West Slavic languages

West Slavic languages ​​are a group within the Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Distributed in Central and Eastern Europe (in Czechoslovakia, Poland, partly in Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Germany [Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian languages ​​\u200b\u200bis in the vicinity of Bautzen (Budishin), Cottbus and Dresden]. Z. carriers also live in territories of America (USA, Canada), Australia and Europe (Austria, Hungary, France, Yugoslavia, etc.) The total number of speakers is over 60 million people.

The West Slavic languages ​​are:

• § Lechitic subgroup
• § Kashubian
• § Polabian †
• § Polish
• § Silesian (in Poland, officially the Silesian language is considered a dialect of Polish or transitional dialects between Polish and Czech. According to 2002 data, 60,000 people in Poland called the Silesian language their native language. The language does not have its own literary tradition, although it was distinguished as a special one by the Slavists of the 19th century)
• § Sloven †
• § Lusatian subgroup (Serbian Lusatian)
• § Upper Lusatian
• § Lower Lusatian
• § Czecho-Slovak subgroup
• § Slovak
• § Czech
• § knanite †

The most common West Slavic languages ​​are Polish (35 million), Czech (9.5 million) and Slovak (4.5 million). A small population of Kashubians lives in Poland. Polabian is now a dead language. It is restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of live speech of the 17th-18th centuries.

In Z. I. 3 subgroups are distinguished: Lechit, Czech-Slovak, Serb-Lusatian, differences between which appeared in the late Proto-Slavic era. From the Lechitic subgroup, which included Polish, Polabian, Kashubian, and earlier other tribal languages, the Polish language was preserved with the Kashubian dialect, which retained a certain genetic independence.

Z. i. differ from the East Slavic and South Slavic languages ​​in a number of features that developed in the Proto-Slavic period:

preservation of the consonant group kv", gv" before the vowels i, "e, "a (‹м) in accordance with cv, zv in the South Slavic and West Slavic languages: Polsk. kwiat, gwiazda; Czech kvmt, hvmzda; Slovak kvet, hviezda; lower puddle kwmt, gwmzda; upper puddle kwmt, hwmzda (cf. Russian “color”, “star”, etc.).

Preservation of unsimplified consonant groups tl, dl in accordance with l in the languages ​​of other Slavic groups: Polsk. pluti, mydio; Czech pletl, madlo; Slovak plietol, mydlo; lower puddle pleti, mydio; upper puddle pleti, mydio; (cf. Russian “weave”, “soap”).

The consonants c, dz (or z) in place of the Proto-Slavic *tj, *dj, *ktj, *kti, which in other Slavic languages ​​correspond to the consonants and, ћ, љt, dj, ћd, zh: Polsk. њwieca, sadzazh; Czech svnce, sbzet; Slovak svieca, sádzaќ; lower puddle swmca, sajşazh; upper puddle swmca, sadşezh (cf. Russian “candle”, “plant”).

The presence of the consonant љ in those cases, which in the languages ​​of other Slavic groups correspond to s or њ (with analogous formations ch): Polsk. wszak, musze (Dat. Prop. from mucha); Czech vљak, mouљe; Slovak vřak, muře; lower puddle vљako, muљe; upper puddle vřak, muře [cf. Russian "anyone", "fly"; Ukrainian "everyone", "musi" (= fly)].

Absence of epenthetic l after labials in the non-initial position of the word (from the combination of labial + j): Pol. ziemia, cupiony; Czech zemm, koupm; Slovak zem, kъpenе; lower puddle zemja, kupju; upper puddle zemja, kupju (cf. Russian "land", "purchase").

In the history of the development of Z. I. there were changes common to the whole group:

contraction of groups of vowels into one long with the loss of intervocalic j and the assimilation of vowels in inflections and in roots: Czech. dobre

In Z. I. a fixed stress was established either on the first (Czech, Slovak, Lusatian languages), or on the penultimate syllable (Polish, some Czech dialects). In the Kashubian dialect, the stress is different.

For most of Z. I. and dialects are characterized by the same change in strong reduced ъ and ь > e: Czech. sen

The main differences between individual Z. Ya. that arose during the historical period of their development: the different fate of nasal vowels, the sound m (yat), long and short vowels; the proto-Slavic consonant g in Czech, Slovak and Lusatian has changed to h (glottal, fricative), the differences also relate to the category of hardness / softness of consonants. In the system of nominal declension of all Z. I. Common Slavic processes took place: a regrouping of declension types on the basis of grammatical gender, the loss of some former types (mainly stems to consonants), the mutual influence of case inflections within the paradigm, the re-decomposition of stems, the emergence of new endings. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, the influence of the feminine gender is more limited. The Czech language has preserved the most archaic declension system. All Z. i. (except Lusatian) have lost their dual form. The category of animation (Czech, Slovak) and the specific category of personality (Polish, Upper Lusatian) developed and received morphological expression. Short forms of adjectives have disappeared (Slovak, Upper Lusatian) or have been preserved to a limited extent (Czech, Polish).

The verb is characterized by the transition of non-productive conjugation classes to productive ones (cf. Czech siesti > sednouti), the loss (except for Lusatian languages) of simple past tenses (aorist and imperfect), in some languages ​​and pluperfect (Czech, partly Polish). The Slovak language experienced the most significant changes in the conjugation of the present forms of the verb, where all verbs in the present tense have one system of endings.

Syntactic features are due in part to the influence of Latin and German. In contrast to the East Slavic languages, modal verbs are used more often, reflexive forms of verbs in an indefinitely personal and generalized personal meaning such as Czech. Jak se jde? "How to get there?" etc.

The vocabulary reflected Latin and German influence, in Slovak - Czech and Hungarian. Influence of the Russian language, significant in the 18th-19th centuries, especially intensified after World War II.

In the early feudal period as a written language the Western Slavs used Latin. The most ancient literary language of the Slavs is the Old Slavonic language, which arose in the 9th century. The first Czech monuments proper belong to the end of the 13th century; Modern Z. I. use Latin script.

The most common West Slavic languages ​​are Polish (35 million), Czech (9.5 million) and Slovak (4.5 million). A small population of Kashubians lives in Poland. Polabian is now a dead language. It is restored on the basis of individual words and local names found in Latin and German documents, in small recordings of live speech of the 17th-18th centuries.

The Lusatian languages ​​have survived as small islands in Germany. There are about 150,000 Lusatians. They have their own schools, their own press, and the University of Berlin has a Slavic department.

Lechitic subgroup

Kashumbi language (alternative names: Pomeranian language, Pomeranian language; Kashubian kaszlbsczi jgzlk, ptmtrsczi jgzlk, kaszlbskf mtwa, kaszlbskt-sіowiсskf mtwa) is a West Slavic language of the Lechit subgroup, widespread west and south of Gdansk. Currently, about 50 thousand people speak the Kashubian language in everyday life, about 150 thousand people are familiar with it.

The closest language to Kashubian is Polish, with which Kashubian shares most of its core vocabulary. Kashubian also experienced a significant influence of Polish on its grammar and word formation. The main differences from Polish are borrowings from Old Prussian and German (about 5% of the vocabulary from the latter), as well as the omission of vowels in syllables without stress and other stress rules, which, however, are also heterogeneous in Kashubian itself. While in the south the stress always falls on the first syllable, in the north the stress can vary.

Pomlian (jкzyk polski, polszczyzna) is the language of Poles and is native to about 40 million people in many countries of the world, including about 38 million people in the Republic of Poland. About 5-10 million more people speak Polish as a second and foreign language.

Polish dialects include:

• § Wielkopolska dialect, occupies the territory of Wielkopolska, Krayna and Tucholskie Hogs. The basis of this dialect was the tribal dialect of the glades.
• § Malopolska dialect, occupies the territory of Malopolska, Podkarpackie, Swietokrzyski and Lubelskie voivodeships. It was based on the Vistula dialect.
• § The Masovian dialect occupies the eastern and central part of Poland. It was formed on the basis of the dialect of the Mazovshan tribe.
• § The Silesian dialect, widespread in the territory of Upper Silesia, is a continuation of the development of the dialect of the Slenzan tribe.

Polambian is an extinct West Slavic language. The native language of the Polabian Slavs, assimilated by the Germans by the beginning of the 19th century.

The Polabian language was closest to Polish and, together with it, Kashubian and the extinct Slovenian.

The name of the language comes from the Slavic name of the Elbe River (Polish Јaba, Czech Labe, etc.). Other names: woody-polabsky, Vendian. Accordingly, the Slavic tribe that spoke it was called the Polabian Slavs, the Drevyans (Drevans) or the Wends (the Wends are the German name for all the Slavs of Germany). The language was widespread until the first half of the 18th century on the left bank of the Elbe in the Lünenburg principality (now the Luchow-Dannenberg district of Lower Saxony), where monuments of this language were recorded, and earlier also in the north of modern Germany (Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Schleswig, Fr. Rügen).

In the south, the area of ​​the Polabian language bordered on the Lusatian languages, which were widespread in the southern part of modern eastern Germany.

In the 17th century, the Polabian language becomes socially unprestigious, the “Vends” hide or do not advertise their origin and switch to German, including being subjected to forcible Germanization. By 1725, there are data on a family of native speakers, in which the younger generation no longer knew Polabian. The last entry was made around 1750. In 1790, Johann Jugler, the compiler of the first composite Polabian dictionary, was looking for people who would understand at least a little Polabian, but he could no longer find anyone.

The Slovenian (Slovenian) language is a West Slavic idiom of the Lechit subgroup, which became extinct in the 20th century. It is considered by some authors as an independent language, by others as a dialect of Kashubian or (which do not single out Kashubian in turn) Polish. There is a use of the term "Pomeranian (Pomeranian) language", combining Kashubian and Slovene. It was spoken by the Slovenes, first ethnographically described by A.F. Hilferding in 1856 and lived northwest of the Kashubians, between Lake Lebsko and Lake Gardno.

In the 17th - 19th centuries, the Slovene language/dialect was used even in church sermons, but after the unification of Germany in 1871, it began to be completely supplanted by the German language. By the beginning of the 20th century, no more than a few hundred speakers remained, and all of them also spoke German.

After 1945, the Slovinians, Protestants (from the 16th century) who already spoke mainly German, were considered by the Polish government as Germans and were mostly expelled to Germany or then left Poland of their own free will, settling in the FRG (many in area of ​​Hamburg). There they finally assimilated. Some old people who remained in Poland remembered Slovene words back in the 1950s.

Lumzhitsky languages, Serbolumzhitsky languages: (obsolete name - Serbian) - the languages ​​​​of the Lusatians, one of the national minorities in Germany.

They belong to the Slavic group of languages. The total number of speakers is about 60,000, of which about 40,000 live in Saxony and about 20,000 in Brandenburg. In the area where the Lusatian language is spoken, tables with the names of cities and streets are often bilingual.

There are two written languages, which in turn consist of several dialects: Upper Lusatian (in Upper Lusatia) and Lower Lusatian (in Lower Lusatia).

The number of speakers of the Lusatian languages ​​in everyday life is much lower than the above figures. In contrast to the rather stable Upper Lusatian language, the Lower Lusatian language is on the verge of extinction.

Slovak language West Slavic ethnic

Czecho-Slovak subgroup

Chemsh language (self-name - ieљtina, ieske jazyk) - total number of speakers - 12 million. Latin (Czech alphabet)

The Czech language is divided into several dialects, the speakers of which generally understand each other. At present, under the influence of the literary language, the boundaries between dialects are being erased. Czech dialects are divided into 4 groups:

• § Czech dialects (with colloquial Czech as Koine)
• § Central Moravian group of dialects (Hanacian);
• § East Moravian group of dialects (Moravian-Slovak);
• § Silesian dialects.

The frontier lands, formerly inhabited by Sudeten Germans, cannot be attributed to one dialect due to the heterogeneity of the population.

As in many related languages ​​that have developed independently for a long time, similar-sounding Czech and Russian words often have different and even opposite meanings (for example, ierstve - fresh; pozor - attention; mmsto - city; hrad - castle; ovoce - - fruits; rodina - family; and others, the so-called false friends of the translator).

Slovak language (Slovak. slovenіina, slovenske jazyk) - the total number of speakers is 6 million. The Slovak language is very close to the Czech language.

The standardization of the Slovak language began at the end of the 18th century. Then the book of Anton Bernolak "Dissertatio philologico-critica de litteris Slavorum" was published with the appendix "Orthographia" (1787). This literary language was based on Western Slovak dialects. The modern literary Slovak language, which is based on the Middle Slovak language features, arose in the middle of the 19th century thanks to the efforts of the Slovak patriots Ludovit Stuhr, Michal Miloslav Godzha, Josef Miloslav Gurban and others. The science of the Slovak language) and “Nbreija slovenskuo alebo potreba pnsatja v tomto nbrein” (Slovak dialect or the need to write in this dialect) and proceeded primarily from the speech of the intelligentsia of the Middle Slovak city of Liptovsky Mikulas and was characterized by a strong phonological principle of spelling, the absence of a soft “ л" ("ѕ") and a long vowel "й" with the exception of the word "dcйra" (daughter) and other language features that are in the modern version of the Slovak language. In 1851, at a meeting of Slovak intellectuals, a reformed version of the Stuhr codification was adopted, the author of which was the linguist Milan Gattala (we are talking about the so-called "Godzhian-Gattala reform"). This variant is the basis of today's literary Slovak language. Important moments in the history of the further standardization of the Slovak language are the publication of the spelling in 1931 and 1953. and the development of terminology in the interwar and above all postwar period.

The Hungarian authorities during the existence of Austria-Hungary persecuted the literary Slovak language, while promoting the less common East Slovak dialect.

Jewish-Slavic dialects (Knaanit, Qna`anith) is the conventional name for several dialects and registers of Slavic languages ​​spoken by Jews who lived in the Middle Ages in Slavic countries. All known Jewish-Slavic dialects were supplanted by Yiddish or the surrounding Slavic languages ​​by the end of the Middle Ages.

The most famous is the Jewish-Czech variant of the Old Czech language, which was spoken by Bohemian and Moravian Jews before the mass influx of Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews from Germany and then the resettlement of both of them to the east and northeast within the boundaries of the Commonwealth. However, nothing is known about its differences from the language of the surrounding population. Most likely, as in the case of other medieval Jewish languages ​​of Europe, the differences were minimal and limited to the inclusion of Hebrew and Aramaic words and the use of the Hebrew alphabet.

The name Knaanite (English Knaanic) is associated with the designation of the Slavic countries by the term Qna`an (ancient Hebrew lrtp, from ancient times designating Palestine - Canaan), found in Jewish texts (for example, Benjamin from Tudela in the 12th century calls Kievan Rus " Land of Canaan). The reason for this identification is unknown.

Polabian	Polish	Kashubian	Upper Lusatian	lower lusatian		Ukrainian	Belorussian
						man, man
prenja zaima, jisin
						fire, fire	fire, fire
							wind, windmill

Subgroups

Separation time

A number of researchers, in addition to the languages ​​mentioned above, distinguish now extinct languages ​​that in the past occupied an intermediate position between South Slavic and West Slavic (Pannonian Slavic), as well as between South Slavic and East Slavic languages ​​(Dakoslavic).

Origin

The Slavic languages ​​within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of " Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first separated from the Indo-European proto-language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. For a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages ​​took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states on the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. During this period, the territory of Slavic settlements increased significantly. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the inhabitants of these territories, who stood at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

Separation time

Gray and Atkinson

Atkinson and Gray performed a statistical analysis of cognate words in 103 living and dead Indo-European languages ​​(out of about 150 known) using a lexico-statistical database (created from Swadesh lists by Isidore Dayen) and additional information.

And the Slavic linguistic unity, according to the results of their research, broke up 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. The Balto-Slavic linguistic unity broke up 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

The methods and results of Gray and Atkinson have been heavily criticized from various quarters.

Chang, Cathcart, Hall and Garrett

Kasyan, Dybo

In September 2015, A. S. Kasyan and A. V. Dybo, as part of an interdisciplinary study on Slavic ethnogenesis, published a lexico-statistical classification of Slavic languages, built on high-quality 110-word Swadesh lists, collected according to the Global Lexicostatistical Database project standard » and processed by modern phylogenetic algorithms.

The resulting dated tree is in agreement with the traditional Slavic point of view on the structure of the Slavic group. The tree suggests the first division of the Proto-Slavic language into three branches: eastern, western and southern. The moment of collapse is dated to ca. 100 AD e., this is consistent with the opinion of archaeologists that at the beginning of the 1st millennium AD. e. the Slavic population occupied a rather vast territory and was no longer monolithic. Further, in the V-VI centuries. n. e., three Slavic branches are almost synchronously divided into more fractional taxa, which corresponds to the rapid spread of the Slavs in Eastern Europe and the Balkans in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD. e. (Slavicization of Europe).

The Slovene language was excluded from the analysis, since Ljubljana Koine and Literary Slovene show a mixture of South Slavic and West Slavic lexical features (presumably this may indicate the original West Slavic attribution of the Slovene language, which has been influenced by neighboring Serbo-Croatian dialects for a long time), and qualitative Swadeshevic lists for Slovene dialects were not collected at that time. Due to the lack or unreliability of lexical data, the study did not cover the so-called. Old Novgorod dialect, Polab language and some other Slavic idioms.

History of development

In the early period of the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants developed, consonantism became much simpler, the stage of reduction became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey the ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the satem group (sürdce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: Eastern, Western and Southern. From them, the corresponding languages ​​were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. There were 3 subgroups in the West Slavic group: Lechitic, Lusatian Serb and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period in the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes took place during the period of early feudalism. In the XII-XIII centuries, there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the ultra-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. In some cases they disappeared, in others they turned into full vowels. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity is lost, at the same time in Czech and Slovak languages ​​(excluding North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in Slovene these differences persist. In the Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, nasal vowels are preserved, which are lost in other Slavic languages ​​(nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovenian language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the respective languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages ​​are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages ​​can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). Due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages ​​of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n', in Slovak - t - t', d - d', n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect due to assimilation t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as hardening l', as a rule, only one pair is presented n - n', in a number of Western Slovak dialects (Povazhsky, Trnavsky, Zagorsky) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - from the old paired soft consonants, only n' (< *nj), l' (< *lj) have not undergone hardening (primarily in the Serbo-Croatian area).

Stress in Slavic languages ​​is realized in different ways. In most Slavic languages ​​(except Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress has been replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the extinct Polabian language also had a mobile stress). In the Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in the Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. In a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress has formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the Polish literary language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern Kashubian dialect, and also in the Lemko dialect. The first syllable is stressed in the Czech and Slovak literary languages ​​and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, and also in some Goral dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect. In Macedonian, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In the Slovenian and Serbo-Croatian languages, the stress is polytonic, multi-local, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different in dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but is assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

Slavic languages ​​received their first literary processing in the 60s. ninth century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavonic for the needs of Great Moravia. At its core, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it adopted many local linguistic features. It was later developed further in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called Old Church Slavonic) the richest original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, in Russia, in Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From IX century. Slavic texts have not been preserved. The most ancient date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuil of 993, the Varosh inscription of 996 and others. Starting from c. more Slavic monuments have been preserved.

Similarities and differences of Slavic languages

Due to historical reasons, the Slavic languages ​​managed to maintain a significant similarity with respect to each other. At the same time, almost each of them has a number of unique features.

	Eastern group			Western group			Southern group
	Russian	Ukrainian	Belorussian	Polish	Slovak	Czech	Serbo-Croatian	Bulgarian	Macedonian	Slovenian
Number of carriers	250	45	6,4	40	5,2	9,5	21	8,5	2	2,2
Nearest	Belorussian	Ukrainian	Kashubian	Czech	Slovak	Serbo-Croatian	Macedonian	Bulgarian	Slovenian
Writing	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	latin	latin	latin	Cyrillic / Latin	Cyrillic	Cyrillic	latin
Differences from others Slavic languages	reduction of unstressed vowels (akanye); Preservation of soft consonants [g '], [k '], [d '], [p ']	alternation o-i, e-i in a closed syllable	phonetic principle in spelling; ultimate reduction of vowels (akanye)	two rows of hissing consonants; stress fixed on penultimate syllable	ascending diphthongs	the stress is fixed on the first syllable; separation of long and short vowels;		loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	loss of cases; variety of verb forms; lack of infinitive	the presence of a dual number; high heterogeneity (more than 40 dialects)
Accent type	free dynamic	free dynamic	free dynamic	fixed on penultimate	fixed- noe on the lane	fixed- noe on the lane	free musical	free dynamic	fixed- third layer ha from the end of the word)	free musical
Morphology: vocative form (case)	No	there is	there is	there is	No	there is	there is	there is	there is	No

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary were performed by foreign languages ​​(in Russia - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. He absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Slavonic language, was influenced by many European languages.

Czech Republic in the 18th century literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. The German language dominated in the cities. During the period of national revival in the Czech Republic, the language of the 16th century was artificially revived, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th - centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and colloquial. The Slovak literary language had a different history, it developed on the basis of the vernacular. in Serbia until the 19th century. Church Slavonic dominated. In the XVIII century. began the process of rapprochement of this language with the people. As a result of the reform carried out

Just as a tree grows from a root, its trunk gradually grows stronger, rises to the sky and branches, the Slavic languages ​​\u200b\u200b"grew" from the Proto-Slavic language (see Proto-Slavic language), whose roots go deep to the Indo-European language (see Indo-European family of languages). This allegorical picture, as is known, served as the basis for the theory of the "family tree", which, in relation to the Slavic family of languages, can be accepted in general terms and even historically substantiated.

The Slavic language "tree" has three main branches: 1) East Slavic languages, 2) West Slavic languages, 3) South Slavic languages. These main branches-groups branch out in turn into smaller ones - so, the East Slavic branch has three main branches - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, and the Russian language branch, in turn, has two main branches - North Russian and South Russian dialects (see Adverbs of the Russian language ). If you pay attention to further branches of at least the South Russian dialect, you will see how branches-zones of Smolensk, Upper Dnieper, Upper Desninsk, Kursk-Oryol-sky, Ryazan, Bryansk-Zhizdrinsky, Tula, Yelets and Oskol dialects are distinguished in it, if you draw a picture of the allegorical "family tree" further, there are still branches with numerous leaves - the dialects of individual villages and settlements It would be possible to describe the Polish or Slovenian branches in the same way, explain which of them has more branches, which has fewer, but the principle description would remain the same.

Naturally, such a “tree” did not grow immediately, that it did not immediately branch out and grow so much that the trunk and its main branches are older than smaller branches and twigs. Yes, and it did not always grow comfortably and exactly some branches withered, some were chopped off. But more on that later. In the meantime, we note that the “branched” principle of classifying Slavic languages ​​and dialects presented by us applies to natural Slavic languages ​​and dialects, to the Slavic linguistic element outside of its written form, without a normative written form. And if the various branches of the living Slavic language "tree" - languages ​​​​and dialects - did not appear immediately, then the written, bookish, normalized, largely artificial language systems formed on their basis and in parallel with them did not immediately appear - literary languages ​​(see Literary language).

In the modern Slavic world, there are 12 national literary languages: three East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, five West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Upper Lusatian-Serbian and Lower Lusatian-Serbian, and four South Slavic - Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Bulgarian and Macedonian.

In addition to these languages, polyvalent languages, that is, speakers (like all modern national literary languages) both in the function of written, artistic, business speech, and in the function of oral, everyday, colloquial and stage speech, the Slavs also have "small" literary, almost always brightly dialect-colored languages. These languages, with limited use, usually function alongside national literary languages ​​and serve either relatively small ethnic groups or even individual literary genres. There are also such languages ​​in Western Europe: in Spain, Italy, France and in German-speaking countries. The Slavs know the Ruthenian language (in Yugoslavia), the Kaikavian and Chakavian languages ​​(in Yugoslavia and Austria), the Kashubian language (in Poland), the Lyash language (in Czechoslovakia), etc.

On a rather vast territory in the basin of the Elbe River, in Slavic Laba, lived in the Middle Ages Polabian Slavs who spoke the Polabian language. This language is a severed branch from the Slavic language "tree" as a result of the forced Germanization of the population that spoke it. He disappeared in the 18th century. Nevertheless, separate records of the Polabian words, texts, translations of prayers, etc., have come down to us, from which it is possible to restore not only the language, but also the life of the disappeared Polabyans. And at the International Congress of Slavists in Prague in 1968, the famous West German Slavist R. Olesh read a report in the Polabian language, thus creating not only literary written (he read from typescript) and oral forms, but also scientific linguistic terminology. This indicates that almost every Slavic dialect (dialect) can, in principle, be the basis of a literary language. However, not only Slavic, but also another family of languages, as numerous examples of the newly written languages ​​of our country show.

In the ninth century the works of the brothers Cyril and Methodius created the first Slavic literary language - Old Church Slavonic. It was based on the dialect of the Thessalonica Slavs, translations from Greek of a number of church and other books were made in it, and later some original works were written. The Old Slavonic language first existed in the West Slavic environment - in Great Moravia (hence the number of moralisms inherent in it), and then spread among the southern Slavs, where book schools - Ohrid and Preslav - played a special role in its development. From the 10th century this language also begins to exist among the Eastern Slavs, where it was known under the name of the Slovene language, and scientists call it Church Slavonic or Old Slavonic. The Old Slavic language was an international, inter-Slavic book language until the 18th century. and had a great influence on the history and modern appearance of many Slavic languages, especially the Russian language. Old Slavonic monuments have come down to us with two writing systems - Glagolitic and Cyrillic (see. The emergence of writing among the Slavs).

SLAVIC LANGUAGES, a group of languages ​​belonging to the Indo-European family, spoken by more than 440 million people in Eastern Europe and North and Central Asia. The thirteen currently existing Slavic languages ​​are divided into three groups: 1) the East Slavic group includes Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages; 2) West Slavic includes Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian (which is spoken in a small area in northern Poland) and two Lusatian (or Serb Lusatian) languages ​​​​- Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian, common in small areas in eastern Germany; 3) the South Slavic group includes: Serbo-Croatian (spoken in Yugoslavia, Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina), Slovenian, Macedonian and Bulgarian. In addition, there are three dead languages ​​- Slovene, which disappeared at the beginning of the 20th century, Polabsky, which became extinct in the 18th century, and Old Slavonic - the language of the first Slavic translations of the Holy Scriptures, which is based on one of the ancient South Slavic dialects and which was used in worship in the Slavic Orthodox Church, but was never the everyday spoken language ( cm. OLD SLAVONIC LANGUAGE).

Modern Slavic languages ​​have many words in common with other Indo-European languages. Many Slavic words are similar to the corresponding English ones, for example: sister – sister,three - three,nose - nose,night and etc. In other cases, the common origin of the words is less clear. Russian word see related to Latin videre, Russian word five related to German funf, Latin quinque(cf. musical term quintet), Greek penta, which is present, for example, in a borrowed word pentagon(lit. "pentagon") .

An important role in the system of Slavic consonantism is played by palatalization - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages ​​can be either hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). In the field of phonetics, there are also some significant differences between the Slavic languages. In Polish and Kashubian, for example, two nasalized (nasal) vowels have been preserved - ą and ERROR, disappeared in other Slavic languages. Slavic languages ​​differ greatly in stress. In Czech, Slovak and Sorbian, the stress usually falls on the first syllable of a word; in Polish - to the penultimate one; in Serbo-Croatian, any syllable can be stressed except for the last one; in Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, the stress can fall on any syllable of a word.

All Slavic languages, except Bulgarian and Macedonian, have several types of declension of nouns and adjectives, which change in six or seven cases, in numbers and in three genders. The presence of seven cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, local or prepositional and vocative) testifies to the archaism of the Slavic languages ​​and their closeness to the Indo-European language, which supposedly had eight cases. An important feature of the Slavic languages ​​is the category of the verb aspect: every verb belongs either to the perfect or to the imperfect aspect and denotes, respectively, either a completed, or a lasting or repetitive action.

The habitat of the Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe in the 5th–8th centuries. AD expanded rapidly, and by the 8th c. the common Slavic language spread from the north of Russia to the south of Greece and from the Elbe and the Adriatic Sea to the Volga. Up to the 8th or 9th c. it was basically a single language, but gradually the differences between the territorial dialects became more noticeable. By the 10th c. there were already predecessors of modern Slavic languages.

Slavic programming languages, Slavic languages ​​of the world
branch

Languages ​​of Eurasia

Indo-European family

Compound

East Slavic, West Slavic, South Slavic groups

Separation time:

XII-XIII centuries n. e.

Language group codes GOST 7.75–97: ISO 639-2: ISO 639-5: See also: Project:Linguistics Slavic languages. According to the publication of the Institute of Linguistics of the Russian Academy of Sciences "Languages ​​of the World", volume "Slavic Languages", M., 2005

Indo-Europeans
Indo-European languages
Anatolian Albanian Armenian Baltic Venetian Germanic Illyrian Aryan: Nuristani, Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Dardic Italian (Romance) Celtic Paleo-Balkan Slavic· Tocharian italicized dead language groups
Indo-Europeans
Albanians Armenians Balts Venetians Germans Greeks Illyrians Iranians Indo-Aryans Italics (Romans) Celts Cimmerians Slavs Tokhars Thracians Hittites in italics now defunct communities
Proto-Indo-Europeans
Language Homeland Religion
Indo-European studies p o r

Slavic languages- a group of related languages ​​of the Indo-European family. Distributed throughout Europe and Asia. The total number of speakers is more than 400 million people. They differ in a high degree of closeness to each other, which is found in the structure of the word, the use of grammatical categories, the structure of the sentence, semantics, the system of regular sound correspondences, and morphonological alternations. This proximity is explained by the unity of the origin of the Slavic languages ​​and their long and intense contacts with each other at the level of literary languages ​​and dialects.

The long independent development of the Slavic peoples in different ethnic, geographical, historical and cultural conditions, their contacts with various ethnic groups led to the emergence of material, functional and typological differences.

• 1 Classification
• 2 Origin
  • 2.1 Modern research
• 3 Development history
• 4 Phonetics
• 5 Writing
• 6 Literary languages
• 7 See also
• 8 Notes
• 9 Literature

Classification

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages ​​are usually divided into 3 groups: East Slavic, South Slavic and West Slavic. The distribution of Slavic languages ​​within each group has its own characteristics. Each Slavic language includes in its composition the literary language with all its internal varieties and its own territorial dialects. Dialect fragmentation and stylistic structure within each Slavic language is not the same.

Branches of Slavic languages:

East Slavic branch Belarusian (ISO 639-1: be; ISO 639-3: Bel) Old Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: orv) Old Novgorod dialect † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -) Western Russian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -) Russian (ISO 639-1: en; ISO 639-3: rus) Ukrainian (ISO 639-1: UK; ISO 639-3: ukr) Rusyn (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: rue)

West Slavic branch Lechitic subgroup Pomeranian (Pomeranian) languages Kashubian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: csb) Slowinski † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: -) Polabian † (ISO 639-1: -; ISO 639-3: pox) Polish (ISO 639-1: pl; ISO 639-3: pol) Silesian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: szl) Lusatian subgroup Upper Lusatian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hsb) Lower Sorbian (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: dsb) Czech-Slovak subgroup Slovak (ISO 639-1: sk; ISO 639-3: slk) Czech (ISO 639-1: cs; ISO 639-3: ces) knaanite † (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: czk)

South Slavic branch Eastern group Bulgarian (ISO 639-1: bg; ISO 639-3: bul) Macedonian (ISO 639-1: mk; ISO 639-3: mkd) Old Church Slavonic † (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu) Church Slavonic (ISO 639-1: cu; ISO 639-3: chu) Western group Serbo-Croatian group/Serbo-Croatian language (ISO 639-1: - ; ISO 639-3: hbs): Bosnian (ISO 639-1: bs; ISO 639-3: boss) Serbian (ISO 639-1: sr; ISO 639-3: srp) Slavic Serbian † (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -) Croatian (ISO 639-1: hr; ISO 639-3: hrv) Kajkavian (ISO 639-3: kjv) Montenegrin (ISO 639-1: - ;ISO 639-3: -) Slovenian (ISO 639-1: sl; ISO 639-3: slv)

Origin

Genealogical tree of modern Slavic languages ​​according to Gray and Atkinson

The Slavic languages ​​within the Indo-European family are closest to the Baltic languages. The similarity between the two groups served as the basis for the theory of the "Balto-Slavic proto-language", according to which the Balto-Slavic proto-language first emerged from the Indo-European proto-language, later splitting into Proto-Baltic and Proto-Slavic. However, many scientists explain their special closeness by the long contact of the ancient Balts and Slavs, and deny the existence of the Balto-Slavic language.

It has not been established in which territory the separation of the Slavic language continuum from the Indo-European / Balto-Slavic took place. It can be assumed that it took place to the south of those territories that, according to various theories, belong to the territory of the Slavic ancestral homelands. From one of the Indo-European dialects (Proto-Slavic), the Proto-Slavic language was formed, which is the ancestor of all modern Slavic languages. The history of the Proto-Slavic language was longer than the history of individual Slavic languages. for a long time it developed as a single dialect with an identical structure. Dialect variants arose later.

The process of transition of the Proto-Slavic language into independent languages ​​took place most actively in the 2nd half of the 1st millennium AD, during the formation of the early Slavic states on the territory of South-Eastern and Eastern Europe. This period significantly increased the territory of Slavic settlements. Areas of various geographical zones with different natural and climatic conditions were mastered, the Slavs entered into relationships with the population of these territories, standing at different stages of cultural development. All this was reflected in the history of the Slavic languages.

The history of the Proto-Slavic language is divided into 3 periods: the most ancient - before the establishment of close Balto-Slavic language contact, the period of the Balto-Slavic community and the period of dialect fragmentation and the beginning of the formation of independent Slavic languages.

Modern research

In 2003, Russell Gray and Quentin Atkinson, scientists from the University of Oclad, published their study of the modern languages ​​of the Indo-European family in the scientific journal Nature. The data obtained indicate that the Slavic linguistic unity broke up 1300 years ago, that is, around the 8th century AD. And the Balto-Slavic linguistic unity broke up 3400 years ago, that is, around the 15th century BC.

History of development

Main article: History of the Slavic languages Bascan Plate, XI century, Krk, Croatia

In the early period of the development of the Slavic proto-language, a new system of vowel sonants developed, consonantism became much simpler, the stage of reduction became widespread in ablaut, and the root ceased to obey the ancient restrictions. The Proto-Slavic language is included in the satem group (sürdce, pisati, prositi, cf. lat. cor, - cordis, pictus, precor; zürno, znati, zima, cf. lat. granum, cognosco, hiems). However, this feature was not fully realized: cf. Praslav *kamy, *kosa. *gǫsь, *gordъ, *bergъ, etc. Proto-Slavic morphology represents significant deviations from the Indo-European type. This primarily applies to the verb, to a lesser extent - to the name.

Novgorod birch bark of the 14th century

Most of the suffixes were already formed on the Proto-Slavic soil. In the early period of its development, the Proto-Slavic language experienced a number of transformations in the field of vocabulary. Having retained in most cases the old Indo-European vocabulary, at the same time he lost some lexemes (for example, some terms from the field of social relations, nature, etc.). Many words have been lost in connection with various kinds of prohibitions (taboos). For example, the name of oak was lost - the Indo-European perkuos, whence the Latin quercus. In the Slavic language, the taboo dǫbъ was established, from where “oak”, Pol. dąb, Bulgarian. db, etc. The Indo-European name for the bear has been lost. It is preserved only in the new scientific term "Arctic" (cf. Greek ἄρκτος). The Indo-European word in the Proto-Slavic language was replaced by a taboo combination of the words *medvědь (originally "honey eater", from honey and *ěd-).

Zograph codex, X-XI centuries.

During the period of the Balto-Slavic community, vowel sonants were lost in the Proto-Slavic language, in their place diphthong combinations arose in position before consonants and the sequences of “vowel sonant before vowels” (sьmürti, but umirati), intonations (acute and circumflex) became relevant features. The most important processes of the Proto-Slavic period were the loss of closed syllables and softening of consonants before iot. In connection with the first process, all ancient diphthongic combinations turned into monophthongs, syllabic smooth, nasal vowels arose, a syllable division shifted, which, in turn, caused a simplification of consonant groups, the phenomenon of intersyllabic dissimilation. These ancient processes left their mark on all modern Slavic languages, which is reflected in many alternations: cf. "reap - reap"; “to take - I will take”, “name - names”, Czech. ziti - znu, vziti - vezmu; Serbohorv. zheti - zhaњem, uzeti - let's know, name - names. The softening of consonants before the iot is reflected in the form of alternations s - sh, z - zh, etc. All these processes had a strong impact on the grammatical structure, on the system of inflections. due to the softening of consonants before the iot, the process of the so-called. the first palatalization of the posterior palate: k > h, d > f, x > w. On this basis, even in the Proto-Slavic language, the alternations k: h, g: w, x: sh were formed, which had a great influence on nominal and verbal word formation.

Later, the second and third palatalizations of the posterior palate developed, as a result of which alternations arose: k: c, g: dz (s), x: s (x). The name changed by cases and numbers. In addition to the singular and plural, there was a dual number, which was later lost in almost all Slavic languages, except for Slovene and Lusatian, while the rudiments of dualism are preserved in almost all Slavic languages.

There were nominal stems that performed the functions of definitions. the late Proto-Slavic period arose pronominal adjectives. The verb had the stems of the infinitive and the present tense. From the first, the infinitive, supine, aorist, imperfect, participles in -l, participles of the active voice of the past tense in -v, and participles of the passive voice in -n were formed. From the foundations of the present tense, the present tense, the imperative mood, the participle of the active voice of the present tense were formed. Later, in some Slavic languages, the imperfect began to form from this stem.

Dialects began to form in the Proto-Slavic language. There were three groups of dialects: Eastern, Western and Southern. From them, the corresponding languages ​​were then formed. The group of East Slavic dialects was the most compact. The West Slavic group had 3 subgroups: Lechit, Lusatian and Czech-Slovak. The South Slavic group was dialectally the most differentiated.

The Proto-Slavic language functioned in the pre-state period in the history of the Slavs, when the tribal social system dominated. Significant changes occurred during the period of early feudalism. XII-XIII centuries there was a further differentiation of the Slavic languages, there was a loss of the ultra-short (reduced) vowels ъ and ь characteristic of the Proto-Slavic language. in some cases they disappeared, in others they turned into full vowels. As a result, there have been significant changes in the phonetic and morphological structure of the Slavic languages, in their lexical composition.

Phonetics

In the field of phonetics, there are some significant differences between the Slavic languages.

In most Slavic languages, the opposition of vowels in longitude / brevity is lost, at the same time in Czech and Slovak languages ​​(excluding North Moravian and East Slovak dialects), in the literary norms of the Shtokavian group (Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian and Montenegrin), and also partly in Slovene these differences persist. Lechitic languages, Polish and Kashubian, retain nasal vowels that are lost in other Slavic languages ​​(nasal vowels were also characteristic of the phonetic system of the extinct Polabian language). For a long time, nasals were retained in the Bulgarian-Macedonian and Slovene language areas (in the peripheral dialects of the respective languages, relics of nasalization are reflected in a number of words to this day).

Slavic languages ​​are characterized by the presence of palatalization of consonants - the approach of the flat middle part of the tongue to the palate when pronouncing a sound. Almost all consonants in Slavic languages ​​can be hard (non-palatalized) or soft (palatalized). due to a number of depalatalization processes, the opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness in the languages ​​of the Czech-Slovak group is significantly limited (in Czech, the opposition t - t', d - d', n - n' has been preserved, in Slovak - t - t', d - d' , n - n', l - l', while in the West Slovak dialect, due to the assimilation of t', d' and their subsequent hardening, as well as the hardening of l', as a rule, only one pair of n - n' is represented, in a number of West Slovak dialects ( Povazhsky, Trnavsky, Zagorsky) paired soft consonants are completely absent). The opposition of consonants in terms of hardness / softness did not develop in the Serbo-Croatian-Slovenian and Western Bulgarian-Macedonian language areas - from the old paired soft consonants, only n '(< *nj), l’ (< *lj) не подверглись отвердению (в первую очередь в сербохорватском ареале).

Stress in Slavic languages ​​is realized in different ways. In most Slavic languages ​​(except Serbo-Croatian and Slovene), the polytonic Proto-Slavic stress was replaced by a dynamic one. The free, mobile nature of the Proto-Slavic stress was preserved in the Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Bulgarian languages, as well as in the Torlak dialect and the northern dialect of the Kashubian language (the extinct Polabian language also had a mobile stress). in Central Russian dialects (and, accordingly, in the Russian literary language), in the South Russian dialect, in the North Kashubian dialects, as well as in Belarusian and Bulgarian, this type of stress caused the reduction of unstressed vowels. in a number of languages, primarily in West Slavic, a fixed stress was formed, assigned to a certain syllable of a word or bar group. The penultimate syllable is stressed in the Polish standard language and most of its dialects, in the Czech North Moravian and East Slovak dialects, in the southwestern dialects of the southern Kashubian dialect, and also in the Lemko dialect. The first syllable is stressed in the Czech and Slovak literary languages ​​and most of their dialects, in the Lusatian languages, in the South Kashubian dialect, and also in some Goral dialects of the Lesser Polish dialect. In Macedonian, the stress is also fixed - it falls no further than the third syllable from the end of the word (accent group). In Slovene and Serbo-Croatian, the stress is polytonic, multi-local, the tonic characteristics and the distribution of stress in word forms are different in dialects. In the Central Kashubian dialect, the stress is different, but is assigned to a certain morpheme.

Writing

Slavic languages ​​received their first literary processing in the 60s. ninth century. The creators of Slavic writing were the brothers Cyril (Konstantin the Philosopher) and Methodius. They translated liturgical texts from Greek into Slavonic for the needs of Great Moravia. At its core, the new literary language had a South Macedonian (Thessalonica) dialect, but in Great Moravia it acquired many local linguistic features. Later it was further developed in Bulgaria. In this language (usually called the Old Church Slavonic language), the richest original and translated literature was created in Moravia, Pannonia, Bulgaria, Russia, and Serbia. There were two Slavic alphabets: Glagolitic and Cyrillic. From IX century. Slavic texts have not been preserved. The oldest ones date back to the 10th century: the Dobrudzhan inscription of 943, the inscription of Tsar Samuil of 993, the Varosh inscription of 996 and others. Starting from the XI century. more Slavic monuments have been preserved.

Modern Slavic languages ​​use alphabets based on Cyrillic and Latin. The Glagolitic alphabet is used in Catholic worship in Montenegro and in several coastal areas in Croatia. In Bosnia, for some time, the Arabic alphabet was also used in parallel with the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets.

Literary languages

In the era of feudalism, Slavic literary languages, as a rule, did not have strict norms. Sometimes the functions of the literary language were performed by foreign languages ​​(in Russia - the Old Slavonic language, in the Czech Republic and Poland - the Latin language).

The Russian literary language has gone through a centuries-old and complex evolution. He absorbed folk elements and elements of the Old Slavonic language, was influenced by many European languages.

Czech Republic in the 18th century literary language, which reached in the XIV-XVI centuries. great perfection, almost disappeared. cities were dominated by the German language. the period of national revival in the Czech Republic artificially revived the language of the 16th century, which at that time was already far from the national language. History of the Czech literary language of the 19th-20th centuries. reflects the interaction of the old book language and colloquial. The Slovak literary language had a different history, it developed on the basis of the vernacular. Serbia until the 19th century dominated by the Church Slavonic language. 18th century began the process of rapprochement of this language with the people. As a result of the reform carried out by Vuk Karadzic in the middle of the 19th century, a new literary language was created. The Macedonian literary language was finally formed in the middle of the 20th century.

In addition to the "big" Slavic languages, there are a number of small Slavic literary languages ​​(microlanguages), which usually function along with national literary languages ​​and serve either relatively small ethnic groups or even individual literary genres.

see also

• Swadesh lists for Slavic languages ​​at Wiktionary.

Notes

1. Balto-Slavonic Natural Language Processing 2009
2. http://www2.ignatius.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
3. Languages ​​Spoken by More Than 10 Million People (Languages ​​spoken by more than 10 million people) according to the Encarta encyclopedia. Archived from the original on October 31, 2009.
4. Omniglot
5. 1 2 Sometimes separated into a separate language
6. see Meillet's law.
7. Fasmer M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - 1st ed. - T. 1-4. - M., 1964-1973.
8. Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
9. Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 10. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
10. Lifanov K. V. Dialectology of the Slovak language: Textbook. - M.: Infra-M, 2012. - S. 34. - ISBN 978-5-16-005518-3.
11. Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - p. 16. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)
12. Suprun A. E., Skorvid S. S. Slavic languages. - S. 14-15. (Retrieved March 26, 2014)

Literature

• Bernstein S. B. Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Introduction. Phonetics. M., 1961.
• Bernstein S. B. Essay on comparative grammar of Slavic languages. Alternations. nominal bases. M., 1974.
• Birnbaum H. Proto-Slavic language. Achievements and problems of its reconstruction, trans. from English, M., 1987.
• Boshkovich R. Fundamentals of Comparative Grammar of Slavonic Languages. Phonetics and word formation. M., 1984.
• Gilferding A.F. Common Slavonic alphabet with the application of examples of Slavic dialects. - St. Petersburg: Type. Imperial Academy of Sciences, 1871.
• Kuznetsov P. S. Essays on the morphology of the Proto-Slavic language. M., 1961.
• Meie A. Common Slavic language, trans. from French, Moscow, 1951.
• Nachtigal R. Slavic languages, trans. from Slovenia., M., 1963.
• National revival and formation of Slavic literary languages. M., 1978.
• Entry to the historically historical development of the words of the Yan language. For red. O. S. Melnichuk. Kiev, 1966.
• Vaillant A. Grammaire comparee des langues slaves, t. 1-5. Lyon - P., 1950-77.
• Russell D. Gray & Quentin D. Atkinson. Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin. Nature, 426: 435-439 (November 27, 2003).

proto-Slavic † (proto-language)
Oriental	Old Novgorod † (Old Pskov †) Old Russian † West Russian † Belarusian (dialects) Russian (dialects) Ukrainian (Rusyn dialects)
Western
Southern
Other	literary microlanguages ​​Pan-Slavic languages
† - dead, split or changed languages

Slavic microlanguages
Oriental	Galshansky | Carpatho-Ruthenian | Podlasie | Western Polissian
Western	vich | Eastern Slovak | lyash | Pannonian-Rusyn
southwestern	Venetian-Slovenian | Gradish-Croatian | Kajkavian | Moliz-Slavic | Prekmursko-Slovenian | Rezyan | Chakavian
southeastern	Banat-Bulgarian | Pomak | Aegean-Macedonian
see also

Slavic languages, Slavic languages ​​of India, Slavic languages ​​of Spain, Slavic languages ​​of Kazakhstan, Slavic languages ​​of cats, Slavic love languages, Slavic world languages, Slavic flame languages, Slavic programming languages, Slavic markup languages

Slavic languages ​​Information About