The history of Russia has very deep roots. Many have never thought about why Moscow became the center. The unification of Russian lands is of great importance for the entire national history. This was facilitated by a huge number of reasons, some of which we will consider below.

The emergence of Moscow

Such a state as Kievan Rus was created by the early descendants of Rurik. Vladimir chose a certain territorial location of the state: today these lands belong to Ukraine, Belarus and southern Russia. The center of the state was the city of Kyiv, which today is the capital city of Ukraine.

The northern outskirts of Kievan Rus were territories owned by the Slavs-Vyatichi and Finno-Ugric peoples. It is these lands that will become Moscow in the future. There have always been dense forests and impenetrable swamps. Despite the fact that these lands were completely unsuitable for creating a capital on them, it was here that the Moscow Principality would soon arise. The founder of the city is considered to be Yuri Dolgoruky, who was famous as an experienced commander and a cruel warrior. The most interesting thing is that it is still unknown why Dolgoruky chose these territories to create a fortress.

Why did Moscow become the center? The unification of the Russian lands, most likely, was facilitated by state fragmentation, which was intensified by the attacks of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. It was these enemy invasions that destroyed the strongest Ryazan principality, which was very close to the land of the future Moscow.

The growth of the importance of Moscow

The Tatar-Mongols, with their attacks, brought a lot of grief to Russia at that time. The horde endlessly attacked, demanded tribute, destroyed any buildings, burned cities.

Why did Moscow become the center? In the unification of the Russian lands in this place, perhaps, the very territorial location of the future capital played an important role - natural landscapes inconvenient for attack. In addition, it is important to say that in translation from the Finno-Ugric language, the very name "Moscow" is translated as "marshy forest area." Such natural conditions reduced enemy raids to a minimum, which already promised at least some peace of mind to the people who inhabited the newly-minted principality.

In Moscow, those princes usually ruled, whose knowledge, patience and wisdom made it possible to negotiate with enemy leaders - khans. One of the most famous rulers of the Muscovite state was Ivan Kalita, who managed to make a deal with the Tatar-Mongol Khan. As a result of this agreement, Ivan received the right to reign, to transfer his power by inheritance and to be the supreme ruler over all other princes. But besides this, Kalita managed to win the fight with Mikhail Tverskoy, who also wanted to get such state power. Very soon Tverskoy, his son and grandson were brutally executed. Not only cunning helped the princes to keep the Moscow throne - they were all outstanding commanders and experts in military affairs.

Great Battle of Kulikovo

Why did Moscow become the center? The unification of Russian lands could also be due to the events that took place in 1380. The bloody battle, which was won by the Russian troops, took place on the Kulikovo field, which was located very close to Moscow.

Thanks to the merits of Dmitry Donskoy, Moscow (the center of the unification of Russian lands) really began to be perceived as a very strong principality. It was Donskoy who gathered Russian fighters in order to finally get rid of the onslaught of the Tatar-Mongols.

Regular attacks and raids

Despite the fact that Russia defeated the Khan's army, giving a strong rebuff to the Horde, two years later they again began to raid. And yet the Battle of Kulikovo became another link, another reason for the formation of this city as the capital of the Russian state. If we talk about when Moscow became the center of the unification of Russian lands, then we can name exactly the period in which the Battle of Kulikovo took place. After all, the entire Russian population gathered precisely in the Moscow Principality, where they prepared for battle and strengthened their patriotic feelings.

Moscow - the center of the unification of Russian lands: briefly about the opinion of historians

Historians studying the state of such an early period agreed that the city became the center of the state not so much because it had a convenient territorial location, but also because there was always a very wise and experienced prince on the throne. In fact, all the Moscow princes were outstanding politicians, skillful commanders and excellent diplomats. Answering the question “why did Moscow become the center of the unification of Russian lands”, one can give a short and precise answer: thanks to the activities of the Moscow princes.

After the triumphant victory at the Kulikovo field, the Moscow principality began to develop rapidly, rapidly expanding its territories and including all new lands in its territories. Close relatives of Ivan the Terrible (his ancestors) were able to overcome the strong resistance of Pskov and Novgorod, part of whose lands was also annexed to the Moscow principality.

Fortification of Moscow

The main fortification of Moscow was the reign of Ivan the Terrible. It was this prince who managed to completely get rid of the power of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. Showing himself as a smart and cunning ruler, the Moscow prince saved all of Russia from enemy raids.

The struggle for the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke in the XIV - XV centuries. was the main national task of the Russian people. At the same time, the unification process of the Russian lands and the formation of a centralized state became the core of the political life of this period. The main territory of the Russian state, which took shape in the 15th century, was Vladimir-Suzdal, Novgorod-Pskov, Smolensk, Muromo-Ryazan lands and part of the Chernigov principality.

The territorial core of the formation of the Russian people and the Russian state becomes the Vladimir-Suzdal land, in which Moscow gradually rises, turning into the center of the political unification of the Russian lands.

The first mention of Moscow (1147) is contained in the chronicle, which tells about the meeting of Yuri Dolgoruky with the Chernigov prince Svyatoslav. The town on the outskirts of the Vladimir-Suzdal land rises in the late XIII - early XIV century. What are the reasons for this rise?

1. Favorable geographical position.

According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, Moscow was in “Russian Mesopotamia” - i.e. in the interfluve of the Volga and Oka. This geographical position guaranteed her safety: from the north-west of Lithuania, she was covered by the Principality of Tver, and from the east and south-east of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents and an increase in population density. Being located in the junction of trade routes, Moscow becomes the center of economic ties.

In the conditions of feudal fragmentation and aggression of the German knightly orders, the southern and southwestern lands (including Kyiv) became part of the Principality of Lithuania, so the geographical center of the Russian lands gradually in the XIII - XIV centuries. moves to the northeast.

2. Church support

The Russian Church was the bearer of the Orthodox ideology, which played an important role in the unification of Russia. Moscow in 1326, under Ivan Kalita, became the seat of the metropolitan, i.e. turns into an ecclesiastical capital.

3. Active policy of Moscow princes

Subjective, but decisive factor in the rise of Moscow.

The main rival of the Moscow principality in the struggle for leadership was the principality of Tver, the strongest in Russia. Therefore, the outcome of the confrontation largely depended on the smart and flexible policy of the representatives of the Moscow dynasty.

The ancestor of this dynasty is the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel (1276 - 1303) (see Table). Under him, the rapid growth of the Moscow principality began. In 1301, Daniil Alexandrovich captured Kolomna from the Ryazan princes, in 1302 the Principality of Pereyaslavl passed to him, in 1303 Mozhaisk was annexed, as a result of which the Moscow River, which was an important trade route, turned out to be in the Moscow principality from source to mouth . In three years, his principality has almost doubled in size, becoming one of the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Russia.

In 1303, the reign passed to the eldest son of Daniil Yuri, who for a long time fought against Prince Mikhail Yaroslavovich of Tver. Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy with the Golden Horde, achieved significant political success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek by marrying his sister Konchaka (Agafya), received a label for a great reign in 1319. But already in 1325, Yuri was killed by the son of the Prince of Tver , and the label passed into the hands of the Tver princes. The Golden Horde, therefore, pursued a policy of clash between the Moscow and Tver princes, since it was not interested in strengthening their political influence and strengthening their power.

The Moscow principality was finally strengthened as the largest and strongest in North-Eastern Russia. Ivan Danilovich was a smart, consistent, albeit cruel politician. Nicknamed Kalita (a bag of money) for his prosperity, he, having received three cities from his brother Yuri, left 97 cities and villages to his children.

In his relations with the Horde, he continued the line of external observance of vassal obedience to the khans, the regular payment of tribute, begun by Alexander Nevsky, in order not to give them reasons for new invasions of Russia, which almost completely stopped during his reign. The Russian lands received the necessary respite for the restoration and recovery of the economy, the accumulation of forces for the upcoming struggle to overthrow the yoke. The collection of tribute from all over the Russian land, carried out by Kalita, gave him the opportunity to exert political pressure on other Russian lands. Ivan Kalita was able, without resorting to weapons, to expand the territory of his possessions at the expense of "fonts" - receiving from the khan for rich gifts labels for separate lands (Galich, Uglich, Beloozero). During the reign of Kalita, the foundation of Moscow's power was laid. The son of Kalita Semyon Ivanovich (1340 - 1353) already claimed the title of "Grand Duke of All Russia" and for his arrogance received the nickname "Proud".

Moscow - the center of the unification of Russian lands

From the second half of the XIV century. the second stage of the unification process begins, the main content of which was the defeat by Moscow in the 60s and 70s. its main political rivals and the transition from Moscow's assertion of its political supremacy in Russia to the state unification of Russian lands around it and the organization of a nationwide struggle for the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

The rulers of the principalities that entered into rivalry with Moscow, not possessing sufficient forces of their own, were forced to seek support in the Horde or Lithuania. Therefore, the struggle of the Moscow princes against them acquired the character of an integral part of the national liberation struggle and received the support of both the influential church and the population interested in the state unification of the country.

From the end of the 60s. 14th century a long struggle began between the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich (1359 - 1389) and the creative prince Mikhail Alexandrovich, who entered into an alliance with the Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd.

By the time of the reign of Dmitry Ivanovich, the Golden Horde entered a period of weakening and protracted strife between the feudal nobility. Relations between the Horde and the Russian principalities became more and more tense. At the end of the 70s. Mamai came to power in the Horde, who, having stopped the disintegration of the Horde, began preparations for a campaign against Russia. The struggle to overthrow the yoke and ensure security from external aggression became the most important condition for the completion of the state-political unification of Russia begun by Moscow.

In the summer of 1380, having gathered almost all the forces of the Horde, which also included detachments of mercenaries from the Genoese colonies in the Crimea and the vassal Horde peoples of the North Caucasus and the Volga region, Mamai marched to the southern borders of the Ryazan principality, where he began to expect the approach of the troops of the Lithuanian prince Jagiello and Oleg Ryazan . The terrible threat looming over Russia raised the entire Russian people to fight against the invaders. In a short time, regiments and militias from peasants and artisans from almost all Russian lands and principalities gathered in Moscow.

On September 8, 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place - one of the largest battles of the Middle Ages, which decided the fate of states and peoples

This battle showed the power and strength of Moscow as a political and economic center - the organizer of the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unite the Russian lands. Thanks to the Battle of Kulikovo, the amount of tribute was reduced. In the Horde, the political supremacy of Moscow among the rest of the Russian lands was finally recognized. For personal bravery in battle and military merits, Dmitry received the nickname Donskoy.

Before his death, Dmitry Donskoy transferred the great reign of Vladimir to his son Vasily I (1389 - 1425), no longer asking for the right to a label in the Horde.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands

At the end of the fourteenth century in the Moscow principality, several specific possessions were formed that belonged to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. After the death of Vasily I in 1425, his sons Vasily II and Yuri (the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy) began the struggle for the grand prince's throne, and after the death of Yuri, his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. It was a real medieval struggle for the throne, when blinding, poisoning, conspiracies and deceptions were used (blinded by opponents, Vasily II was nicknamed the Dark One). In fact, it was the largest clash between supporters and opponents of centralization. As a result, according to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky "under the noise of specific princely quarrels and Tatar pogroms, the society supported Vasily the Dark". The completion of the process of unification of Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state falls on the years of government

Ivan III (1462 - 1505) and Vasily III (1505 - 1533).

For 150 years before Ivan III, there was a gathering of Russian lands and the concentration of power in the hands of the Moscow princes. Under Ivan III, the Grand Duke rises above the rest of the princes not only in the amount of power and possessions, but also in the amount of power. It is no coincidence that a new title “sovereign” appears. The double-headed eagle becomes a symbol of the state when, in 1472, Ivan III marries the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleolog. Ivan III, after the annexation of Tver, received the honorary title "by the grace of God the sovereign of All Russia, the Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow, Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugra, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and other lands."

The princes in the annexed lands became the boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called uyezds and were ruled by governors from Moscow. Localism is the right to occupy one or another position in the state, depending on the nobility and official position of the ancestors, their merits to the Grand Duke of Moscow.

A centralized control apparatus began to take shape. The Boyar Duma consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichi (boyars and okolnichi - the two highest ranks in the state). In addition to the Moscow boyars from the middle of the 15th century. local princes from the annexed lands, who recognized the seniority of Moscow, also sat in the Duma. The Boyar Duma had advisory functions on “land affairs.” With the increase in the function of state administration, it became necessary to create special institutions that would manage military, judicial, and financial affairs. Therefore, “tables” were created, controlled by clerks, who later turned into orders. The prikaz system was a typical manifestation of the feudal organization of state administration. It was based on the principles of inseparability of judicial and administrative power. In order to centralize and unify the procedure for judicial and administrative activities throughout the entire state, under Ivan III in 1497, the Sudebnik was compiled.

In 1480, the Tatar-Mongol yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI centuries. Chernigov-Seversky lands became part of the Russian state. In 1510, the Pskov land was included in the state. In 1514, the ancient Russian city of Smolensk became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. And finally, in 1521, the Ryazan principality also ceased to exist. It was during this period that the unification of the Russian lands was basically completed. A huge power was formed - one of the largest states in Europe. Within the framework of this state, the Russian people were united. This is a natural process of historical development. From the end of the XV century. the term "Russia" began to be used.

Socio-economic development in the XIV - XVI centuries.

The general trend in the socio-economic development of the country during this period was the intensive growth of feudal landownership. Its main, dominant form was the patrimony, the land that belonged to the feudal lord by right of hereditary use. This land could be changed, sold, but only to relatives and other owners of estates. The owner of the patrimony could be a prince, a boyar, a monastery.

The nobles, who left the court of the prince or boyar, owned the estate, which they received on the condition of serving on the patrimony (from the word "estate" the nobles were also called landowners). The term of service was established by the contract.

In the XVI century. there is a strengthening of feudal-serfdom orders. The economic basis of serfdom is feudal ownership of land in its three forms: local, patrimonial and state. A new term “peasants” appears, which has become the name of the oppressed class of Russian society. According to their social status, the peasants were divided into three groups: the possessive peasants belonged to various secular and ecclesiastical feudal lords; palace peasants who were in the possession of the palace department of the Moscow grand dukes (tsars); black-mouse (later state) peasants lived in volost communities on lands that did not belong to any owner, but were obliged to perform certain duties in favor of the state.

The defeat of old, large cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov, etc., a change in the nature of economic and trade ties and routes led to the fact that in the XIII - XV centuries. New centers developed significantly: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, and others. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, and the number of artisans and merchants grew. Great success was achieved by such branches of craft as blacksmithing, foundry, metalworking, and coinage.

The unification of the Russian lands took place in the acute struggle of the Russian people for their state unity and national independence, for overcoming feudal fragmentation and internal contradictions among the principalities. In this struggle, the promotion of Moscow as a center of political and socio-economic consolidation of the forces of the Russian people was facilitated by objective and subjective factors.

Among the objective factors, first of all, it should be noted that the Moscow land was the territory where the formation of the Great Russian nationality began. The geographical position of Moscow guaranteed her a certain security: from the north-west of Lithuania, she was covered by the Tver principality; from the east and southeast of the Golden Horde - by other Russian lands, which contributed to the influx of residents here and the constant increase in population density. The intersection of trade routes contributed to the transformation of Moscow into a major hub of economic ties between the Russian lands.

In the gradual transformation of Moscow into the center of the unification of Russian lands, a subjective factor also played its role - the active policy of the Moscow princes. The ancestor of the Moscow princely dynasty is the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky - Daniel. He received the Moscow throne in 1276. In 1303, the Moscow principality passed to his eldest son, Yuri Danilovich. Yuri for a long time fought with the Prince of Tver Mikhail Yaroslavich, which ultimately ended in favor of Moscow.

Prince Yuri Danilovich, thanks to his flexible policy in relations with the Golden Horde, achieved significant political success: he enlisted the support of Khan Uzbek, marrying his sister, received a label for a great reign. Having admitted his defeat and reconciled with Yuri Danilovich, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich of Tver, the son of Mikhail Yaroslavich, nevertheless remained his main rival and contender for the Grand Duke's table.

What was Moscow at the dawn of its existence? It was an ordinary medieval city. Located at the mouth of the Moskva River, it was divided into two parts: "detinets" and "posad". Detinets, who received in the XII-XIV centuries. The name Kremlin, was protected by a moat that ran close to the modern building of the Grand Kremlin Palace and occupied an area of ​​about one hectare. Posad was the place of settlement of the bulk of the inhabitants. There was also a "bargaining" - a trading square, on which, according to the old Russian custom, the church of Paraskevna-Latnitsa, the patroness of trade, was built. Posad, which also had defensive significance, was constantly strengthened and expanded. By the 16th century it acquired a rounded shape, well known from the ancient plans of Moscow. Its fortifications, having appeared as a continuation of the Kremlin, later developed into a special ring of defense, became the outer fortifications of the entire city. The territory that departed from the settlement to the Kremlin was populated and rebuilt in the same way as the Kremlin. In turn, neighboring villages, being included in the settlement, became city blocks.

In the winter of 1237-1238. Moscow, like many other Russian cities, was devastated by the Horde. At the same time, Moscow put up serious resistance and it was difficult to take its fortifications. In the soon restored city, the old rampart, built almost 100 years before, remained the basis of the fortifications. By the end of the thirteenth century The first stone church appeared in the Kremlin, which meant a serious increase in the political prestige of the capital of the young Moscow principality. By this time, the fortress of Moscow had increased several times, occupying the adjacent areas of the settlement. However, the Moscow settlement itself grew significantly: in the 12th - 13th centuries. it already occupied the entire territory of the modern Kremlin and the entire Moskvoretsky hem of Kitay-gorod, with the exception of its eastern tip.

First quarter of the 14th century was marked by the struggle of Moscow for the great reign. Moscow's main rival was Tver. In 1327, Moscow became the capital city of all Russian lands and later led their struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. Of course, the development of both the city itself and its fortifications was determined by the political and military situation of that time. However, even during the period of the most fierce struggle with Tver and for some time after that, the Kremlin remained the basis of the defense of Moscow, which still opposed the troops of Batu.

Several stone cathedrals had already been built inside the Kremlin. Of these, Uspensky is especially important, the construction of which is closely connected with the fact that Moscow became the religious center of all Russia, its metropolis.

Running a little ahead, we note that in 1367 a new stone Kremlin was built. The construction of a white stone fortress in Moscow was associated by contemporaries with the increased political significance of the city, with the strengthening of its role as the capital of all Russian lands. Since then, Moscow began to be called white-stone. The Kremlin, built under Dmitry Donskoy, occupied almost the same territory as the modern one. It was a powerful fortress with nine towers. They housed advanced throwing weapons, including the first cannons in Russia. In order to quarry, hew and bring white-stone blocks in a short time, dig ditches for foundations, lay down and equip walls and towers, about 2 thousand people had to work on construction every day. Such a construction was only within the power of a large city. Moscow has grown significantly. Its oldest Bolshoy, or Veliky, settlement between the Moscow and Neglinnaya rivers occupied the entire territory of the future Kitay-gorod, and in some areas approached the Yauza.

In the last quarter of the XIV century. from the Moskva River to the Neglinnaya, along the line of the future Kitay-gorod, wooden and earthen fortifications were built. However, more than a century and a half passed before the defensive work here ended with the construction of a stone fortress.

The Kremlin was not only a fortress, but also an architectural center, the most important ensemble of Moscow. Behind the white stone walls and towers, one could see the domes of stone churches and the figured roofs of the palaces of the Moscow nobility, over which the palace of the Grand Duke dominated. Describing the performance of Russian troops on a campaign against Mamai, the author of The Tale of the Battle of Mamai says that three columns of Russian troops were walking along three roads from the Kremlin, and Grand Duchess Evdokia and the wives of others looked at them "tears shedding like a river stream" from the window of the tower princes who went on a campaign.

For more than 100 years, the white-stone Kremlin served as Moscow's defense. The troops of the Horde Khan Tokhtamysh managed to take it only in 1382, and then by deceit, when they assured the Muscovites of their intention to make peace. The Kremlin endured more than one siege. Its white stone walls suffered both from assaults and from fires. They were repaired not with stone, but with wood, and by the end of the 15th century. there were already so many such repairs that the Italian A. Contarini, who visited Moscow at that time, wrote down: the fortress in Moscow was wooden. This Kremlin needed to be rebuilt. However, the construction, at the end of the 15th century, after the fall of the Horde yoke, the stone Kremlin was no longer necessary for defense, but for prestige. It was supposed to show the entire world of that time, especially Western Europe, the military power and high cultural achievements of the young Russian state.

They built the brick Kremlin for more than 30 years. Italian craftsmen supervised the work. The military-defensive and architectural structures of the Kremlin, for the most part, have survived to this day (Questions of History. 1990. No. 3. P. 115).

What place did Moscow occupy in the history of Russia during the period of feudal wars?

During the feudal war between Moscow and Tver, the princes sought to enlist the support of the metropolitan. The place of his stay was important for the princes - the city in which the head of the Russian church lived was considered the capital of the Russian land. Moscow becomes the center of the all-Russian metropolis.

In this year - 1340 - the grandson of Alexander Nevsky, Ivan Kalita, takes the throne of Moscow. During the reign of Ivan Kalita, the Moscow principality was finally defined as the largest and strongest in northeastern Russia. Since the time of Kalita, a close alliance of princely power with the church has developed, which played a large role in the formation of a centralized state. With the transfer in 1326 of Kalita's ally, Metropolitan Peter, of his residence from Vladimir to Moscow, the latter became the church center of all Russia, which further strengthened the position of the Moscow princes.

In relations with the Horde, Kalita continued the line of external, formal observance of vassal dependence on the Horde, outlined by Alexander Nevsky, in order not to give the Horde khans a pretext for new invasions and devastation: he regularly paid the Horde the established tribute, but at the same time, in all internal affairs of Russia, he strove for the maximum possible independence. Thanks to this policy, the Horde khans did not receive a reason for new devastating raids on the Russian land.

Ivan Kalita obtained from the Horde a very important concession for Russia - the final renunciation of the hated and humiliating for the Russian people system of Basque and the right to pay tribute to the Russian princes. Baskaism as a system of collecting tribute from households organized by the Golden Horde, carried out by Baskaks (tribute collectors) with the help of armed guards, was abolished. The appointment of Kalita as the main tribute collector was a great political gain both for himself and for the entire Moscow boyars. Ivan Kalita laid the foundations for the might of the Moscow principality. He is called the first collector of Russian land, who laid the foundation for the rise of Moscow. He achieved the rise and expansion of the Moscow principality in various ways: he arranged marriages of local princes with representatives of his own family; appointed his deputies to separate principalities; he bought land in other principalities for himself and assisted his boyars in this on the basis of private patrimonial property.

In general, Ivan Kalita played a positive role in the unification of northeastern Russia around Moscow as the main territorial core of the future Russian centralized state.

At the same time, as a politician, he should not be especially idealized. He was the son of his time and his class, a smart, stubborn, purposeful ruler, but also cruel and cunning. In his actions, there were no openly expressed motives for rebuffing the invaders - he paid off the Golden Horde with the correct payment of the "exit". And yet, his tactics gave Russia a respite from the Horde raids. The policy of Ivan Kalita served to strengthen the feudal system in Russia and the progressive development of Russian society. While tough and brutal, it also contributed to state centralization.

The Moscow region, due to its historical development in socio-economic and cultural relations, developed faster than other Russian lands. Its population to a greater extent influenced the development and convergence of the elements of the language, culture and life of the people who inhabited the entire north-eastern Russia. Under the prevailing conditions of feudal fragmentation, the Novgorod, Pskov, Tver, Ryazan, and Nizhny Novgorod lands began to objectively gravitate toward reunification into a single state. At the same time, centrifugal tendencies continued to persist, due to the separatism of local princes. That is why the Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1363-1389), nicknamed the Donskoy for the Battle of Kulikovo, had to wage a stubborn struggle with the princes. Fighting the separatism of the princes, Dmitry Ivanovich subjugated the most powerful principalities (Tver and Ryazan) to the power of the Moscow prince. Thus, the leading role of Moscow in the unification of the Russian lands was finally secured.

In the XIII-XIV centuries. the population density of northeastern Russia increased markedly, and the territory it developed also increased. The development of the system of land tenure, crafts and trade contributed, on the one hand, to the expansion of economic ties between cities and villages located on this territory, and on the other hand, to a wider and closer communication of people, during which common features were formed in their character, occupations, family everyday life and social behavior, common features were manifested in their dwellings, clothing, food, customs and rituals. All this, taken together, constituted the characteristic features of the new nationality. The population of northeastern Russia began to consider the land of their dwelling as their own, their fatherland. In the second half of the XIV century. this region with its center in Moscow was called "Great Russia". Hence the names "Great Russian people", "Great Russian people".

Having asserted his power over the Russian princes, subordinating Tver and Ryazan to Moscow, Dmitry Ivanovich decided to fight against the main enemy of Russia - the Golden Horde. She then experienced the process of feudal fragmentation, accompanied by protracted strife and the periodic change of khans. In relations between Russia and the Horde, a trend of extreme instability and tension began to prevail. All this resulted in a bloody clash. (Above, we spoke in detail about the Battle of Kulikovo and its consequences for Russia.)

Although the Horde Khan was still considered the supreme ruler of Russia, his power over other lands was significantly weakened. The Horde was forced to recognize Moscow as the political center of Russia. Moreover, the Muscovite princely dynasty obtained from the Horde the recognition of their right to a great reign as a "fatherland" that was inherited. The new order of succession to the throne ended the old enmity for seniority, found support among the people and among the clergy. Although Russia did not completely get rid of the feudal war, but by the middle of the 15th century. a serious step towards the establishment of the Moscow autocracy was made. In accordance with the procedure established by him, before his death, Dmitry Ivanovich blessed his son Vasily for a great reign - now he no longer feared that the Horde or other Russian princes would dare to challenge his rightful heir to the grand throne.

The reign of Dmitry Donskoy left a deep mark on Russian history. Among the important results of his activities are the following: securing the status of the national capital for Moscow, and for the Moscow princes - the great reign in Russia; keeping intact the patrimonial estates that passed to Dmitry Ivanovich from his ancestors; strengthening the defense capability of Russia as a result of the fight against foreign invaders, especially the Horde; the introduction of the minting of silver coins earlier than in other feudal centers of Russia; economic support for the urban trade and handicraft population. Thanks to the successful activities of Dmitry, the further strengthening of the Moscow principality continues.

Summing up what has been said above about the initial period of the unification of the Russian lands and the role of Moscow in the formation of a centralized state, it should be noted: objectively, feudal fragmentation was a natural stage in the development of the feudal states of Europe and Asia. Russia was no exception in this respect. But, being at a new, higher stage of feudal society, fragmentation brought with it a number of negative consequences: endless internecine wars, the loss of national unity, the weakening of the defense in the face of foreign aggression, etc. All this led society into a state of continuous tension and had a negative effect on the development the country's economy. Fear of foreign enslavement, the desire to preserve and maintain state order made firm power desirable, so that in the end the feudal war contributed to the strengthening of the grand ducal power. The unification policy of the Grand Dukes was supported by the most diverse social strata of Russian society, since an important factor in the process of unification of the principalities was the nationwide struggle for national independence and the overthrow of the Horde yoke, for an independent and strong statehood capable of providing protection to the people.

Objectively, the process of political unification of the Russian lands began in Russia with the territorial growth and political strengthening of individual principalities. In the struggle that began between them for political predominance, an all-Russian political center was revealed, which led the struggle for the unification of the scattered Russian lands into a single state and for the overthrow of the Golden Horde yoke. The winner in this struggle was the Moscow principality, whose capital - Moscow - during the reign of Dmitry Donskoy became the generally recognized political and national center of the emerging Russian state. Moscow's successes in the state-political unification of the Russian lands were consolidated by its victory over a coalition of specific princes who tried during the feudal war of the middle of the 15th century. restore the crumbling orders of feudal fragmentation.

The Orthodox Church also contributed to the unification of the Russian lands. She supported the flexible policy of a forced alliance with the Golden Horde of Alexander Nevsky, inspired Dmitry Donskoy to the Mamaev battle; during the feudal war, she openly opposed the obsolete policy of the specific princes for strengthening the power of the Grand Duke of Moscow. The union of the church with the Moscow princes was further strengthened during the period of the elimination of feudal fragmentation.

In 1442, at the suggestion of Vasily II, the Council of the Russian clergy in Moscow appointed Jonah metropolitan without the sanction of the Patriarch of Constantinople. This act marked the end of the dependence of the Russian Church on the Patriarchate of Constantinople. However, the Moscow metropolis fell into direct dependence on the grand duke's power, for now only it could protect the interests of the metropolis on an all-Russian scale and maintain its authority in the struggle for the purity of the Orthodox faith.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow

The Tatar-Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke led to the fact that the center of Russian economic and political life moved to the northeast of the former Kyiv state. Here, in Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, large political centers arose, among which Moscow took the leading place, leading the struggle to overthrow the Golden Horde yoke and unite the Russian lands.

The Moscow principality, compared with other Russian lands, occupied a more advantageous geographical position. It was located at the intersection of river and land routes, which could be used both for trade and for military purposes. In the most dangerous directions from which aggression could arise, Moscow was covered by other Russian lands, which also attracted residents here, allowing the Moscow princes to gather and accumulate forces.

The active policy of the Moscow princes also played a significant role in the fate of the Moscow principality. Being junior princes, the owners of Moscow could not hope to occupy the grand duke's table by seniority. Their position depended on their own actions, on the position and strength of their principality. They become the most "exemplary" princes, and turn their principality into the most powerful.

Prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands

By the XIV century. prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands are taking shape.

The process of formation of centralized (national) states in Europe in this era was associated with the destruction of the subsistence economy, the strengthening of economic ties between different regions and the emergence of bourgeois relations. The economic upsurge was noticeable in Russia in the XIV-XV centuries, it played a significant role in the formation of a centralized state, however, in general, this formation took place, unlike Europe, on a purely feudal basis. An important role in this process was played by the interests of the boyars, whose estates outgrew the borders of the principalities. Finally, the most important, if not decisive role in the unification process was played by the struggle against the external - primarily the Horde - danger.

2. The struggle of Moscow for the great reign of Vladimir

The first Moscow princes

The first independent Moscow appanage prince, the ancestor of the Moscow princely dynasty, was in 1276 the youngest son of Alexander Nevsky, Daniel (1276-1303). Having received a small and poor inheritance, he significantly expanded it. Of paramount importance for the trade of the Moscow principality was control over the entire course of the Moscow River. Solving this problem, Daniil Alexandrovich in 1301 takes Kolomna, located at the mouth of the Moskva River, from the Ryazan prince. In 1302, Pereyaslavsky inheritance was bequeathed to Daniil of Moscow, which was finally annexed to Moscow by his son Yuri Danilovich (1303-1325). In 1303, Mozhaisk, which had previously been part of the Smolensk principality, was annexed to Moscow.

Under Yuri Danilovich, the Moscow principality became one of the strongest in North-Eastern Russia. Yuri entered the struggle for the great reign of Vladimir.

The main rivals of the Moscow princes in this struggle were the princes of Tver, who, as representatives of the older branch, had more rights to the grand prince's table. In 1304 Prince Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tverskoy (1304-1319) received a label for a great reign. This prince strove for sovereign rule in all of Russia, several times tried to subjugate Novgorod by force. However, the strengthening of any one Russian principality was unprofitable for the Golden Horde.

In 1315 Prince Yuri of Moscow was summoned to the Horde. Marriage to the sister of Khan Uzbek Konchaka (in baptism Agafia) strengthened his position. Prince Yuri also achieved a label for a great reign. To support the Moscow prince, the Horde army was sent with him.

In an effort to avoid an open clash with the Horde, Mikhail of Tverskoy abandoned the great reign in favor of the Moscow prince. However, the devastation to which the Tver lands were subjected by the Moscow and Horde troops led to military clashes between the Moscow and Horde detachments, on the one hand, and the Tver squads, on the other. During one of these clashes, the Moscow troops were defeated; Prince Yuri's brother and his wife were captured by the Tverites. The mysterious death of the Moscow princess in captivity in Tver gave rise to rumors about her poisoning.

Not wanting to aggravate relations with Khan Uzbek, Mikhail of Tver made peace with the Tatars. In 1318, the princes of Tver and Moscow were summoned to the khan's headquarters. Mikhail Yaroslavich was accused of non-payment of tribute, poisoning of the khan's sister, disobedience to the khan's ambassador, and was executed. Prince Yuri again received a label for a great reign.

In 1325, at the Khan's headquarters, Yuri Danilovich was killed by the eldest son of Mikhail of Tver, Dmitry. Dmitry was executed, but the label for the great reign was given to the princes of Tver. The policy of transferring the label to princes from rival clans allowed the Horde khans to prevent the efforts of the Russian princes from uniting, gave rise to the frequent sending of Horde detachments to Russia in order to control the situation in Russian lands.

Together with the Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Tverskoy, Khan Uzbek sent his nephew Cholkhan (in Russia he was called Shchelkan) as a tribute collector. He was also to exercise constant control over the Grand Duke. The arbitrariness and violence that accompanied the collection of tribute by the Cholkhan detachment caused a powerful uprising in 1327. The Tatar detachment was completely exterminated by the Tverichs.

Ivan Kalita

The Moscow prince Ivan Danilovich Kalita (1325-1340) took advantage of this. He joined the punitive expedition organized by the Horde. As a result of this measure, the Tver land was subjected to such a pogrom that it withdrew from the political struggle for a long time. Prince Alexander Mikhailovich fled first to Pskov, and later to Lithuania. The younger sons of Mikhail of Tver, Konstantin and Vasily, who ruled in Tver, could not fight the strong and cunning Moscow prince. Since 1328, the label for a great reign was again in the hands of the Moscow prince. In addition to the label, Ivan Kalita received the right to collect the Horde output (tribute), the Basmachi system was finally abolished. The right to collect tribute gave the Moscow prince significant advantages. According to the figurative expression of V.O. Klyuchevsky, not being a master, to beat his brethren, princes, with a sword, Ivan Kalita got the opportunity to beat her with a ruble.

The collection of tribute by the Grand Duke made regular communications between the Russian principalities. The Union of Russian Principalities, which initially arose as a forced and financial one, eventually expanded its political significance and served as the basis for the unification of various lands. The son of Ivan Kalita, Semyon the Proud (1340-1353), in addition to collecting tribute, already had certain judicial rights in relation to the Russian princes.

Under Ivan Kalita, the territorial expansion of the Moscow principality continued. At this time, it took place through the purchase of land by the prince in various parts of the country. Ivan Kalita acquired labels in the Horde for entire specific principalities - Uglich, Galich, Beloozero. Throughout his reign, the Moscow prince maintained the closest contacts with the Horde khans; he regularly paid his way out, sent gifts to the khan, his wives and nobles, and often went to the Horde himself. This policy made it possible to provide the Moscow principality with a long peaceful respite. It has not been attacked for almost 40 years. The Moscow princes could not only strengthen their principality, but also accumulate significant forces. This respite had a huge moral and psychological significance. The generations of Russian people who grew up during this time did not know the fear of the Horde, the fear that often paralyzed the will of their fathers. It was these generations that under Dmitry Donskoy entered into an armed struggle against the Horde.

The wise policy of Ivan Kalita created such authority for him in the Horde that his sons Semyon Proud and Ivan Krasny (1353-1359) had no competitors when receiving a label for a great reign.

Dmitry Donskoy

The last son of Kalita, Ivan Krasny, died when his heir Dmitry was 9 years old. The Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince Dmitry Konstantinovich (1359-1363) hastened to take advantage of the infancy of the Moscow prince. However, in addition to the Moscow princes, another force was interested in securing the great reign for the Moscow dynasty - the Moscow boyars. The boyar government that existed under the juvenile prince, headed by Metropolitan Alexy, through diplomatic negotiations in the Horde and military pressure on the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod prince, forced him to renounce the great reign in favor of Prince Dmitry Ivanovich (1363-1389).

Prince Dmitry Ivanovich and the boyar government successfully strengthened the power of the Moscow principality. Evidence of the increased economic and political importance of Moscow was the construction in 1367 of a white-stone fortress - the Kremlin.

At the end of the 60s. 14th century a new stage of the Moscow-Tver struggle begins. The rival of the Moscow prince is the son of Alexander Mikhailovich Tverskoy, Mikhail. However, the principality of Tver could no longer resist Moscow alone. Therefore, Mikhail Alexandrovich attracted Lithuania and the Horde as allies, which contributed to the loss of authority among the Russian princes by the prince of Tver. Two campaigns against Moscow by the Lithuanian prince Olgerd in 1368 and 1370. ended in vain, as the Lithuanians were unable to take the stone walls of Moscow.

In 1371, Mikhail Alexandrovich received a label in the Horde for a great reign. However, neither the Moscow prince Dmitry, nor the inhabitants of Russian cities recognized him as the Grand Duke. In 1375, Prince Dmitry Ivanovich organized a campaign against Tver. This campaign was no longer only Moscow: detachments of Suzdal, Starodub, Yaroslavl, Rostov and other princes took part in it. This meant their recognition of the supremacy of the Moscow prince in northeastern Russia. The inhabitants of Tver also did not support their prince, demanding that he conclude peace. According to the end (agreement) of 1375 between Dmitry Ivanovich of Moscow and Mikhail Alexandrovich of Tver, the prince of Tver recognized himself as the "young brother" of the Moscow prince, renounced claims to a great reign, from independent relations with Lithuania and the Horde. From that time on, the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir became the property of the Moscow dynasty. Evidence of the increased role of Moscow was the victory of Russian troops led by Prince Dmitry Ivanovich over the Tatars on the Kulikovo field in 1380.

Moscow was recognized as the territorial and national center of the emerging Russian state. Since that time, two processes have been traced in its formation: centralization and concentration of power in the hands of the Grand Duke within the Moscow Principality and the annexation of new lands to Moscow, which soon assumed the nature and significance of a state association.

Feudal war in the second quarter of the 15th century.

By the end of the reign of the son of Dmitry Donskoy, Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425), the strength of the Moscow rulers surpassed the strength and importance of the rest of the Russian princes. The strengthening of the Moscow principality was facilitated by internal stability: starting from Prince Daniel, until 1425, not a single internecine clash occurred within the Moscow principality. The first Moscow strife was the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century, connected with the establishment of the order of succession to the throne in the Moscow principality. According to the will of Dmitry Donskoy, the Moscow principality was divided into destinies between the sons. The great reign was bequeathed to the eldest son Vasily I. The second son Yuri got the Principality of Galicia (Kostroma region) and Zvenigorod. Since the spiritual of Dmitry Donskoy was compiled when the eldest son was not yet married, Yuri was named the heir to Vasily I.

After the death of Vasily I Dmitrievich, a dynastic crisis arose. The contenders for the throne were his ten-year-old son Vasily II, who was supported by the Moscow boyars and the Grand Duchess Sofya Vitovtovna (they justified their claims by the tradition of transferring the Moscow table from father to son, which had developed since the time of Ivan Kalita), and Prince Yuri Dmitrievich, who referred to the traditional principle of inheritance by elders. in the family and testament of Dmitry Donskoy.

In 1430, Vasily II's grandfather, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt, who had been appointed guardian of Vasily II, died. Since the threat of a collision between Yuri and the powerful grandfather of Vasily II disappeared, in 1433 Yuri defeated Vasily's troops and captured Moscow. However, he failed to establish himself here because of the hostile attitude of the Moscow boyars and the townspeople. The following year, Yuri again captured Moscow, but died two and a half months later.

After the death of Yuri, the struggle for the Moscow table was continued by his sons Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka, who, in principle, no longer had any rights to the throne. This struggle, in essence, was a struggle between supporters of decisive centralization and supporters of the preservation of the old appanage system. Success initially accompanied Vasily Vasilyevich, who in 1436 captured and blinded his cousin Vasily Kosoy.

The Horde took advantage of the internal difficulties in the Moscow principality. In 1445, Khan Ulu-Muhammed raided Russia. The army of Vasily II was defeated, and the Grand Duke himself was captured. He was released from captivity for a significant ransom, the entire severity of which, as well as the violence of the Tatars who arrived to collect this ransom, deprived Vasily of support from the townspeople and service people. In February 1446, Vasily was captured during a pilgrimage in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery by Dmitry Shemyaka and blinded. Moscow passed into the hands of Shemyaka.

However, having captured Moscow, Dmitry Shemyaka failed to achieve the support of the majority of the population and the boyars. The collection of money to pay tribute to the Tatars was continued. The restoration of the independence of the Suzdal-Nizhny Novgorod principality, the promises of preserving the protection of Novgorodian independence, were an undermining of the creation of a single state, which the Moscow boyars had supported for several centuries. On the side of Vasily II the Dark (a nickname received after being blinded), the majority of the clergy, as well as the Tver Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich, spoke out. This support ensured victory for the not-so-militarily talented Vasily II. Shemyaka, who fled to Novgorod, died there in 1453, according to rumors, he was poisoned by order of the Moscow prince.

The consequence of the feudal war was the final approval of the principle of inheritance of power in a direct descending line from father to son. In order to avoid strife in the future, the Moscow princes, starting with Vasily the Dark, allocate to their eldest sons, along with the title of Grand Duke, a larger part of the inheritance, ensuring their superiority over younger brothers.

Russian city in the XIV-XV centuries. and its role in the unification process .

City. The rise in agricultural production created favorable conditions for the restoration and further development of Russian cities. The defeat of the old large cities, such as Vladimir, Suzdal, Rostov and others, the change in the nature of economic and trade relations and routes led to the fact that in the XIII-XV centuries. New centers developed significantly: Tver, Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Kolomna, Kostroma, and others. In these cities, the population increased, stone construction was revived, and the number of artisans and merchants grew. Great success was achieved by such branches of craft as blacksmithing, foundry, metalworking, and coinage. Despite the fact that the Golden Horde, Lithuania, Poland, the Hanseatic League slowed down and tried to control the foreign trade of Russia, the cities became centers not only of internal, but also of foreign trade, the main directions of which were western (Lithuania, Poland) and eastern (Caucasus, Crimea, Middle Asia).

Unlike the cities of Western Europe, many of which achieved self-government and independence from the feudal lords, Russian cities remained dependent on the feudal state. Trade in agricultural products prevailed in the cities. By the 16th century Veche law practically disappeared in the cities. The population of the city, having personal freedom, was divided into "black artisans" who carried a "tax" of a complex of natural and monetary duties in favor of the state, and artisans who belonged to boyars, monasteries or princes, exempted from bearing taxes (later the settlements where they lived were called "white").

Despite the slow development compared to Western European cities due to the Mongol-Tatar devastation and the Golden Horde yoke, Russian cities played a significant role in the unification process. They were the centers that maintained, although still weak, economic ties between the individual parts of the country. The nature of handicraft production and trade relations determined the interest of the townspeople in uniting the country. This was especially true for fairly rapidly developing cities around Moscow.

7. Feudal lords in the XIV-XV centuries.

Feudal lords in the XIV-XV centuries .

The main social development in the XIV-XV centuries. was the intensive growth of feudal landownership. Its main, dominant form was the estate, that is, as mentioned above, the land that belonged to the feudal lord by right of hereditary use. This land could be changed, sold, but only to relatives and other owners of estates. The owner of the patrimony could be a prince, a boyar, a monastery. In order to quickly master and more successfully exploit the estate, as well as to have military support, the owners of the estates transferred part of the land to their vassals on certain conditions. Such land ownership was called conditional, service or local. The nobles, who made up the court of the prince or boyar, owned the estate, which they received on the condition of serving on the patrimony. (From the word "estate" the nobles were also called landlords.) The term of service was established by contract. From the middle of the XIV century. there was a significant increase in monastic land ownership. The Mongols, interested in maintaining their dominance, left the land holdings in the hands of the church. The Russian princes were also interested in supporting the church. If earlier the tax in favor of the church - the tithe - was paid in money or in kind, then under the new conditions the princes replaced the tithe with the distribution of land. The land ownership and wealth of the monasteries grew also because, unlike the lands of the secular feudal lords, the lands of the monasteries were not divided among the heirs, as was the case after the death of the secular landowner. The most famous among the Russian monasteries was the Trinity Monastery, founded by Sergius of Radonezh (c. 1321-1391) 70 kilometers north of Moscow (now the Trinity-Sergius Lavra). Located in a forested, sparsely populated, secluded area (desert), the monastery has grown into a major religious and economic center. Disciples and followers of the great Sergius in the XIV-XV centuries. built about 100 monasteries of the general type, that is, on the basis of joint ownership of the economy and the collectivist organization of the life of the monastery.