After the completion of hostilities in the Crimean War in the autumn of 1855, the parties began to prepare peace negotiations. At the end of the year, the Austrian government gave the Russian Emperor Alexander II an ultimatum of 5 points. Russia, not ready to continue the war, accepted them, and on February 13 a diplomatic congress opened in Paris. As a result, on March 18, peace was concluded between Russia on the one hand and France, Great Britain, Turkey, Sardinia, Austria and Prussia on the other. Russia returned the Kars fortress to Turkey, conceded to the Moldavian Principality the mouth of the Danube and part of Southern Bessarabia. The Black Sea was declared neutral, Russia and Turkey could not keep a navy there. The autonomy of Serbia and the Danubian Principalities was confirmed.

By the end of 1855, the fighting on the fronts of the Crimean War had practically ceased. The capture of Sevastopol satisfied the ambitions of the French Emperor Napoleon III. He believed that he had restored the honor of French weapons and took revenge for the defeat of the Russian troops in 1812-1815. The power of Russia in the South was greatly undermined: she lost the main Black Sea fortress, lost her fleet. The continuation of the struggle and the further weakening of Russia did not meet the interests of Napoleon, it would only play into the hands of England.
A long, stubborn struggle cost the European allies many thousands of human lives, demanded a great strain on the economy and finances. True, the ruling circles of Great Britain, annoyed that the successes of their army were too insignificant, insisted on continuing hostilities. He expected to intensify hostilities in the Caucasus and the Baltic. But England did not want to fight without France and its land army, and could not.
The position of Russia was difficult. Two years of war were a heavy burden on the shoulders of the people. More than a million people from among the able-bodied male population were drafted into the army and the militia, more than 700 thousand horses were transferred. This was a heavy blow to agriculture. The difficult situation of the masses was aggravated by epidemics of typhus and cholera, drought and crop failure in a number of provinces. The unrest intensified in the countryside, threatening to take on more decisive forms. In addition, stockpiles of weapons began to be depleted, and there was a chronic shortage of ammunition.
Unofficial peace talks between Russia and France went on from the end of 1855 through the Saxon envoy in St. Petersburg von Seebach and the Russian envoy in Vienna A.M. Gorchakov. The situation was complicated by the intervention of Austrian diplomacy. On the eve of the new year, 1856, the Austrian envoy in St. Petersburg, VL Esterhazy, conveyed the ultimatum demand of his government to Russia to accept the preliminary peace conditions. The ultimatum consisted of five points: the abolition of Russian patronage of the Danubian principalities and the establishment of a new border in Bessarabia, as a result of which Russia was deprived of access to the Danube; freedom of navigation on the Danube; neutral and demilitarized status of the Black Sea; the replacement of Russian patronage of the Orthodox population of the Ottoman Empire with collective guarantees from the great powers of the rights and benefits of Christians, and, finally, the possibility of the great powers to make new demands on Russia in the future.
On December 20, 1855 and January 3, 1856, two meetings were held in the Winter Palace, to which the new Emperor Alexander II invited prominent dignitaries of the past. The question of the Austrian ultimatum was on the agenda. Only one participant, D. N. Bludov, during the first meeting spoke out against accepting the terms of the ultimatum, which, in his opinion, was incompatible with the dignity of Russia as a great power. The emotional, but weak speech of the famous figure of the Nikolaev time, not supported by real arguments, did not find a response at the meeting. Bludov's performance was sharply criticized. All other participants in the meetings unequivocally spoke in favor of accepting the conditions presented. A. F. Orlov, M. S. Vorontsov, P. D. Kiselev, P. K. Meyendorff spoke in this spirit. They pointed to the very difficult economic condition of the country, upset finances, the deterioration in the situation of the population, especially in the countryside. An important place at the meetings was occupied by the speech of the Minister of Foreign Affairs, KV Nesselrode. The chancellor launched a lengthy argument in favor of accepting the ultimatum. There was no chance of winning, Nesselrode noted. The continuation of the struggle will only increase the number of Russia's enemies and inevitably lead to new defeats, as a result of which future peace conditions will become much more difficult. On the contrary, accepting the terms now would, in the Chancellor's opinion, upset the calculations of the opponents who were expecting a refusal.
As a result, it was decided to respond to the Austrian proposal with consent. On January 4, 1856, K. V. Nesselrode informed the Austrian envoy V. L. Esterhazy that the Russian emperor was accepting five points. On January 20, a protocol was signed in Vienna, stating that the "Austrian Communiqué" sets out the preliminary conditions for peace and obliges the governments of all interested parties to send representatives to Paris within three weeks to negotiate and conclude a final peace treaty. On February 13, sessions of the Congress opened in the capital of France, in which authorized delegates from France, Great Britain, Russia, Austria, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia participated. After all the important questions had already been resolved, the representatives of Prussia were also admitted.
The meetings were chaired by the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, cousin of Napoleon III, Count F. A. Valevsky. The main opponents of the Russian diplomats in Paris were the English and Austrian foreign ministers, Lord Clarendon and C. F. Buol. As for the French Minister Valevsky, he more often supported the Russian delegation. This behavior was explained by the fact that in parallel with the official negotiations, confidential conversations took place between Emperor Napoleon and Count Orlov, during which the positions of France and Russia were clarified and a line was developed that each of the parties at the negotiating table would adhere to.
At this time, Napoleon III was playing a complex political game. His strategic plans included a revision of the "Viennese treaty system of 1815". He intended to take a dominant position in the international arena, to establish French hegemony in Europe. On the one hand, he went to strengthen relations with Great Britain and Austria. On April 15, 1856, an agreement was signed on the Triple Alliance between England, Austria and France. This treaty guaranteed the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire. There was a so-called "Crimean system", which had an anti-Russian orientation. On the other hand, Anglo-French contradictions made themselves felt more and more strongly. Napoleon's Italian policy was bound to lead to an aggravation of relations with Austria. Therefore, he included in his plans a gradual rapprochement with Russia. Orlov reported that the emperor met him with unfailing friendliness, and the conversations were held in a very benevolent atmosphere. The position of the Russian side was also strengthened by the fact that at the end of 1855 the powerful Turkish fortress of Kars capitulated. Russia's opponents were forced to moderate their appetites and the echo of the glorious defense of Sevastopol. According to one observer, the shadow of Nakhimov stood behind the Russian delegates at the congress.
The peace treaty was signed on March 18, 1856. It fixed the defeat of Russia in the war. As a result of the abolition of Russian patronage over the Danubian principalities and the Orthodox subjects of the Sultan, Russia's influence in the Middle East and the Balkans was undermined. The most difficult for Russia were those articles of the treaty that concerned the neutralization of the Black Sea, that is, forbidding her to maintain a navy there and have naval arsenals. Territorial losses turned out to be relatively insignificant: the Danube Delta and the southern part of Bessarabia adjoining it moved away from Russia to the Principality of Moldavia. The peace treatise, which consisted of 34 articles and one "additional and temporary", was also accompanied by conventions on the Dardanelles and Bosphorus, Russian and Turkish ships in the Black Sea, and on the demilitarization of the Aland Islands. The most important first convention obligated the Turkish sultan not to allow into the Black Sea straits, "as long as the Port is at peace ... no foreign warship." In the context of the neutralization of the Black Sea, this rule should have become very useful for Russia, protecting the defenseless Black Sea coast from a possible enemy attack.
In the final part of the work of the congress, F. A. Valevsky proposed marking the European diplomatic forum with some kind of humanitarian action, following the example of the Westphalian and Vienna congresses. This is how the Paris Declaration on the Law of the Sea was born - an important international act designed to regulate the order of maritime trade and blockade in time of war, as well as proclaiming the prohibition of privateering. The first Russian commissioner A. F. Orlov also took an active part in the development of the articles of the declaration.
The Crimean War and the Congress of Paris became the boundary of an entire era in the history of international relations. The “Viennese system” finally ceased to exist. It was replaced by other systems of unions and associations of European states, primarily the "Crimean system" (England, Austria, France), which, however, was destined to have a short life. Major changes were also taking place in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire. In the course of the work of the Paris Congress, Russian-French rapprochement began to take shape. In April 1856, K. V. Nesselrode, who had headed the Russian Foreign Ministry for four decades, was dismissed. He was replaced by A.M. Gorchakov, who led Russia's foreign policy until 1879. Thanks to his skillful diplomacy, Russia managed to restore authority in the European arena and in October 1870, taking advantage of the collapse of the empire of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian war, unilaterally refused to comply with the Black Sea demilitarization regime . Russia's right to the Black Sea Fleet was finally confirmed at the London Conference of 1871.

In the name of God Almighty. Their Majesties the All-Russian Emperor, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Ottoman Emperor, prompted by the desire to put an end to the disasters of the war and at the same time prevent the resumption of the misunderstandings and difficulties that gave rise to it, decided to enter into an agreement with E.V. Emperor of Austria regarding the grounds for the restoration and establishment of peace with the assurance of the integrity and independence of the Ottoman Empire by mutual effective guarantee. To this end, Their Majesties appointed their commissioners (see signatures):

These plenipotentiaries, after exchanging their powers, found in due course, decided the following articles:

ARTICLE I
From the day of the exchange of ratifications of this treatise, there will be forever peace and friendship between E.V. emperor of all Russia on the one hand, and E.V. Emperor of the French, her c. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, E.V. King of Sardinia and H.I.V. sultan - on the other hand, between their heirs and successors, states and subjects.

ARTICLE II
As a result of the happy restoration of peace between their majesties, the lands conquered and occupied by their troops during the war will be cleared by them. Special conditions will be decided on the procedure for the march of the troops, which must be carried out as soon as possible.

ARTICLE III
E. in. the All-Russian Emperor undertakes to return E.V. to the sultan the city of Kars with its citadel, as well as other parts of the Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops.

ARTICLE IV
Their Majesties the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan undertake to return E.V. to the emperor of all Russia the cities and ports: Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kamysh, Evpatoria, Kerch-Yenikale, Kinburn, as well as all other places occupied by the allied forces.

ARTICLE V
Their Majesties the Emperor of All Russia, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the King of Sardinia and the Sultan grant full pardon to those of their subjects who have been found guilty of any complicity with the enemy during the continuation of hostilities. It is hereby decreed that this general pardon shall also be extended to those subjects of each of the belligerent powers who during the war remained in the service of the other of the belligerent powers.

ARTICLE VI
The prisoners of war will be immediately returned from both sides.

ARTICLE VII
E.V. emperor of all Russia, E.V. Emperor of Austria, E.V. Emperor of the French, her c. Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, E.V. the king of Prussia and E.V. The king of Sardinia declare that the Sublime Porte is recognized as participating in the benefits of common law and the union of European powers. Their Majesties undertake, each for his part, to respect the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire, ensure by their joint guarantee the exact observance of this obligation and, as a result, will consider any action in violation of this as a matter of common rights and benefits.

ARTICLE VIII
If any disagreement arises between the Sublime Porte and one or more of the other Powers that have concluded this treaty, which may threaten the preservation of friendly relations between them, then both the Sublime Porte and each of these Powers, without resorting to the use of force, have the opportunity to deliver to other contracting parties opportunity to prevent any further clash through its mediation.

ARTICLE IX
E.I.V. the sultan, in constant concern for the welfare of his subjects, having bestowed a firman, to whom their lot improves without distinction according to religions or tribes, and his generous intentions regarding the Christian population of his empire are affirmed, and wishing to give new proof of his feelings in this respect, he decided to inform the contracting parties to the powers, the aforementioned firman, published on his own initiative. The Contracting Powers recognize the great importance of this communication, understanding that it will in no case give these Powers the right to intervene, collectively or separately, in the relations of E.V. Sultan to his subjects and to the internal administration of his empire.

ARTICLE X
The convention of July 13, 1841, which established the observance of the ancient rule of the Ottoman Empire regarding the closing of the entrance to the Bosporus and the Dardanelles, is subjected to a new consideration by common consent. An act concluded by the high contracting parties in accordance with the above rule is attached to the present treatise and will have the same force and effect as if it were an inseparable part of it.

ARTICLE XI
The Black Sea is declared neutral: open to the merchant navigation of all peoples, the entrance to the ports and waters of it is formally and forever forbidden to warships, both coastal and all other powers, with those only exceptions, which are decided in Articles XIV and XIX of this Treaty.

ARTICLE XII
Free from all obstacles trade in the ports and on the waters of the Black Sea will be subject only to quarantine, customs, police regulations drawn up in a spirit conducive to the development of commercial relations. In order to grant the benefits of trade and navigation of all peoples all the desired provision, Russia and the Sublime Porte will admit consuls to their ports on the shores of the Black Sea, in accordance with the rules of international law.

ARTICLE XIII
Due to the declaration of the Black Sea as neutral on the basis of Article XI, it cannot be necessary to maintain or establish naval arsenals on the shores of it, as having no purpose, and therefore E.V. emperor of all Russia and E.I.V. Sultans undertake not to start or leave any naval arsenal on these shores.

ARTICLE XIV
Their Majesties the All-Russian Emperor and the Sultan concluded a special convention determining the number and strength of light ships that they allow themselves to maintain in the Black Sea for the necessary orders along the coast. This convention is appended to this treatise and will have the same force and effect as if it were an integral part of it. It may neither be destroyed nor altered without the consent of the Powers which have concluded the present treatise.

ARTICLE XV
The contracting parties, by mutual agreement, decide that the rules established by the Act of the Congress of Vienna for navigation on rivers separating different possessions or flowing through them, will henceforth be fully applicable to the Danube and its mouths. They declare that this decree is henceforth recognized as belonging to the general European people's law and is approved by their mutual guarantee. Navigation on the Danube shall not be subject to any hardships or duties other than those specifically determined by the following articles. As a result, no payment will be collected for the actual navigation on the river and no duty on the goods that make up the cargo of ships. The police and quarantine regulations necessary for the security of the states on the banks of this river must be drawn up in such a way that they are as favorable as possible to the movement of ships. Apart from these rules, no obstacles of any kind will be imposed on free navigation.

ARTICLE XVI
To put into effect the provisions of the previous article, a commission will be established, in which Russia, Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Sardinia and Turkey will each have their own deputy. This commission will be instructed to designate and carry out the work needed to clear the Danube arms, starting from Isaccea and the parts of the sea adjacent to them, from sand and other obstacles blocking them, so that this part of the river and the mentioned parts of the sea become completely convenient for navigation. In order to cover the costs necessary both for these works, and for establishments with the aim of facilitating and ensuring navigation along the Danube arms, constant duties on ships, commensurate with need, will be established, which must be determined by the commission by a majority of votes and with an indispensable condition, that in this respect and in all others there will be perfect equality with respect to the flags of all nations.

ARTICLE XVII
A commission will also be set up of members from Austria, Bavaria, the Sublime Porte and Wirtemberg (one from each of these powers); they will be joined by the commissioners of the three Danubian principalities, appointed with the approval of the Porte. This commission, which should be permanent, has: 1) to draw up rules for river navigation and river police; 2) to remove all any kind of obstacles that the application of the provisions of the Treaty of Vienna to the Danube still encounters; 3) to propose and carry out the necessary work along the entire course of the Danube; 4) after the abolition of the general intended Article XVI of the European Commission, to supervise the maintenance of the Danube arms and parts of the sea adjacent to them in a proper condition for navigation.

ARTICLE XVIII
The common European Commission must fulfill everything entrusted to it, and the coastal commission must bring to completion all the work indicated in the previous article, under Nos. 1 and 2, within two years. Upon receipt of the news, the Powers that have concluded this treaty will decide on the abolition of the common European Commission, and from now on, the permanent coastal commission will be transferred to the power that hitherto has been vested in the common European.

ARTICLE XIX
In order to ensure the implementation of the rules, which will be decided by common consent on the basis of the above principles, each of the contracting powers will have the right to maintain at any time two light seagoing ships at the mouths of the Danube.

ARTICLE XX
Instead of the cities, ports and lands referred to in Article 4 of this treatise, and in order to further ensure the freedom of navigation on the Danube, E.V. The All-Russian Emperor agrees to draw a new boundary line in Bessarabia. The beginning of this boundary line is a point on the Black Sea coast at a distance of one kilometer east of the salt lake Burnas; it will adjoin perpendicularly to the Akerman road, along which it will follow to the Trayanov Val, go south of Bolgrad and then up the Yalpukha River to the height of Saratsik and to Katamori on the Prut. From this point up the river, the former frontier between the two empires remains unchanged. The new boundary line must be marked in detail by the commissars of the contracting powers.

ARTICLE XXI
The expanse of land ceded by Russia will be annexed to the Principality of Moldavia under the supreme authority of the Sublime Porte. Those who live in this space will enjoy the rights and privileges assigned to the Principalities, and within three years they will be allowed to move to other places and freely dispose of their property.

ARTICLE XXII
The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia will, under the supreme authority of the Porte and with the guarantee of the contracting powers, enjoy the advantages and privileges that they enjoy today. None of the sponsoring powers is granted exclusive protection over them. No special right to interfere in their internal affairs is allowed.

ARTICLE XXIII
The Sublime Porte undertakes to leave in these Principalities an independent and national government, as well as complete freedom of religion, legislation, trade and navigation. The laws and statutes currently in force will be reviewed. For a full agreement on this revision, a special commission will be appointed, the composition of which the High Contracting Powers may agree on, this commission shall meet without delay in Bucharest; with it will be the commissioner of the Sublime Porte. This commission has to investigate the present state of the Principalities and propose the grounds for their future structure.

ARTICLE XXIV
E.V. The Sultan promises to immediately convene in each of the two regions a special divan, which should be arranged in such a way that it can serve as a faithful representative of the benefits of all classes of society. These sofas will be instructed to express the desires of the population regarding the final arrangement of the principalities. The relationship of the commission to these sofas will be determined by a special instruction from the congress.

ARTICLE XXV
Having taken the opinion which will be presented by both divans into due consideration, the commission will immediately communicate to the present seat of the conferences the results of its own labor. The final agreement with the sovereign power over the Principalities must be confirmed by a convention to be concluded by the high contracting parties in Paris, and Hati Sherif, agreeing with the provisions of the convention, the final arrangement of these areas will be given with the common guarantee of all signatory powers.

ARTICLE XXVI
The Principalities will have a national armed force to guard internal security and ensure the security of the borders. No obstacles will be allowed in case of emergency measures of defense, which, with the consent of the Sublime Porte, can be adopted in the Principalities to repel an invasion from outside.

ARTICLE XXVII
Should the internal tranquility of the Principalities be endangered or disturbed, the Sublime Porte will enter into an agreement with the other contracting Powers on the measures necessary to preserve or restore lawful order. Without prior agreement between these powers there can be no armed intervention.

ARTICLE XXVIII
The Principality of Serbia remains, as before, under the supreme authority of the Sublime Porte, in accordance with the imperial Hati-Sheriffs, who affirm and determine the rights and advantages of it, with the common joint guarantee of the contracting powers. In consequence of this, the said Principality will retain its independent and national government and full freedom of religion, legislation, trade and navigation.

ARTICLE XXIX
The Brilliant Porte retains the right to maintain a garrison, determined by previous decrees. Without prior agreement between the High Contracting Powers, no armed intervention in Serbia can be allowed.

ARTICLE XXX
E.V. emperor of all Russia and E.V. Sultans keep intact their possessions in Asia, in the composition in which they were legally located before the break. In order to avoid any local disputes, the frontier lines will be verified and, if necessary, corrected, but in such a way that no damage to the landed property can occur either for one or the other side. To this end, immediately after the restoration of diplomatic relations between the Russian court and the Sublime Porte, sent
there will be a commission composed of two Russian commissars, two Ottoman commissars, one French commissar and one English commissar. It shall carry out the work entrusted to it within a period of eight months, counting from the date of the exchange of ratifications of the present treatise.

ARTICLE XXXI
Lands occupied during the war by the troops of Their Majesties the Emperor of Austria, the Emperor of the French, the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and the King of Sardinia, on the basis of conventions signed at Constantinople on March 12, 1854 between France, Great Britain and the Sublime Porte, on June 14 of the same year between Sublime Porte and Austria, and on March 15, 1855, between Sardinia and the Sublime Porte, shall be purged, after the exchange of ratifications of this Treaty, as soon as possible. To determine the timing and means of fulfilling this, an agreement should follow between the Sublime Porte and the powers, whose troops occupied the lands of its possessions.

ARTICLE XXXII
Until the treaties or conventions that existed before the war between the belligerent powers are renewed or replaced by new acts, mutual trade, both imported and exported, must be carried out on the basis of regulations that were in force and effect before the war, and with the subjects of these powers in all in other respects it will be done on a par with the most favored nations.

ARTICLE XXXIII
The convention concluded on this date between E.V. Emperor of All Russia on the one hand, and Their Majesties the Emperor of the French and the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, on the other hand, with respect to the Åland Islands, is attached and remains attached to this treatise and will have the same force and effect as if it constituted an inseparable part of it.

ARTICLE XXXIV
The present treatise shall be ratified, and the ratifications thereof shall be exchanged in Paris, within four weeks, and, if possible, before. To assure what, etc.

In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.
SIGNED:
Orlov [Russia]
Brunnov [Russia]
Buol-Schauenstein [Austria]
Gübner [Austria]
A. Valevsky [France]
Bourquenay [France]
Clarendon [UK]
Cowley [UK]
Manteuffel [Prussia]
Gatzfeldt [Prussia]
C. Cavour [Sardinia]
De Villamarina [Sardinia]
Aali [Turkey]
Megemed Cemil [Turkey]

ARTICLE ADDITIONAL AND TEMPORARY
The provisions of the Straits Convention signed this day will not apply to warships which the belligerent powers will use to withdraw their troops by sea from the lands they occupy. These decrees will come into full force as soon as this withdrawal of troops is brought to an end. In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.
SIGNED:
Orlov [Russia]
Brunnov [Russia]
Buol-Schauenstein [Austria]
Gübner [Austria]
A. Valevsky [France]
Bourquenay [France]
Clarendon [UK]
Cowley [UK]
Manteuffel [Prussia]
Gatzfeldt [Prussia]
C. Cavour [Sardinia]
De Villamarina [Sardinia]
Aali [Turkey]
Megemed Cemil [Turkey]

This history is old, it is already more than a century and a half, but the geographical names and countries, the mention of which is inevitable in the presentation of its plot, evoke certain associations with modernity. Crimea, Turkey, Russia, France, Britain - these are the scenery for the dramatic events that developed in the middle of the 19th century. All wars end in peace, even the longest and bloodiest. Another question is to what extent its conditions are beneficial to some countries and humiliating to others. The Peace of Paris was the result of the Crimean War, which was waged against Russia by the combined troops of France, Great Britain and Turkey.

Pre-war situation

In the middle of the century Europe experienced a serious crisis. inside Austria and Prussia could lead to the disintegration of these states, the displacement of borders and the collapse of the ruling dynasties. The Russian tsar sent an army to help the Austrian emperor, which stabilized the situation. It seemed that peace would come for a long time, but it turned out differently.

Revolutionary movements arose in Wallachia and Moldavia. After the entry of Russian and Turkish troops into these areas, a number of controversial issues arose regarding the boundaries of the protectorates, the rights of religious communities and Holy places, which ultimately meant a conflict regarding the spheres of influence of the powers adjacent to the Black Sea basin. In addition to the main countries directly interested, other states were drawn into it, not wanting to lose their geopolitical benefits - France, Britain and Prussia (which quickly forgot about gratitude for the miraculous salvation of their monarch). The Russian delegation headed by Prince. Menshikov did not show the necessary degree of diplomacy, put forward ultimatum demands and, without achieving a result, left Constantinople. In early June, forty thousandth Russian corps invaded the Danubian principalities. In autumn, the fleets of France and Britain led their warships through the Dardanelles, providing military assistance to Turkey. On November 30, a squadron under the command of Ushakov launched a preemptive strike against the Turkish naval forces in Sinop, and the Western powers intervened directly in the conflict, which came as a surprise to Nicholas I. Contrary to expectations, it turned out to be well prepared. In 1854 the Crimean War began.

War

It seemed risky to the Western powers to wage a land war with Russia (the Napoleonic campaign was still fresh in their memory), and the strategic plan was to strike at the most vulnerable place - in the Crimea, using the advantage of the naval forces. The poorly developed link between the peninsula and the central provinces played into the hands of the Anglo-French-Turkish coalition, which made it difficult to supply troops and supply reinforcements. Yevpatoria became the landing site, then there was a serious clash on it. It turned out that the Russian troops were not sufficiently prepared for war both in terms of weapons and in terms of training. They had to retreat to Sevastopol, the siege of which lasted a year. In the face of a lack of ammunition, food and other resources, the Russian command managed to establish the defense of the city, to build fortifications in a short time (initially there were almost none on land). Meanwhile, the forces of the Western Allies were suffering from disease and daring sorties by the defenders of Sevastopol. As the participants in the negotiations later noted, the signing of the Peace of Paris took place with the invisible participation of the city that died heroically during the defense.

Peace terms

Ultimately, Russia suffered a military defeat. In 1855, during the defense of Sevastopol, Emperor Nicholas I died, and Alexander II inherited the throne. The new autocrat understood that the fighting, despite the brilliant successes in the Asian theater, was developing unfavorably for Russia. The death of Kornilov and Nakhimov actually beheaded the command, further holding the city became problematic. In 1856, Sevastopol was occupied by the troops of the Western coalition. The leaders of Britain, France and Turkey drew up a draft agreement consisting of four points, which was accepted by Alexander II. The treaty itself, called the Peace of Paris, was signed on March 30, 1856. It should be noted that the victorious countries, exhausted by a long military campaign, very costly and bloody, took care of the acceptability of his points for Russia. This was facilitated by the victorious actions of our army in the Asian theater, in particular, the successful assault on the fortress of Kare. The terms of the Peace of Paris primarily affected relations with Turkey, which undertook to ensure the rights of the Christian population on its territory, the neutrality of the Black Sea area, the retreat in its favor of two hundred square miles of territory and the inviolability of its borders.

Peaceful Black Sea

At first glance, the just demand for the demilitarization of the Black Sea coast in order to avoid further conflicts between countries actually contributed to the strengthening of Turkey's position in the region, since the Ottoman Empire reserved the right to have fleets in the Mediterranean and Marmara Seas. The peace of Paris also included an annex (convention) concerning the straits through which foreign warships were not to pass in peacetime.

End of the terms of the Peace of Paris

Any military defeat leads to limited opportunities for the defeated side. The Peace of Paris changed the balance of power in Europe for a long time, which had developed after the signing of the Vienna Treaty (1815), and not in favor of Russia. The war as a whole revealed many shortcomings and vices in the organization of army and navy construction, which prompted the Russian leadership to carry out a number of reforms. After another, this time victorious, Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878), all restrictions on sovereignty and territorial losses were leveled. Thus ended the Treaty of Paris. The year 1878 became the date of the signing of the Berlin Treaty, which restored Russia's regional dominance in the Black Sea.

The fall of Sevastopol determined the outcome of the war. England was ready to continue hostilities, but France preferred to end them. Negotiations between the European coalition and Russia began as early as 1854, after the cleansing of the Danubian principalities, but did not lead to any agreement and resumed after the fall of Sevastopol and the death of Nicholas I. The new tsar, Alexander II, still hoped for an improvement in the military situation and hesitated to make peace on the terms set by the allies. At the end of 1855, Austria demanded that Russia accept these conditions, threatening military action in case of refusal.

The tsar convened a meeting of senior dignitaries to discuss the Austrian ultimatum. It was impossible to fight further against the powerful European coalition, given the military and economic backwardness of Russia that was revealed. The losses of manpower were enormous: during the defense of Sevastopol alone, 102,000 killed and wounded left the Russian army. Tens of thousands of soldiers lay in hospitals, decimated by a typhoid epidemic. The ministers told the tsar about the depletion of the state treasury, about the possible loss of new territories, about the growing internal ferment. Russia informed the powers of its consent to accept the proposed conditions, and on February 13 (25), 1856, meetings of the peace congress began in Paris with the participation of representatives of the interested powers.

England and Austria made a number of annexationist demands. France took on the role of "conciliator", wanting not to strengthen Britain too much and, just in case, enlist Russian support against its own allies. Taking advantage of the contradictions between England and France, Russian diplomacy achieved some success and managed to ease the conditions for peace. As a result of lengthy negotiations, on March 18 (30), 1856, the powers signed the Treaty of Paris on the following grounds: 1) all conquered regions and cities were returned back to Turkey and Russia (thus, Sevastopol and other Russian cities were “exchanged” for Kare returned to Turkey ); 2) the independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire was ensured by the combined guarantee of all powers; 3) The Black Sea was declared neutral, that is, open to merchant ships of all nations, and inaccessible to the navy of both coastal and other powers (due to this condition, Russia lost the right to have a navy and coastal naval arsenals on the Black Sea) ; 4) the southern part of Bessarabia went to Moldova; 5) Serbia, Moldavia and Wallachia were placed under the supreme authority of the Sultan and the guarantee of the contracting powers; 6) patronage of Turkish Christians passed into the hands of all the great powers. By a special convention on the straits, it was established that the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus are closed to the passage of military ships of all foreign states.

[…]ARTICLE III

E. in. the emperor of all Russia undertakes to return e.v. to the sultan the city of Kars with its citadel, as well as other parts of the Ottoman possessions occupied by Russian troops. […]

The Black Sea is declared neutral: open to the merchant navigation of all peoples, the entrance to the ports and waters of it is formally and forever forbidden to warships, both coastal and all other powers, with those only exceptions, which are decided in Articles XIV and XIX of this Treaty. […]

ARTICLE XIII

Due to the declaration of the Black Sea as neutral on the basis of Article XI, it cannot be necessary to maintain or establish naval arsenals on the shores of it, as having no purpose, and therefore E.V. Emperor of All Russia and H.I.V. Sultans undertake not to start or leave any naval arsenal on these shores.

ARTICLE XIV

Their Majesties the All-Russian Emperor and the Sultan concluded a special convention determining the number and strength of light ships that they allow themselves to maintain in the Black Sea for the necessary orders along the coast. This convention is appended to this treatise and will have the same force and effect as if it were an integral part of it. It may neither be destroyed nor altered without the consent of the Powers which have concluded

real treatise. […]

ARTICLE XXI

The expanse of land ceded by Russia will be annexed to the Principality of Moldavia under the supreme authority of the Sublime Porte. […]

ARTICLE XXII

The principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia will, under the supreme authority of the Porte and with the guarantee of the contracting powers, enjoy the advantages and privileges that they enjoy today. None of the sponsoring powers is granted exclusive protection over them. No special right to interfere in their internal affairs is allowed. […]

ARTICLE XXVIII

The Principality of Serbia remains, as before, under the supreme authority of the Sublime Porte, in accordance with the imperial Hati-Sheriffs, who affirm and determine the rights and advantages of it, with the common joint guarantee of the contracting powers. In consequence of this, the said Principality will retain its independent and national government and full freedom of religion, legislation, trade and navigation. […]

ARTICLE ADDITIONAL AND TEMPORARY

The provisions of the Straits Convention signed this day will not apply to warships which the belligerent powers will use to withdraw their troops by sea from the lands they occupy. These decrees will come into full force as soon as this withdrawal of troops is brought to an end. In Paris, on the 30th day of March 1856.

Treaty of Paris Paris, March 18/30, 1856 // Collection of treaties between Russia and other states. 1856-1917. M., 1952. http://www.hist.msu.ru/ER/Etext/FOREIGN/paris.htm

THE STRUGGLE OF PRINCE GORCHAKOV FOR THE REVISION OF THE ARTICLES OF THE PARIS WORLD

Immediately after the end of the Crimean War, Prince Gorchakov promised the tsar to cancel the articles of the Paris Treaty of 1856, which were humiliating for Russia, by means of diplomacy. Needless to say, Alexander II was impressed by this development of events, and Gorchakov first became head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, then vice-chancellor. On June 15, 1867, on the fiftieth anniversary of his diplomatic service, Alexander Mikhailovich Gorchakov was appointed State Chancellor of the Russian Empire.

Gorchakov's phrase - "Russia is not angry, Russia is concentrating" - has become a textbook. Every author who writes about Russia in the 1960s leads her to a place and out of place. 19th century But, alas, no one explains why this phrase, taken out of context by our historians, was said.

In fact, on August 21, 1856, Gorchakov’s circular was sent to all Russian embassies abroad, stating: “Russia is reproached for being alone and keeping silent in view of phenomena that do not agree with either law or justice. They say Russia is pouting. No, Russia does not pout, but concentrates itself (La Russie boude, dit-on. La Russie se recueille). As for the silence we are accused of, we might recall that until recently an artificial coalition was organized against us, because our voice was raised every time we considered it necessary to maintain the right. This activity, saving for many governments, but from which Russia did not derive any benefit for itself, served only as a pretext for accusing us of God knows what plans for world domination. ”[…]

The fact is that after the conclusion of the Peace of Paris, a number of states began to prepare for the redrawing of borders in Europe, determined by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the states that were afraid of redrawing the borders began to turn to Russia for help.

Gorchakov formulated his policy more clearly in a conversation with the Russian ambassador in Paris, P. D. Kiselev. He stated that he was “looking for a person who would help him destroy the paragraphs of the Paris Treaty concerning the Black Sea Fleet and the border of Bessarabia, that he is looking for him and will find”

Shirokorad A. B. Russia - England: an unknown war, 1857-1907. M., 2003 http://militera.lib.ru/h/shirokorad_ab2/06.html

END OF THE PARIS TREATET

In 1870, the hateful Treaty of Paris dealt the first blow. Taking advantage of the Franco-German war, Gorchakov annulled that humiliating article of his that forbade Russia to maintain a fleet on the Black Sea. However, we did not think to benefit from this profitable turn of affairs. Seven years were lost in vain, and by 1877 we were still without a fleet, which had the most unfavorable effect on the course of the war with Turkey. The fleet is an unmistakable criterion of the great power of a given country, an expression of its specific weight in a number of world powers. A cursory review of the shipbuilding program always gives more than a painstaking analysis of the diplomatic archives. In 1878, the territorial definitions of the Treaty of Paris were abolished by the Congress of Berlin. Russia acquired Kars and Batum and returned southern Bessarabia, though at the cost of cruel diplomatic humiliation, humiliation all the more because she was the victor.