.e. stutterers are more satisfied with their benevolence than patients with neurosis, which may be due to a specific system of social assessments of the compared contingents of patients.
Thus, the structure of communicative relations of patients with neurosis and patients with speech disorders differs both in primary and secondary indicators. At the same time, the primary indicators turn out to be more intense, with a tendency to maladaptive variants in stutterers. Patients with neuroses are approximately equally dissatisfied with their subordination and measure of benevolence; stutterers are mainly dissatisfied with their lack of dominance, in their opinion, and they are mostly satisfied with their benevolence.
6.4.2 Adaptive behavior of persons with speech impairments
Any form of psychological assistance is carried out based on the preserved mental properties of a person. The most universal protective mental mechanisms include the adaptive forms of behavior that he has (in the form of an alloy of innate and acquired traits). The most adequate for their assessment [methods developed in line with the study of temperament. Temperament, by definition, belongs to the function of the most general organization of behavior. But the adaptive nature of this behavior has not been explicitly formulated. Most often, its hereditary conditionality and, for the most part, immutability or slow change over the course of life were emphasized. In practice, with this understanding, the optionality of temperament was seen, its meaning was reduced to the style of behavior and its emotional coloring. At the same time, a significant number of works devoted, for example, to the role of temperament as a person’s inclination to behave in one way or another, regardless of the situation in choosing the appropriate profession or optimization professional activity (Klimov E.A., 1969; Vyatkin V.A., 1978; and others), indicates that it was adaptive behavior that was studied. The analysis, including various literary data, made it possible to show that the most common adaptive forms of behavior can be reduced to four main ones, which are most similar to the four classical temperaments. Their adaptive essence lies in the transformation of the external environment (choleric behavior), its study (sanguine behavior), persistent adherence to the developed or accepted norms (phlegmatic behavior) and, finally, in the ability to measure their behavior with a specific situation (melancholic behavior).
The limitations that the temperament of a particular subject imposes on his adaptive capabilities are well known. IP Pavlov (1953, 1954), developing the concept of the physiological foundations of temperament, paid considerable attention to the interpretation of various mental illnesses, primarily neuroses, from the point of view of the most general properties of the higher nervous activity of patients, i.e. temperament. Simultaneously, laboratory studies of the same regularities were carried out on animals. As a result of experimental studies and clinical observations, or rather, the interpretation of clinical cases from the standpoint of the developed concept of temperament, it was suggested that certain temperaments predispose to the development of neurosis - extreme, as IP Pavlov called them: choleric and melancholic. Ideas about premorbid features predisposing to the development of speech disorders, in the form of features of higher nervous activity, developed mainly in relation to stuttering (Davidenkov S.N., 1963). They were most clearly formulated by S.E. Taibogarov and S.M. Monakova, who described the development of stuttering in persons belonging to the four classical temperaments (1978). The authors proceed from the fact that stuttering can occur in people of any temperament, but its most severe forms occur in the case of the extreme (according to I.P. Pavlov) of them - choleric and melancholic. Therefore, the question about the features of individual adaptive behavioral tactics in relation to stuttering is related to the question of whether they predispose to the development of stuttering.
If a personality is a complex biosocial formation (Myasishchev V.N., 1960; Simonov P.V., Ershov P.M., 1984), then it is of considerable interest to compare the results of a physiological or psychological assessment of temperament. To assess the strength, balance and mobility of nervous processes (Practical studies in psychology. - M., 1977), a questionnaire is used, consisting of three lists (scales) of questions, 16 in each. Each question had to be answered yes or no. One positive answer was worth one point. During processing, the sum of positive answers was calculated for each scale. According to the interpretation proposed by the authors of the questionnaire, taking into account the criteria for evaluating the indicators of a similar questionnaire by the well-known researcher of temperament J. Strelyau (Vyatkin B.A., 1978), indicators of the main nervous processes. constituting the physiological basis of temperament, are considered pronounced if the sum of points for each of them exceeds 50%. In addition, the type of the nervous system (as the ratio of introversion and neuroticism) can be determined by the method of G. Eysenck.
An analysis of the behavior of children in the group of preschool children with speech disorders, as well as among healthy children, made it possible to distinguish four groups according to the style of behavior.
To the first group included children with a strong, balanced and mobile type of higher nervous activity. They quickly “grab” new material, navigate well in an unfamiliar environment, easily come into contact with others, are capable of purposeful behavior, and are quite cheerful. Their problems are related to the lack of perception of the partner, as well as the fact that it is difficult for them to work in which they have lost interest. They have insufficiently developed self-criticism, the ability to see and recognize their failure, shortcomings. Such children were 24% of preschoolers with speech disorders and 67% of healthy ones.
Children second group(44% of preschoolers with speech disorders and 25% of healthy ones) are characterized by stable behavior, an increased tendency to normativity, and the performance of repetitive actions. Therefore, they can receive encouragement, but in some cases they can irritate teachers with their pedantry and slowness.
The third group -- children whose leading feature was shyness. They are sensitive, easily hurt, and often have wet eyes. It is difficult for them to make a decision, ask a question, make a choice. Such children react sharply to criticism, comments addressed to them, empathize with other children and adults, they always “feel sorry for someone”. The number of preschool children with speech disorders in this group (11%) was significantly higher than among healthy children (3%).
fourth group children are characterized by explosiveness, impulsiveness, increased reactivity, touchiness. They are overly active, mobile, can hardly sit in one place, follow firm rules, for example, in a game, they are burdened by monotonous work. Participation in activities for them is often more important than the result. In this group, as in the previous one, preschoolers with speech disorders are more represented than healthy ones (respectively 21 and 5%).
Thus, among preschoolers with speech disorders, more often than among healthy children, an unstable type of behavior is observed (groups 3 and 4). Children with this type of behavior have an increased predisposition to the occurrence of neuroses. In addition, the unequal style of adaptive behavior determines the originality of interpersonal interaction, cognitive activity, speech activity and performance of preschoolers with speech disorders.
A study of the higher nervous activity of stuttering men and women - their strength, poise and mobility, which are the basis of behavior, showed that they are expressed to a high degree, with the exception of a certain lack of strength of nervous processes in women. The seven-factor typological questionnaire revealed a relative deficiency of the excitatory process compared to the inhibitory process, especially in men. A tendency to the predominance of the 1st signal system over the 2nd signal system was found in all stutterers, which is also typical for healthy individuals (Terekhova T.P., 1956).
Since all the methods discussed above, including the method of G. Eysenck, allow us to assess the predominant type of higher nervous activity of the subject (temperament), they can be compared with each other according to this indicator. In percentage terms, the degree of compliance was the following values: 80, 68 and 48%. That is, the results of the first three methods turned out to be most closely related, and their connection with the method of G. Eysenck was less pronounced. In all likelihood, this is due to the greater conditionality of the indicators of G. Eysenck's methodology by social factors.
Various aspects of temperament differ little from each other, and their average values are about 10 points. Even the largest difference observed between sanguine and melancholy scores among stuttering men (4.2 points) was not statistically significant. There are no significant differences between the indicators of adaptive behavioral tactics of stutterers and persons without speech pathology in all aspects, i.e. the data obtained do not allow us to speak about the belonging of stutterers to any particular category according to these indicators.
It could be assumed that with age, temperamental traits soften in stutterers, primarily melancholic and choleric types, presumably predisposing to the onset of stuttering, while in children they are preserved to a greater extent. An analysis of the severity of various temperaments in the age range from 5 to 50 years not only does not confirm this assumption, but demonstrates the opposite fact: melancholic features decrease at a younger age. which corresponds to the observations of V. I. Garbuzov (Garbuzov V. I., Zakharov A. I., Isaev D. N., 1977). It seems that this fact confirms the interpretation of classical temperaments as tactics of adaptive behavior that are formed in a person in the process of development.
An analysis of the results of assessing the tactics of adaptive behavior in stutterers showed that it does not differ from that in healthy individuals, i.e. the assumption that these traits predispose to the development of stuttering is not confirmed. There is no connection between the adaptive behavioral tactics of stutterers and the forms and severity of the speech defect. At the same time, a number of reliable links were found between individual adaptive behavioral tactics and various manifestations of the behavioral aspect of EVA, which will be shown in the further presentation of the material.
The experience of applying for the analysis of specific behavior of people ideas about their inherent adaptive tactics of behavior has shown that the final result depends, on the one hand, on the relative degree of severity (dominance) of certain tactics of behavior or their combinations, on the other hand, on the ability to use tactics proportionate to the objective situation. Thus, maladaptive behavior as a result of the behavioral aspect of EVA occurs either in the case of a person’s rigid implementation of any preferred behavioral tactic regardless of the situation, or in the case of enumeration of various tactics that also do not correspond to the situation. Maladaptive behavior of the second type often occurs due to the "fault" of the situation, due to its excessive variability and the complexity of qualification (recognition) by the subject.
The scales that characterize individual tactics of adaptive behavior include items that characterize the subject's speech. These characteristics correspond to generally accepted ideas. So, for example, A. I. Krasnogorsky (1958), who specifically studied this issue, proposed the following characteristics of the speech behavior of children of different temperaments: a choleric person has a fast, passionate, speech with confused intonations; a sanguine person speaks loudly, quickly, clearly, accompanying the speech with lively gestures, expressive facial expressions; the phlegmatic person's speech is calm, even, with stops, without sharply expressed emotions, gestures and facial expressions; the speech of the melancholic is weak, quiet, sometimes reduced to a whisper.
To clarify the relationship between general and verbal behavior, it was necessary to establish the degree of their correspondence. For this purpose, a correlation was calculated between the frequency of confirmation of an item characterizing speech and the total score for the severity of this tactic of behavior on the entire scale. A significant correlation of the corresponding features of speech with a general indicator characterizing the tactics of behavior in stuttering and healthy high school students was revealed, and in stuttering this correlation is observed in three of the four variants of tactics, while in ordinary high school students only in two. Attention is drawn to the fact that in the group of speech therapists, the correlation significance indicators are close to reliable in relation to choleric and melancholic tactics, which, from the point of view of I.P. Pavlov, are “suppliers of neuroses”. If this trend is taken into account, then the connection between “verbal choleric temperament” and the general choleric temperament and the absence of correlations within the sanguine temperament turns out to be common for all samples of subjects.
Additionally, correlations were calculated for the speech items of the questionnaire with some other psychological characteristics, including neuroticism and introversion, and for stutterers, also with the severity of their speech defect. The relationship between the severity of "speech temperaments" and the severity of the speech defect was not revealed, which refutes the idea of a predisposition to stuttering of persons with certain temperaments.
Significant correlations with other characteristics were found. "Temperamental" characteristics of speech have various connections in all groups of subjects. In the group of stutterers, positive and negative correlations are revealed, while in the group of healthy schoolchildren only positive ones, and in the group of speech therapists, negative correlations are completely absent. The largest number of connections in the group of stutterers in the phlegmatic "verbal temperament" is a strong positive correlation with introversion (0.69), parental ego-state (0.41); negative associations with choleric "speech temperament" (-0.7) and sanguine (-0.41). A rather strong negative connection connects the choleric "speech temperament" with the parental ego state. A strong positive correlation connects the melancholic "speech temperament" with the artistic personality type.
In the group of healthy high school students, there are much fewer connections, and they mainly relate to choleric and sanguine Manifestations in speech and mental and artistic types in general temperament, which, as is known, is associated with the functions of the cerebral hemispheres.
In the group of speech therapists, a relatively large number of correlations are revealed, in which melancholic and phlegmatic "speech temperaments" are predominantly involved. It is noteworthy that the phlegmatic "speech temperament" is actively involved in various relationships also among stutterers. A similar positive correlation of phlegmatic "verbal temperament" with introversion. Interestingly, unlike stutterers, speech therapists find multiple positive correlations between phlegmatic and melancholic "speech temperaments" and various manifestations of speech anxiety. In all likelihood, this can be explained by the attitude towards the revealed connection developed in the process of logo-corrective work. It is significant that it was revealed not as a result of a direct survey, but indirectly by comparing the answers to different questionnaires.
Thus, the characteristics of temperament in the speech of stutterers and non-stutterers have complex and diverse connections with other psychological characteristics that can be attributed to the range of manifestations of general temperament and, above all, its emotional characteristics. A direct connection between the quality of speech and temperament is not revealed.
We should expect more mediated relationships between speech and temperament, in particular, through situations of verbal communication in which temperament takes an active part.
Control questions and tasks
1. Describe the direction of psychology that develops questions of the organization of human behavior.
2. What do you know about the features of the motor organization of the behavior of people with speech disorders?
3. Give examples of behavioral disorders in various speech disorders.
4. What is the importance of knowledge about the organization of behavior in the process of corrective speech therapy work? 5. What is the role of individual characteristics of behavior in the course of a speech disorder?
Belyakova L.I., Kumalia I. Comparative analysis of the state of motor and speech functions in stuttering preschoolers // Defectology.-1985.-№1.
Bernstein N.A. Essays on the physiology of movements and the physiology of activity. - M., 1966.
Volkova G.A. Logopedic rhythm. - M., 1985.
Volkova G.A. Features of the behavior of stuttering children in conflict situations // Theory and practice of correctional education of preschoolers with speech disorders: Interuniversity collection. scientific Proceedings / Ed. L.I. Belyakova, G. S. Humennaya. - M., 1991.
Garbuzov V.I., Zakharov A.I., Isaev D.N. Neurosis in children and their treatment. - L., 1977.
Efimov O.I., Korvyakova N.F. Comparative analysis of linguistic, spatial and motor activity of stuttering children // Stuttering. Experimental research and methods of rehabilitation: Sat. scientific Proceedings of the Moscow Research Institute of the Ear, Throat and Nose; Leningrad Research Institute of Ear, Throat, Nose and Speech. - M., 1986.
Zaitseva L.A. The role of the social microenvironment in the occurrence of stuttering in the works of various authors (review) // Disorders of speech and methods of elimination. - M., 1975.
Kalyagin V. A. The results of psychological testing of adult patients with stuttering // Problems of the pathology of voice and speech. - M., 1983.
Kalyagin V.A., Stepanova G.M. Evaluation of the features of speech and personality of stutterers with the help of personality psychodiagnostic tests // Defectology. - 1996. - No. 3.
Krasnogorsky A.I. Higher nervous activity of the child. -- L., 1958.
Kumala I. Differentiated assessment of psychomotor and speech development of a stuttering preschooler: Abstract of the thesis. dis.... cand. ped. Sciences - M., 1986.
Moreno J. Sociometry: An experimental method and the science of society. - M., 1958.
Myasishchev V. N. Personality and neuroses. -- L., 1960.
Pavlov I. P . Full coll. op.: In 6 volumes - M.; L., 1953. - T. 3. - Book. 2.
Rychkova N.A. The state of voluntary motor activity in stuttering preschoolers: Abstract of the thesis. dis.... cand. ped. Sciences. - M., 1985.
Taibogarov S.E., Monakova S.M. Stuttering. --Alma-Ata, 1978.
Khavin A.V. Attitude to his defect of the individual and his environment on the model of stuttering: Abstract of the thesis. dis. ... cand. honey. Sciences. - L., 1974.
Shostak B.I. On some motor disorders of stuttering // Essays on the pathology of speech and voice. - M., 1967.
Chapter 7. Psychotherapy and psychocorrection of persons with speech disorders
7.1. Goals and objectives of psychological assistance
Many children, adolescents and adults with speech disorders need psychological help. Such assistance certainly includes psychodiagnostics and various methods of influencing the patient: psychocorrection, psychotherapy, psychoconsultation, psychoprophylaxis, etc.
Two terms are used to refer to psychological assistance: psychocorrection and psychotherapy. Their use is not always strictly differentiated. In a special manual on psycho-correction, A.A. Osipova makes an attempt at such a division (2000). Some specificity is found mainly in relation to the objects of influence, as for individual methods, forms and methods of their application, these differences are often either absent or are very insignificant. I. I. Mamaichuk writes about this; “The differences in the definitions of the concepts of “psycho-correction” and “psychotherapy” arose not due to the specifics of their impact on a person, but to the opinion that has taken root in our country that only specialists with a medical education can engage in psychotherapy, and psychologists can deal with psycho-correction. It should be emphasized that the term "psychotherapy" is international and in many countries of the world is unequivocally used in relation to the methods of work carried out by a specialist psychologist ”(2003. - P. 23).
Psychocorrection -- a set of psychological techniques. used to correct (correct) deficiencies in the psyche or behavior of a mentally healthy person, which are most applicable to children during the period when the personality is still in the process of becoming, or as symptomatic assistance to adult patients. Correction is addressed to shortcomings that do not have an organic basis, for example, impaired attention, memory, thinking, emotions.
Psychocorrection is based on the following principles:
1) the complexity of clinical, psychological and pedagogical influences;
2) unity of diagnostics and correction;
3) personal approach, taking into account the complex integrity and individuality of the psyche;
4) activity approach, taking into account the leading type of activity for each age;
5) the hierarchy of the organization of psycho-correction, which consists in the focus of work on the creation of a zone of proximal development;
6) causality (determinism) - focus on eliminating the causes and sources of deviations in mental development.
There are various classifications of methods of psychological assistance.
1) general, contributing to the normalization of the social environment of the child (regulation of psychophysical and emotional stress due to his age and individual characteristics); it is subordinated to pedagogical ethics and is aimed at solving psychohygienic, psychoprophylactic and deontological tasks;
2) private - in the form of a set of psychological and pedagogical influences: family psycho-correction, music therapy, psycho-gymnastics, etc.;
3) special - in the form of a set of techniques, methods and organizational forms of work with a child or a group of children of the same age, aimed at eliminating the consequences of improper education.
Distinguish according to form individual care that is used predominantly in counseling, when there is a combination of several disorders or in a state of acute course of the disorder, and group, focused on solving problems associated with impaired communication functions, with difficulties that arise when communicating in a speech therapy group, class, family.
Distinguish according to direction symptomatic and causal (pathogenetic) help. The first is designed to eliminate individual symptoms. In speech therapy practice, these are usually short-term courses for the correction of cognitive processes (attention, memory, thinking), experiences (most often - logophobia) and individual behavioral problems. The second (causal) help is usually designed for longer periods and is aimed at the factors that caused the deviation. It is usually used in work with adult patients - with aphasia, stuttering, voice disorders - for a deep personal impact in order to overcome and process the psychogenic causes of diseases.
According to the nature of the impact, they distinguish directive non-directive psychocorrection. With the directive nature of the influence, the psychologist (psychotherapist) sets specific didactic tasks for the group and solves them. He makes decisions and actively manages the behavior of the patient, structuring and organizing it. With non-directive assistance, the result depends mainly on the readiness and ability of the patient to work through his own difficulties. The psychologist, as it were, follows him, stimulating awareness of the problem, helping to analyze and overcome the situation.
Psychological assistance, depending on the means used, is divided into game, motor, bodily, fairy tale therapy, music therapy etc.
Taking into account the object of influence, assistance can be family, neuropsychological, personal growth and etc.
Considering psychocorrection as a “prepersonal” form of psychological assistance, aimed primarily at processes and symptoms, and psychotherapy as helping the individual in its three manifestations—value-motivational, cognitive, and varying degrees in various speech disorders. These are psychopathological personality changes of organic origin (usually with aphasia), functional disorders of the level of neurosis, and a complex of experiences about a speech defect.
The need for psychological assistance depends on the age of the person and the nature of the speech disorder. Such help is usually not needed by children with speech disorders. With alalia and rhinolalia, long-term medical, pedagogical and psychological assistance is required, each of which has its own specifics at different stages of treatment. Aphasia, loss of speech after removal of the larynx are characteristic, for the most part, of people of mature age, and psychological assistance to them is determined by the age and nature of the underlying disease that caused the speech disorder (impaired cerebral circulation or tumor process, etc.).
As well as any process of influence (pedagogical, medical). psychotherapy (psychocorrection) includes three mandatory components that are closely related to each other: diagnostics, the actual treatment process and evaluation of its effectiveness. Diagnostics allows you to identify psychotherapeutic targets and choose the means of influencing them. So that the process of assistance is not “blind”. current and resulting control of the degree of achievement of the goal is necessary. It is optimal when the diagnosis is carried out by the psychotherapist himself, especially since he receives important diagnostic information during psychotherapeutic sessions.
Indications for psychological help are:
a) deviation from the age norm of certain mental properties (insufficient attention, memory, etc.);
b) the presence of a psychosomatic radical in the clinical picture of the defect (psychogenic nature of the disorder);
c) the presence of general neurotic manifestations in a subject with a speech disorder (increased anxiety, depression, fears, etc.);
d) specific feelings about his defect.
The goals of psychological assistance -- normalization, if possible, of individual mental processes, restoration of the integrity of the personality and optimization of the mechanisms of mental adaptation, as well as prevention of neuropsychiatric disorders caused by internal and external factors of mental dysontogenesis. When restoring or regulating the process of communication, impaired due to a speech defect, one should proceed from its four functions: incentive, emotive, informational and phatic (contact). In the internal picture of the defect, they are reflected in a different order in the form of cognitive (sensitive and rational) , emotional and volitional components, but, as in the act of communication, the volitional component (corresponding to the incentive function) is central, as it determines the adaptive or non-adaptive behavior of a suffering person. The goals of psychological care can be radical (hollow cure) or palliative (alleviation of suffering).
When providing psychological assistance to children, the main tasks are:
1) overcoming the delay in sensory, motor, cognitive development;
2) correction of inadequate methods of education - "environment therapy";
3) education of higher emotions and social needs (cognitive, ethical, labor, aesthetic);
4) teaching methods of mental self-regulation, the ability to recognize and reproduce individual emotions, emotional states, manage them;
5) the formation of adaptive behavior skills in stressful situations, providing the child and others with the most favorable psychological atmosphere;
When providing psychotherapeutic assistance to adults, the main tasks are as follows:
1) help in a better understanding of their problems;
2) elimination of emotional discomfort;
3) encouragement of free expression of feelings;
4) providing the patient with impaired speech with new ideas or information on how to solve problems;
5) help in testing new ways of thinking and behaving in real life.
Methods of psychocorrection and psychotherapy are based on personality theories. Most researchers agree that, with all the variety of these theories, three main ones can be distinguished. In domestic psychology, they can be represented by the theory of the attitude of D.N. Uznadze, reflecting the value-motivational beginning of the personality, its orientation (2001); the activity theory of A.N. Leontiev (1975) and the theory of relations of V.N.
Under psychotherapy usually refers to the targeted impact of various means of non-drug nature on the i psyche of a person in order to normalize his mental or physical condition.
Psychotherapy is needed by people suffering from psychogenic disorders, among which neuroses and psychosomatic diseases are the most common. In general, the objects of psychotherapy are situations in which a person undergoes mental maladjustment of one kind or another. Any problematic situation (including illness, speech disorder) often causes non-adaptive mental reactions in a person, which should be transferred to the category of adaptive ones. A. A. Alexandrov (1997) gives a definition of psychotherapy from the authoritative “Modern Guide to Psychotherapy” by R. Korzini, which states that its goal is to reduce distress in any of the following areas of limitation or impaired functioning: "cognitive(disordered thinking), affective(suffering or emotional discomfort), behavioral(inadequate behavior). These goals of psychotherapy represent the core of the three major theories of personality.
In specific psychotherapeutic methods, a variety of means of influencing a suffering person (word, music, movement, game, etc.) are used, which sometimes creates a misconception about the active beginning of the method, which is associated with this tool. Hence the names of the methods - music therapy, game therapy, bibliotherapy, puppet therapy. This is a misconception. It is not the means that acts, but the mental process involved in the interaction with this means.
There are the following methods:
- symptomatic, aimed at eliminating individual mental disorders (decrease in attention, memory, increased anxiety, etc.), and pathogenetic(associated with the restructuring of the cognitive, affective or behavioral aspects of the personality);
- individual(in the form of correction of self-esteem due to a defect, mastering self-control skills, etc.) and group(first of all - optimization of communication skills);
- directive, teaching, closest to didactics, and non-directive(having the character of cooperation and support);
- strictly programmed(training forms) and free(focused on spontaneous activity, based on situations that arise directly in the course of a psychotherapeutic session).
Let us consider individual methods of psychological assistance and the features of their use for various speech disorders, as well as in relation to children and adults. Most of the existing methods have a wide range of applications, and their specialization is somewhat arbitrary. This is confirmed by the data of many researchers, cited, for example, by G. Eizenk (1994), about the same effectiveness of different methods in the treatment of the same disorders. True, the author himself is inclined to believe that behavioral psychotherapy, of which he is one of the founders, is the most effective.
7.2 Methods of psychocorrection and psychotherapy in speech therapy
Suggestion (suggestion) rarely acts as an independent method of influence, but is included as a component in many others, including autogenic training and hypnosis. Therapeutic or corrective suggestion should take place in a calm environment, excluding distractions (sound, visual, tactile, and others). The room in which it is passed must be well ventilated, the lighting is dimmed. The person being suggested should be in a comfortable position, such as sitting in a chair with a high back and armrests. The text of suggestions is usually called formulas, since it must meet certain requirements: have an imperative character, be concise, i.e. they must be Short sentences of positive content. Negative statements like "You won't worry" are not allowed. The most important condition for inspiring influence is repeated repetition. Suggestion variations are possible with the use of an increasing degree of the desired effect: “You are calm”, “You are very calm”, “You are completely calm”. You can not use the completed form: "You are no longer worried", "There is no excitement." The wording should leave room for further dynamics of the result: "Every day the excitement during the speech will decrease."
An inspiring influence is impossible without its retransmission by the recipient, i.e. without translating into self-hypnosis. It will not be effective if it contradicts the person's beliefs, his ideas about the possibility and admissibility of the suggested effect.
self-hypnosis can be used as a standalone method. In this case, the therapist helps his client to choose verbal formulations that are appropriate for the tasks being solved, for example: “I speak smoothly and beautifully. My speech makes a good impression. I'm perfectly calm when I'm talking." Installation self-suggestion of good speech can be carried out upon awakening and before going to bed, when the brain is most receptive to them. They can be situational, as well as setting for the future, for example, a responsible speech (answer in a lesson, exam, report, etc.).
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