The stages are identified and the historical lessons of the Psychological Society, founded at the Imperial Moscow University in 1885, are outlined. The Society's activities are considered as a significant milestone in the development of science and education at Moscow University, as well as on the scale of Russian psychological thought in general.
In March 2010, a scientific conference dedicated to the 125th anniversary of the founding of the Moscow Psychological Society was held in Moscow. It was created at Moscow University as an organic part of it, one of its scientific societies, and became an organ of interdisciplinary interaction within the university community in order to progress psychology, historically the first form of implementation of the university idea of the unity of knowledge in this area.
During the conference, topical problems of the current state and the main directions of development of Russian psychological science were discussed. Of independent interest is the study of the history of the formation and activities of the Society, the analysis of its role in the development of psychological thought in Russia.
Founding of the Psychological Society
The history of the Moscow Psychological Society (MPO) begins on January 24, 1885, when it held its first meeting. The society was created at Moscow University by a group of professors from different faculties on the initiative of the head of the department of philosophy, Matvey Mikhailovich Troitsky. To its establishment, the scientist attracted professors from all faculties of Moscow University. 15 of them, together with Professor M.M. Troitsky were the founders of the Psychological Society. These were professors: philologists (Vsevolod Fedorovich Miller, Nikolai Ilyich Storozhenko, Philip Fedorovich Fortunatov); lawyers (Nikolai Andreevich Zverev, Georgy Evgrafovich Kolokolov; Sergey Andreevich Muromtsev); sociologist, jurist and ethnographer Maksim Maksimovich Kovalevsky; economist Alexander Ivanovich Chuprov; anthropologist Dmitry Nikolaevich Anuchin; zoologist, anthropologist Anatoly Petrovich Bogdanov; zoologist Sergey Alekseevich Usov; physiologist Fedor Petrovich Sheremetevsky; mathematician Nikolai Vasilyevich Bugaev; neuropathologist and psychiatrist Alexei Yakovlevich Kozhevnikov; Doctor of Medicine, Head of the Department of Forensic Medicine at the Faculty of Law Viktor Alekseevich Legonin.
Awareness of the need to attract special knowledge from different sciences for the development of psychology and the recognition of the impossibility of developing them by one person became the reason for the creation of the Psychological Society as a body that brought together representatives of all the necessary sciences studied at various faculties of Moscow University. Among them: human psychology, history of literature, comparative linguistics, law, statistics, zoology, anthropology, physiology of the brain and nervous system, psychiatry, forensic medicine, etc.
On July 15, 1884, the Minister of Public Education approved the Charter of the Psychological Society. According to this Charter, “The Psychological Society, which is affiliated with the Imperial Moscow University, aims to develop Psychology in its composition, applications and history and to disseminate psychological knowledge in Russia. The Society achieves this goal by discussing in its meetings the following issues: a) the system of Psychology in all forms of its processing; c) the application of psychological teachings to the development of other sciences, such as Logic, Morality, Legal Philosophy, Aesthetics, Pedagogy, etc.; c) the history of Psychology and its applications in ancient and modern times.
The established name of the society “psychological” reflected the understanding of M.M. Troitsky of the place and role of psychology in the system of sciences, according to which it was recognized as the common basis for many disciplines and all philosophical sciences. The inextricable link between psychology and philosophy, the philosopher and psychologist G.G. Shpet, an active member of the Society since 1907, called "the natural connection of psychology with philosophy", which retains its significance even after the fact of the separation of special sciences from the bosom of philosophy. He expressed this idea in the article “One way in psychology and where it leads”, published in the collection, with which the IPO marked the 30th anniversary of the scientific and pedagogical activity of L.M. Lopatin (a member of the IGO since the founding of the Society, its Chairman in 1899-1920, editor of the journal "Problems of Philosophy and Psychology" for many years).
The first meeting of the IGO on January 24, 1885 was purely organizational in nature, members of the Council of the Society were elected at it, and the place of the meetings was determined. M.M. was elected Chairman of the IGO. Troitsky, on whose initiative it was created.
At the first public meeting of the IGO on March 14, 1885, he delivered a long speech "Modern Teaching on the Tasks and Methods of Psychology", in which he outlined his views on the tasks of psychology and the Psychological Society.
In it M.M. Troitsky substantiated the position on the regular interdisciplinary interaction of psychology with other sciences within the university community, while emphasizing the importance of psychology for them. Relying on authorities, the scientist showed the importance of studying the connection of the spirit, mental facts with bodily facts both in a healthy body and in painful changes in its structure and functions. Hence the statement about the need to develop for the science of the spirit of knowledge from the sphere of anatomy, physiology, psychiatry. At the same time, he noted that historical facts that testify to the influence of cultural success on the development of human mental forces indicate the importance of studying the history of society and culture, language, and ethnographic data for the development of psychological science. Human psychology should also be developed in parallel with the study of the psyche of animals. Your review M.M. Troitsky concluded with a conclusion about the importance of psychology for logic, philosophy of law, aesthetics, pedagogy, theory of society and practical politics, and other areas of knowledge. In the future, the Psychological Society, with all its activities, affirmed the idea of the importance of combining the sciences of both the humanities and the natural sciences and the need for scientific education for the development of philosophical and psychological thinking for the purpose of a synthetic study of psychological problems.
The activity of the Psychological Society had the following directions.
Scientific meetings (2 times a month) with discussion of reports on a wide range of psychological, philosophical problems, problems of psychopathology, ethics. Thus, the Society repeatedly discussed the issue of free will and, in connection with it, hypnotism, and some of the meetings were accompanied by demonstrations of hypnotization experiments. Questions about the origin of mathematical truths, about space and time, and others were discussed. The meetings were of a constructive working nature, lasting from three to four hours, the discussion of some issues was often postponed to the next meeting. Such were, for example, sessions devoted to new experimental methods of research, hypnotism and suggestion, questions about the relationship between philosophy and psychology. The IGO meetings also discussed the latest concepts in the field of biology and natural science - neovitalism, energyism, evolutionary concepts, etc.
The publication of the Proceedings of the Moscow Psychological Society was aimed at disseminating philosophical and psychological knowledge in Russia. "Proceedings" (published in 1888-1894, issues 1-8) included abstracts of the reports of members of the Society, but, basically, these were translations of philosophical and psychological classics. The works of I. Kant, K. Fischer, B. Spinoza, R. Descartes, G. Leibniz were published in translations by members of the Society.
Publication of the journal "Problems of Philosophy and Psychology" (since 1889, the last issue of the journal - kn. 141-142 - was published in 1918), the first journal in Russia on psychology and philosophy. The articles contained in it largely consisted of messages discussed at meetings of the Society. Since 1899, the journal has been published jointly with the Philosophical Society (established at St. Petersburg University in 1897) as a general organ of Russian philosophical and psychological thought. Since that time, the name of the journal has been: "Edition of the MPO with the assistance of the St. Petersburg Philosophical Society." The journal contributed to the unification of scientific forces in the field of philosophy and psychology, made it possible to follow the work of the IGO to all those interested in its problems.
The first period - the period of formation (1885-1887)
The first period of the IGO activity under the chairmanship of M.M. Troitsky is assessed as not intensive enough (15 meetings in 3 years). Which is associated not only with the state of philosophical and psychological knowledge, but also with some personal characteristics of its chairman. For example, Ya.N. Kolubovsky, who for some time was the secretary of the journal Questions of Philosophy and Psychology, in his memoirs characterized Troitsky as "a man of the mind of a cold, armchair scientist, who, obviously, did not possess the special qualities that are necessary to unite people of different currents and trends" . However, Vl. Solovyov believed that "the name of Matvey Mikhailovich Troitsky should forever remain in our mental history." V.N. Ivanovsky, a student of Troitsky, called his main work The Science of the Spirit (1882) "a whole encyclopedia of a psychological and epistemological nature." N.N. Lange called him "the misunderstood Russian psychologist", he wrote that M.M. Troitsky's "Science of the Spirit" "by the importance of the questions raised in it, by the depth of the scientific nature of their solution ... can be safely put along with famous creations, such as the "System of Logic" by J. St. Mill or Bain's Psychological Treatise". E.A. Budilova in her monograph “Socio-Psychological Problems in Russian Science” (1983) concludes that “in the works of M.M. Troitsky, an attempt was made to approach the problems of social psychology and the social conditioning of the psyche. It must be admitted that Troitsky's work has not yet been adequately studied by our historians of psychology.
Second period - heyday (1888-1898)
The most striking in the activities of the IGO was the period under the chairmanship of N.Ya. Grotto. This period L.M. Lopatin called it "heroic". It was marked by the frequency of meetings and the activity of the discussions that unfolded at them; foundation (under the editorship of N.Ya. Grot) of the journal "Problems of Philosophy and Psychology" - one of the oldest philosophical and psychological journals published in pre-revolutionary Russia; publication of the Proceedings of the Moscow Psychological Society. The topics of the meetings of the Psychological Society often went beyond the scope of purely scientific problems and included such issues that worried not only specialists, but also aroused sympathy and interest from the educated public. Some meetings took on the character of social events. Such was the meeting on March 14, 1887, at which L.N. Tolstoy with a report "On the concept of life", in which he raised the question of the meaning of life and its illumination by science. The report of Vl. Solovyov "On the Causes of the Decline of the Medieval Worldview" at a meeting on October 19, 1891, which considered the question of the real role of religion and the church in society.
The Psychological Society noted the merits of N.Ya. Grot, publishing at his own expense a collection dedicated to his memory, composed of articles about his life and work, memoirs and letters from comrades and students. This also included his "Autobiographical Sketch" with a detailed description of his own philosophical and psychological thought in its evolution and with a list of his main works. Historian A.A. Kizevetter, (professor at Moscow University, corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences, expelled in 1922 for being hostile to the Soviet regime) wrote about the Psychological Society in a book dedicated to the 175th anniversary of Moscow University (1930), published in Paris by the Society of Former Pupils of the Imperial Moscow University and the Committee organized at the Russian National University in Prague.
He argued that the Psychological Society of the 1890s aroused interest in philosophical questions; Vl. Solovyov, N.Ya. Grot, L.M. Lopatin, N.F. Horses, occasionally - venerable B.N. Chicherin that the meetings of the IGO were "true holidays for people seized with an interest in ideological disputes."
Third period (1899-1918)
After the death of N.Ya. Grot (1899), L.M. was elected chairman of the IPO. Lopatin. From 1894, he was co-editor, and from 1905 until the termination of publication in April 1918, he was the only and permanent editor of the journal Questions of Philosophy and Psychology. The activities of the IGO under the chairmanship of L.M. Lopatina took place in line with the same trends that had developed and developed under N.Ya. Grote: sessions devoted to the discussion of the state of philosophy and psychology; publishing activity. Based on the idea of the relationship between philosophy and moral problems, L.M. Lopatin recognized the importance of psychological analysis of the phenomena of the moral world. He paid great attention to ethical issues both in the activities of the IGO and in his own speeches at meetings and in articles in the journal Voprosy Philosophii i Psikhologii. The scientist believed that a philosophical analysis of the data of science should give a doctrine of life that would give a person more solid and clear beginnings for his moral activity. According to L.M. Lopatin, there should be no double-entry bookkeeping in our attitude to questions of morality and in our activity in the field of theoretical psychology. “If we felt more the moral meaning of our theoretical views and their deep inseparable connection with our moral views,” wrote L.M. Lopatin, - we would treat the fundamental issues of theoretical knowledge more lively and more seriously.
The fourth period - the period of crisis (1918-1922)
Large-scale socio-political events in Russia in the second decade of the 20th century: the First World War of 1914-18, the October Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent Civil War of 1918-20, created extreme conditions that radically influenced on the nature and content of the activities of IGOs. The publishing activity has ceased. The journal Questions of Philosophy and Psychology ceased to be published: the last double issue was published in 1918. The society worked very unevenly. So, in 1918, two meetings were held: the first, on March 30, was an annual administrative meeting, at which the Board of the Society was elected (L.M. Lopatin was again elected chairman) and the second, on April 6, with a speech by A.I. Ognev with the report "Ideal and Real in Consciousness". In 1919 there were two meetings in February, one in March and three in April. During this period, mainly philosophical questions were discussed. Psychological problems were presented only at two meetings, which dealt with the problems of the evolution of the psyche: the report of A.N. Severtsov "Psyche as a factor in the evolution of higher animals and humans" (April 6, 1919) and the report of N.N. Cotes, The problem of "thinking" animals and its probable solution (April 27, 1919). Then, a year-long break followed in the activities of the Society, during which the chairman of the Society, L.M. Lopatin, his deputy V.M. Khvostov and some other members of the Society.
At the center of his philosophical and psychological reflections is the problem of a person, a personality as a unity of its three components - spirit, soul and body, its spiritual development, the path of spiritual renewal of society. Since 1910, I.A. Ilyin is a member of the IGO, an active author of the journal "Problems of Philosophy and Psychology". Publications began with an extensive article "The Concept of Law and Force" (1910). In it, the scientist divides two concepts: the legal concept of law as a set of norms that establish what is due, and the concept of morality as a category of real legal consciousness, denoting a psychological reality that goes beyond the normative-logical sphere and becomes a force that causally determines individual consciousness and behavior. In the same journal, he published six large articles on Hegel's philosophy, written on the basis of a series of reports read at meetings of the IGO: "Hegel's Teachings on the Essence of Speculative Thinking" (1914), "The Struggle for the Right before the Court of Normal Legal Consciousness", etc. These reports formed the core of his fundamental two-volume study "Hegel's Philosophy as a Doctrine of the Concreteness of God and Man" (1918). At MPO I.A. Ilyin also made a presentation on Husserl's phenomenology. As chairman of the IGO, I.A. Ilyin remained until 1922, when the Society was closed. The last meeting took place on June 15, 1922.
The period of activity of the IGO under the chairmanship of I.A. Ilyin is practically not studied. These were the years of the crisis that the Psychological Society was going through, like all other scientific societies in Russia. The activities of the IGO were reduced to organizing meetings (which were not regular) and discussing reports. On November 14, 1920, a solemn meeting of the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University and the Moscow Postgraduate School was held, dedicated to the memory of L.M. Lopatin (died on March 8 (21), 1920). A number of reports were heard on the personality and analysis of the philosophical and psychological views of L.M. Lopatin, his moral doctrine and the doctrine of freedom. The next meeting (March 6, 1921) was dedicated to the memory of the religious philosopher and public figure, one of the most active figures of the IGO - E.N. Trubetskoy with reports on his personality and analysis of his views. All meetings of the IGO were devoted to philosophical problems: classical philosophical concepts (reports by B.A. Fokht on the transcendental method of Kant, A.F. Losev on Plato’s theory of abstraction), issues of philosophical and religious content with an emphasis on the spiritual and moral development of the individual and social events in Russia (reports by I.A. Ilyin “The Fundamentals of Normal Religious Experience”, “The Religious Meaning of Sincerity”), problems of the philosophy of society (reports by S.L. Frank “On the Logical Nature of a Social Phenomenon”, I.A. Ilyin “Axioms of Legal Consciousness ").
So, gradually shrinking, the psychological problems by the end of the activities of the IGO practically disappeared, and then the Society itself ceased to exist for well-known reasons that go beyond the scope of philosophy and science.
Historical significance of IGO activities
There is every reason to recognize the outstanding role of the Moscow Psychological Society in the history of psychological science, philosophy and culture. The activities of the MPO contributed to the development of traditions of domestic psychology, including a high philosophical culture of research; attention to fundamental theoretical and methodological issues; adherence to the principle of an integrated approach to the analysis of the most complex psychological problems; taking into account the indissoluble connection between psychological knowledge and its moral meaning; interest in the problems of human spirituality, his moral foundations, free initiative and creativity.
The activities of the Society served to establish creative ties between Russian scientists and outstanding figures of foreign philosophy and science. Scientists from different countries were honorary members of the Society. Among them are W. Wundt, G. Helmholtz, E. Dubois-Reymond, W. Windelband and E. Zeller (Germany), A. Bain and G. Spencer (England), T Ribot and C. Richet (France), U James and E. Titchener (America), G. Gefding (Denmark), etc. The activities of the IPO contributed to the organic inclusion of Russian psychological thought in world science while maintaining its originality in understanding the tasks and problems of psychology. Reports on the activities of IGOs were published by the journals Mind, Archive f. Gesch. d. Philosophie” and others. Reviews and reviews of foreign literature were published in the journal “Problems of Philosophy and Psychology” almost simultaneously with the publication of books and articles by Western European philosophers and psychologists.
The Psychological Society at Moscow University was historically the first form of institutionalization, organizational unification of all scientific forces in the field of psychology. Of course, one should not forget that in the same 1885, when the MPO was created, a few months later, in the autumn, at Kazan University V.M. Bekhterev organized a laboratory of experimental psychology, and in November we will celebrate the 125th anniversary of this event. Without belittling the importance of this fact and recognizing the invaluable contribution made by the work of this laboratory to domestic psychology, we believe that in terms of scale, breadth of topics, the number of participants, the impact that these two events had on the subsequent development of domestic psychology, on the first place should be given to the activities of the Moscow Psychological Society.
After psychological laboratories were opened in a number of scientific centers in Russia (in 1885 - in Kazan, in 1895 - in Moscow, in 1896 - in Odessa, etc.) and the Psychological Institute was created at Moscow University (it began to function in 1912, the official opening - 1914), these institutions became centers for the development of psychological science and the dissemination of knowledge in this area.
In the history of domestic psychology, a new era of its development began as an independent separate science, which has its own structural institutions for conducting research and preparing scientific ones. Under these new historical conditions, the Psychological Society became an organ for coordinating and unifying research work.
After the expulsion of I.A. Ilyin went abroad on the notorious philosophical steamship in 1922. The Psychological Society was disbanded along with other scientific organizations.
Conclusion
The history of MPO did not end there. In 1957, relying on the established trends, experience and traditions, in the new historical conditions, the Moscow Psychological Society resumed its activities as a Branch of the Society of Psychologists of the RSFSR, created under the APS of the RSFSR, and since 1994 - as a regional branch of the RPO under the RAS. Its chairmen were prominent scientists:
Notes:
Troitsky Matvey Mikhailovich (08/1/1835 - 03/22/1899). Since 1875 - Professor of the Department of Philosophy at Moscow University, Dean of the Faculty of History and Philology of Moscow University (1880-1884; 1889-1891; 1893-1894). Acting as Rector of Moscow University (1895-1896). The doctoral dissertation "German Psychology in the Current Century" (1867, in two volumes) contains an exposition of the theories of English associationism. Troitsky's own psychological theory is sustained in the spirit of English associative psychology ("Science of the Spirit", in two volumes, 1882; "Textbook of Logic", in three books, 1885-1888).
Grot Nikolai Yakovlevich (04/18/1852 - 05/23/1899) - professor, head. Department of Philosophy at Moscow University (since 1886). Organizer and first editor of the journal "Problems of Philosophy and Psychology" (1889-1893). In his first psychological study (master's thesis "Psychology of feelings in its history and main foundations", 1880), he considered the psyche as a set of four phases that make up the mental turnover, as an act of adapting the body to the environment. From the same positions he considered cognitive activity (doctoral dissertation "On the Question of the Reform of Logic. Experience of a New Theory of Mental Processes", 1882). He discussed the central questions of psychology: the essence of the mental, the methods of psychology. He highly appreciated the importance of the experimental method, connected the study of psychology with the tasks of scientific substantiation of the highest principles of morality. Was friendly with L.N. Tolstoy, introduced him to the Psychological Society, participated in the preparation for the publication of L. Tolstoy's book "On Life", written on the basis of his speech at a meeting of the IGO (1887). Among Grot's close friends are A.A. Fet, Vl. Solovyov, brothers E. and S. Trubetskoy, L.M. Lopatin and others.
Lopatin Lev Mikhailovich (06/1/1855 - 03/21/1920) - a graduate of the Faculty of History and Philology (1879), professor at Moscow University (1892), co-editor (from 1894) and sole editor of the journal "Problems of Philosophy and Psychology" (from 1905 until the termination edition in 1918). Read a course in psychology. He defended the method of self-observation (“Method of self-observation in psychology”, 1902).
Ilyin Ivan Alexandrovich (March 28 (April 9), 1883 - December 21, 1954) - Russian religious philosopher, political thinker, brilliant publicist. A graduate of the law faculty of Moscow University (1906), he received fundamental training in law under the guidance of the outstanding legal scholar P.I. Novgorodtsev. After passing the exams for a master's degree (1909), he became an associate professor at Moscow University. On May 19, 1918, he brilliantly defended his master's thesis on the topic "Hegel's philosophy as the doctrine of the concreteness of God and man", for which he was awarded a master's degree and at the same time a doctorate in state sciences. Since 1921 - professor at Moscow State University. He was a member of the Institute of Scientific Philosophy, established at the Faculty of Social Sciences at the University in 1921. He was sharply negative about the regime of Soviet power that was established after the revolution of 1917. Following his arrest in August 1922, he was sentenced to deportation from Russia. From October 1922 he lived in exile: in Germany (Berlin, 1922-1938), in Switzerland (a suburb of Zurich, Zollikon, 1938 - until his death on December 21, 1954). Abroad actively involved in the life of Russian emigrants. He was one of the founders of the Russian Scientific Institute in Berlin, and in 1923–24. - Dean of the Faculty of Law. In various European countries he gave lectures and reports on Russian literature and culture, on the foundations of legal consciousness. In exile continued his active journalistic activity, philosophical work.
Zaporozhets Alexander Vladimirovich (09/12/1905 - 10/07/1981) - graduate of the 2nd Moscow State University (1930), associate professor, professor of the Department of Psychology of the Faculty of Philosophy (1943-1966), Department of General and Applied Psychology of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow University (1966-1970). Founder and director of the Institute of Preschool Education of the Academy of Pedagogical Education of the RSFSR (1960–1981).
Menchinskaya Natalya Aleksandrovna (2.01.1905 - 06.07.1984) - Professor of the Psychological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed the laboratory of the psychology of learning and mental development of the student (1937-1981), created a scientific school on the psychology of learning.
Matyushkin Aleksey Mikhailovich (12/20/1927 - 07/07/2004) - graduate of the department of psychology of the Faculty of Philosophy (1953), professor of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow University (1978-1981), director of the Psychological Institute of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences (1983-1990). Since 1994 - head of the laboratory of psychology of giftedness of this institute.
Brushlinsky Andrey Vladimirovich (04/04/1933–01/30/2002) – graduate of the Department of Psychology of the Faculty of Philosophy (1956), Professor of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov (since 1982), director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1989–2002).
Ilyasov Islam Imranovich (b. 06/27/1937) – graduate (1967), professor (1990), head of the Department of Pedagogy and Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Moscow University (1995–2004).
Bogoyavlenskaya Diana Borisovna - Honorary Member of the Russian Academy of Education, Head of the Laboratory of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Education, founder of the scientific school of the psychology of creativity and giftedness, professor at Moscow University (part-time).
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To cite an article:
Zhdan A. N. History of the Psychological Society at the Imperial Moscow University (1885-1922) // National Psychological Journal - 2010. - No. 1 (3) - p. 34-38.
Zhdan A. N. (2010). History of Psychological Society at Moscow University. The 125 year anniversary of MPS. National Psychological Journal, 1(3), 34-38
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1. Leonenko Natalia Olegovna, Candidate of Psychological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of General Psychology, work phone 336-15-83 (Prepared topics: II. The development of psychology in the period of antiquity; V. The development of associative psychology in the 18th–19th centuries; VII. The development of psychology within natural science (the 19th century .); VIII. Formation of psychology as an independent science; X. Psychoanalysis and its evolution in the twentieth century; XI. Gestalt psychology: formation and development in the twentieth century; XII. Theories and schools of humanistic psychology.
2. Adushkina Ksenia Valerievna, Senior Lecturer of the Department of Educational Psychology, work phone 336-15-83 (Prepared topics: I SUBJECT OF THE HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY, ITS DEVELOPMENT AND METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE, III. PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES OF THE MIDDLE AGES AND THE RENAISSANCE, IV. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN NEW TIME, VI. DEVELOPMENT EUROPEAN PSYCHOLOGY IN THE XVIII - XIX CENTURIES (FRANCE, GERMANY, RUSSIA), IX. BEHAVIORISM: FORMATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE XX CENTURY, XIII. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY: FORMATION AND DIRECTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT, XIV. DEVELOPMENT OF NATIVE PSYCHOLOGY.
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Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 2 of 245 Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 2 Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 3 of 245 We don't want to be Ivans with no memory of kinship; we do not suffer from megalomania, thinking that history begins with us; we do not want to get a clean and flat name from history; we want a name on which the dust of centuries has settled. In this we see our historical right, an indication of our historical role, a claim to the realization of psychology as a science. We must consider ourselves in connection with and in relation to the former; even denying it, we rely on it.
L.S. Vygotsky Aristotle I.M. Sechenov SP. Botkin, V.L. Psychological Institute. L.G. Shchukina at Gruber Moscow University. Founded in 1912
Wilhelm Wundt The task of the history of psychology cannot be to find statements from individual progressive figures of the past that sound perfectly acceptable in our time, or to represent such outstanding scientists of the 19th century as, for example, I.M. Sechenov, in as a kind of beacon or ideal, approaching which is the task of modern science. Indeed, in this case, science will not develop, but move in a circle.
B.M. Teplov Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 3 Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 4 of 245 Series Classic University Textbook Founded in 2002 on the initiative of the rector of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences V.A. Sadovnichy Editorial Board of the Series Chairman of the Board Rector of Moscow University V.A. Sadovnichy
Council members:
Vikhansky O.S., Golichenkov A.K., Gusev M.V., Dobrenkov V.I., Dontsov A.I., Zasursky Ya.N., Zinchenko Yu.P.
(executive secretary), Kamzolov A.I. (Executive Secretary), Karpov S.P., Kasimov N.S., Kolesov V.P., Lobodanov A.P., Lunin V.V., Lupanov O.B., Meyer M.S., Mironov V. AT. (Deputy Chairman), Mikhalev A.V., Moiseev E.I., Pusharovsky L.Yu., Raevskaya O.V., Remneva M.L., Rozov N.Kh., Saletsky A.M.
(Deputy Chairman), Surin A.V., Ter-Minasova S.G., Tkachuk V.A., Tretyakov Yu.L., Trukhin V.I., Trofimov V.T. (Deputy Chairman), Shoba S.A.
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UDC 159.9 BBK 88 Zh42
REVIEWERS.Department of General Psychology and History of Psychology of the Moscow Humanitarian and Social Academy;
doctor of psychological sciences V.A. Ivannikov Zhdan A.N.
J42 History of psychology. From Antiquity to the Present Day: Textbook for High Schools. - 5th ed., Revised. and additional - M .:
Academic Project, 2004.- 576 pp.- ("Gaudeamus", "Classical University Textbook").
ISBN 5-8291-0439-3 The textbook represents the result of many years of teaching experience by the author of the History of Psychology course at Moscow State University.
A systematic presentation of the history of domestic and foreign psychology from Antiquity to the present time as a process of changing the subject, methods and main problems of psychological knowledge is presented. The considered transformations of the subject of psychology in the aggregate represent the approaches to the cognition of the mental developed by science over the centuries-old path of its development. This edition includes new material based on primary sources and research of recent years.
The book is intended primarily for students, graduate students and professors of psychological faculties of universities.
UDC 159.9 LBC 88 © Zhdan A.N. 2004 © Academic project, original layout, 2004 © Lomonosov Moscow State University M.V. Lomonosov, art design, 2004 ISBN 5-8921-0439-3 Dear reader!
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electronic table of contents electronic table of contents
Introduction
The subject of the history of psychology
Periodization of the history of psychology
Driving Forces and Causes of the Historical Development of Psychological Ideas.............................14 Table 1 Chronology of the stages in the development of psychology
Table 1 continued
End of table 1
Principles of historical-psychological analysis
Methods of the history of psychology
Sources of the history of psychology
test questions
Literature1
Section I. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF
SOULChapter 1. ANTIQUE PSYCHOLOGY
The main provisions of the materialistic doctrine of the soul in ancient psychology
Teaching about the soul
The doctrine of knowledge
The Problem of Feelings
The problem of will and character
Idealistic psychology of Plato
Aristotle's doctrine of the soul
Aristotle (384-322 BC).
The doctrine of the processes of cognition
Teaching about feelings
The problem of will
About character
The teachings of ancient doctors
Further development and results of psychology in Antiquity
Chapter 2
General characteristics of the psychology of the Middle Ages
The doctrine of the soul and knowledge in the main directions of scholastic philosophy
The meaning of mystical teachings
PSYCHOLOGICAL ideas of the Renaissance
Chapter 3
THE FRAMEWORK OF THE DOCTRINE ABOUT THE SOULtest questions
Literature
Section II. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN THE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES ABOUT
CONSCIOUSNESSChapter 1
The Psychological Doctrine of Rene Descartes
R. Descartes (1596-1650)
The Psychology of Benedict Spinoza
Chapter 2
58 Epiphenomenalism of T. Hobbes
The foundation of empirical psychology in the work of J. Locke
J. Locke (1632-1704)
The historical meaning of the controversy between G. Leibniz and J. Locke
Chapter 3. FORMATION OF ASSOCIATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
D. Gartley (1705-1757)
Chapter 4. FORMATION OF THE EMPIRICAL TREND IN FRENCH PSYCHOLOGY
18th centuryChapter 5. PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT ABOUT RUSSIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY
Chapter 6. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS IN GERMAN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY OF THE END OF XVIII
FIRST HALF XIX century
test questions
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Literature
Section III
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE PERIOD BEFORE
FORMATION OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGYChapter 1. FORMATION OF GERMAN EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE FIRST HALF
19th centuryI.F. Herbart (1776-1841)
Chapter 2. DEVELOPMENT OF ASSOCIATIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Chapter 3. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA IN THE XIX CENTURY
test questions
Literature
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE AND FORMATION
OF THE NATURAL SCIENTIFIC PREREQUISITES OF SOLIDING PSYCHOLOGY IN
INDEPENDENT SCIENCEChapter 1
90 E.G. Weber (1795-1878) Formulated the law of different sensitivities
Chapter 2
G.T. Fechner (1801-1887) Founder of psychophysics
Chapter 3. DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY IDEAS IN BIOLOGY AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR PSYCHOLOGY
C. Darwin (1809-1882)
test questions
Literature
Section V. SELECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY INTO AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE AND ITS
DEVELOPMENT BEFORE THE PERIOD OF OPEN CRISIS (60s of the 19th century - 10s of the 20th century)Chapter 1. THE FIRST PROGRAMS OF PSYCHOLOGY AS AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE
W. Wundt (1832-1920) (center) with employees. Leipzig, 1912
Pension "Trierianum" at the University of Leipzig, where the Institute for Experimental Psychology was founded in 1879
THEM. Sechenov (1829-1905) conducts an experiment on the study of the work of the muscles of the hands
K.D. Kavelin. Writer, lawyer, philosopher. Known in connection with the controversy with I.M. Sechenov on the development of psychology as an independent science
Chapter 2
INDEPENDENT SCIENCEE. Titchener (1867-1927)
K. Stumpf (1848-1936)
W. James (1842-1910)
J. Dewey (1859-1952)
N.Ya. Grotto (1852-1899). Founded the first Russian journal on philosophy and psychology, Questions of Philosophy and Psychology (1889)
G.I. Chelpanov (1862-1936) and his student, later the famous philosopher and psychologist G.
H.H. Lange (1858-1921). One of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia
V.M. Bekhterev (1857-1927)
I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936)
Chapter 3. DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL AND APPLIED FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY.
120 G. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Psychological Institute. L.G. Shchukina at Moscow University. Founded in 1912
test questions
Literature
Section VI. FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PERIOD OF OPEN CRISIS (10s - MIDDLE 30s of XX century)
Chapter 1. Crisis IN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 2. BEHAVIORISM
J. Watson (1878-1958)
C. Hull (1884-1952)
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Chapter 3. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
M. Wertheimer (1880-1943)
W. Köhler (1887-1967)
Chapter 4. DEEP PSYCHOLOGY
3. Freud (1856-1939)
System of psychoanalysis
Individual psychology of A. Adler
A. Adler (1870-1937)
Analytical psychology of C. Jung
K.G. Jung (1875-1961)
Neo-Freudianism
Erich Fromm (1900-1980)
Chapter 5. FRENCH SCHOOL OF SOCIOLOGY
E. Durkheim (1858-1817)
Lucien Levy-Bruhl (1857-1939)
Chapter 6. DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHOLOGY
W. Dilthey (1833-1911)
test questions
Literature
CURRENT STATE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIAL.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934)
A.R. Luria (1902-1977)
S.A. Rubinstein (1889-1960)
A.N. Leontiev (1903-1979) and A.B. Zaporozhets (1905-1981)
P.Ya. Halperin (1902-1988)
B.G. Ananiev (1907-1972)
test questions
Literature
Section VIII. CURRENT STATUS AND MAJOR TRENDS
DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGYW. Neisser (p. 1928) One of the founders of cognitive psychology
C. Rogers (1902-1987). Developed a model of non-directive client-centered psychotherapy
J. Piaget (1896-1980). Founder of the Swiss School of Genetic Psychology...............201 Table 2 Classification of the stages of intelligence development
C. Levi-Straus (b. 1908). Founder of structural anthropology
test questions
Literature
Conclusion
APPENDICES1. Teaching Psychology at Moscow University.......................207 Literature
MOSCOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY (1885-1922)1
Literature
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX
NAME INDEX
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Introduction The specificity of scientific work implies the need to have information about the past. Own research should be organically connected with the history of the issue being studied, because there is no such problem in modern science that could be solved without taking into account the previous history. “The history of the question goes directly into the formulation of the research problem. The latter must flow organically from the former. The depth, fundamental nature of this part of the study is currently one of the most necessary conditions in psychological science that determines the scientific value of this work,” wrote B.M. Teplov1. The immediate history, covering our century, organically enters the present: the doctrine of integrity in Gestalt psychology, the unconscious in depth psychology, the understanding of thinking in the Würzburg school, etc. form the basis of modern research.
The material of a more distant and even very distant history “is not completely denied, the understanding of its limitations does not prevent its partial inclusion in a wider system of knowledge”2.
The mastery of history, of course, is not limited to the reproduction of the views of the past. The historical past can fully serve the present only if it is used to solve urgent problems. K. Levin in the article "The conflict between the Aristotelian and Galilean ways of thinking in modern psychology", comparing the theoretical Teplov B.M. On the culture of scientific research // Selected Works. T. P. - M., 1985. S. 313.
Einstein A., Infeld L. Evolution of Physics.- M, 1965. S. 125.
constructions of Aristotle and Galileo in the context of the pressing problems of modern experimental and theoretical psychology, wrote: “My goal is not historical, rather, I believe that some issues of great importance for the restructuring of the theories of modern psychology can be resolved and more accurately formulated with the help of such a comparison that will provide a view that goes beyond the difficulties of today.
Turning to history in connection with the development of new ways of psychological research is characteristic of all the work of L.S. Vygotsky2.
In a constant dispute with the main psychological trends, D.N.
Uznadze. S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, B.G. Ananiev, B.M. Teplov, P.Ya. Galperin paid much attention to the history of psychology, although for none of them it was an area of special study.
Considering the problem of the significance of the history of psychology, M.G. Yaroshevsky calls such an appeal to history a “creative dialogue with the past”3.
Of course, in order to talk about the Aristotelian way of thinking, it is necessary to know the works of Aristotle well. Just as the performance of a musical work can become expressive only after mastering its technical side, so the use of history in modern research becomes possible only on the basis of knowledge of all the concrete material accumulated by science.
Hence the need arises for the history of psychology as a special area of research that studies the achievements of psychology throughout the entire path of its historical development.
Knowledge of the history of psychology is necessary to understand the various theories and directions of modern psychology, the ways and trends of its development. Only inclusion in the historical context allows us to understand their essence, identify their initial positions, appreciate the true novelty and realize their historical meaning. A historical approach is necessary to understand the current situation in psychological science, for Lewin K.A. Dynamik Theory of Personality.- N.Y., 1965. P. 1.
See, for example, his "Historical Meaning of the Psychological Crisis"; “Teaching about emotions. Historical and psychological research”, etc.
Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology. - 3rd ed. - M., 1985. S. 6-9.
developing new points of view, taking into account and based on the traditions and achievements of the past1.
The study of the history of psychology is of great educational and moral importance. “History is more useful, it is full of wisdom,” wrote the 15th century Italian humanist philosopher. Lorenzo Valla. It acquaints us with the life of people of science, reveals a dramatic struggle in the name of truth, and evokes a variety of feelings: from respectful admiration to disappointment and bewilderment.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 10 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 11 of 245 The subject of the history of psychology Unlike the subject and methods of psychology, the history of psychology studies not psychic reality itself, but ideas about it, as they were at different stages of the progressive development of science.
Historical thought itself also has a history. The history of historical science is historiography. Its subject is the characteristics of historians, historiographic concepts.
The task of the history of psychology is to recreate historical scientific psychological thought, to analyze the emergence and further development of scientific knowledge about the psyche, which should give a complete and coherent picture of their development and growth. Scientific knowledge is systematic knowledge, internally bound by some principles, general premises; obtained by scientific methods; based on evidence and allowing logical and experimental verification of the correctness of its statements and their use in various forms and in relation to various areas of society. Scientific knowledge is developed in the process of scientific activity; it has an author and a date of establishment.
Knowledge gained in the course of everyday practical activity, religious ideas about the psyche, the results of other non-scientific methods of mental activity are not specifically considered.
This, of course, does not mean that they are underestimated, and in the following presentation, in a number of cases, data from extrascientific experience about psychic reality are involved.
There are various conceptions of its history in psychological science. The famous historian of psychology Vasilyuk F.E. Methodological analysis in psychology. - M., 2003.
E. Boring, in order to explain scientific discoveries in psychology, used the concept of Zeitgeist (zeitgeist). According to Boring, the "magical" concept of Zeitgeist means the atmosphere of opinions characteristic of each particular moment, under the influence of which the thinking of the researcher is under the imperious influence. Discovery is not made until the time is ready for it. It happens when time has prepared. The facts of synchronous discoveries available in science, for which it is proved that they are not borrowed (the laws for gases of R. Boyle and E. Mariotte, the calculus of small quantities G.
Leibniz and I. Newton, the theory of emotions by W. James and K. Lange, etc.), are also explained by the spiritual climate of the era. Zeitgeist fulfills a dual role: it helps, promotes scientific progress, but also hinders it, since knowledge itself bears the stamp of its time. Zeitgeist is changing.
For example, when in 1850 G. Helmholtz measured the speed of nerve impulse conduction, it was believed that a spiritual act is immeasurable in time. Helmholtz took a step forward in scientific thinking, changed the Zeitgeist in a certain area. But he could not have done this without relying on existing ideas.
Boring's approach draws attention to the need to take into account the traditions in science when considering the changes taking place in it and reveals an undoubtedly important factor in its development.
A variant of the Zeitgeist point of view is T. Kuhn's paradigm theory. According to this theory, social and cultural processes give rise to paradigms as “generally recognized scientific achievements that, over time, provide the scientific community with a model for posing problems and solving them”1. When anomalies arise within a given scientific paradigm - facts that are incompatible with this paradigm - they generate a crisis. A scientific revolution is taking place, as a result of which a new paradigm takes the place of an inadequate paradigm. The concept of a paradigm is widely used in psychological science. However, the possibility of its application to the description of the historical-psychological process is assessed by historians of psychology with restraint, and often negatively, since the facts of the history of our science do not fit into Kuhn's scheme, the existence of a universally recognized paradigm in psychology at some stage of its development is denied.
Kuhn T. Structure of scientific revolutions. - M., 1977. S. 11.
At the same time, attempts to identify the common foundations and attitudes that can be traced in the development of psychology throughout its history constitute a stable trend in the methodology of historical psychological research. As such attitudes, different authors identify various bipolar positions: determinism - indeterminism; elementalism - holism; empiricism - rationalism, etc. From the point of view of these dispositions, the systematization and generalization of psychological facts and theories is carried out. This approach, although it highlights important characteristics of the mental, does not create a holistic historically specific image of psychology as a science at each of its stages.
The description of history in the concept of a school is aimed at a more holistic view of the historical process.
This approach was implemented by R. Woodworth in relation to the psychology of the 20th century1. He singled out eight of the most famous schools: structural psychology, functional psychology, associationism, psychoanalysis, personalistic and organismic psychology, target or hormic psychology, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology. In relation to each school, the problems developed in it, methods and methods of research, etc. are described. There is a tendency to blur the boundaries between schools.
Another approach to history has been called the theory of great men. It was put forward by an English historian and philosopher of the 19th century. T. Carlyle. According to this approach, history - civil and scientific - is done by Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 11 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 12 of 245 great people like Caesar, Napoleon, Galileo, Newton. "The history of the world is ... the biographies of great people," - this is how T. Carlyle expressed his view on the importance of the individual in history2. Despite the obvious one-sidedness, it has an irrational grain. He draws attention to outstanding personalities, including the role of the personality of a scientist in the development of scientific knowledge. In psychology, in line with this approach, the history of science was outlined by the American historian R. Watson3.
Woodworth R.S. Contemporary Schools of Psychology. Ronald (witch M. Sheehan). 1931.
Carlyle T. Heroes, the cult of heroes and the heroic in history. SPb., 1891. S. 18.
Watson R. I. The Great Psychologists: From Aristotle to Freud. Lippincott, 1963.
The considered approaches in the field of methodology of the history of psychology make it possible to identify real patterns in the development of psychological knowledge. It seems impossible to understand the past without understanding the spiritual context, without biographies of great psychologists, without distinguishing between Lockean and Cartesian tendencies, without comparing objective and subjective approaches, atomism and holism, etc. But taken in isolation from one another, these approaches do not cover the historical -psychological process in the fullness of its features and determinants. It is no coincidence that in a number of manuals on the history of psychology, the authors prefer an eclectic position, meaning their joint use in a specific historical study.
Since the 19th century, major works on the historiography of psychology have been published in Russia (M.I. Vladislavlev, F.A. Zelenogorsky, M.M. Troitsky, E.A. Bobrov, A.P. Kazansky, V.N. Ivanovsky and others). The foundations of Russian historical and psychological science were laid by L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, B.M.
Teplov, B.G. Ananiev, D.N. Uznadze, P.Ya. Galperin, A.A. Smirnov. Works of historians of psychology O.M. Tutundzhyan, V.A. Roments, M.S. Rogovina, M.V. Sokolova, A.A. Nikolskaya, E.A.
Budilova made a great contribution to the development of the methodology of historical and psychological research.
V.A. Romenets presented the history of scientific psychology in connection with the history of culture. He singled out a number of major historical, cultural and psychological themes and traced their evolution. For the first time, the least studied process of the development of psychology in the Middle Ages in Russian history, especially the patristic direction in Ukraine in the 13th - 15th centuries, is considered in detail. On the basis of the developed methodology, the author has created a number of books - teaching aids on the history of world psychology (9 published in Ukrainian).
O.M. Tutunjyan developed the theoretical problems of historiography, paying special attention to periodization, in particular, the periodization of Russian psychological thought.
At present, in domestic science, work on the study of the history of psychology continues in the works of L.I. Antsyferova, V.A. Koltsova, T.D. Marcinkowska, A.B. Petrovsky, V.A. Yakunin and others. In the fundamental works of A.V. Petrovsky highlights the events of the psychology of the Soviet period in all their complexity and in the context of social conditions, gives an objective assessment of pedology, psychotechnics, reflexology and other currents of psychological thought in Russia.
A particularly significant contribution to the national history of psychology was made by M.G. Yaroshevsky (1915 - 2001).
He developed an original concept of the history of psychology, known as categorical analysis. The concept includes an analysis of the categorical apparatus, explanatory principles and global problems, their transformation in the course of the historical path of science development. Specific concrete-scientific categories are identified that reproduce various aspects of psychological reality: image, action, motive, psychosocial attitude, personality. The system of these categories together with the explanatory principles - determinism, consistency, development - form the categorical apparatus of science, its invariant core. The use of categorical analysis makes it possible to see their permanent components in the changing knowledge about subjective reality. Yaroshevsky noted that the subject of psychology is given in the categorical system, but he paid the main attention to the categories, tracing their historically changing content. His concept also involves taking into account socio-cultural conditions and the role of the personality of a scientist in explaining the emergence and development of psychological knowledge. Among the socio-psychological factors of scientific creativity, Yaroshevsky singles out the opponent circle of the scientist, which includes all the authors, in polemics with which new ideas are generated, new scientific knowledge is emerging. On the basis of the developed methodology, Yaroshevsky created fundamental works1.
The famous theorist and historian of psychology P.Ya. Galperin considered the question of the subject of study to be the main theoretical issue and important in practice. This idea runs through all his work. Reviewing the historical path of psychology, Galperin came to the conclusion: “All the definitions, descriptions and indications of the subject of psychology proposed so far turned out to be See, in particular, his History of Psychology, 1966 and other editions; "Psychology in the XX century", 1971, 1974;
"Historical Psychology of Science", 1995, etc.
not only insufficient, but also simply untenable. In the course of lectures on the history of psychology, Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 12 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 13 of 245 which he read at Moscow University. M.V. Lomonosov, considering the psychological concepts of the past, he singled out the understanding of the subject of study contained in them in an explicit or hidden form. The conclusion about the inconsistency and fallacy of all ideas about the subject of psychology did not mean that Galperin underestimated all historical experience - although the critical aspect is very significant in his consideration. For example, assessing the achievements in the development of psychology as an experimental science, he writes that they boil down to "... a relatively small number and, as it were, an accidental nature of the most important results, such frequent ups and downs of theoretical constructions"2. Behind these harsh words lies a preoccupation with the unsatisfactory state of affairs in psychology, the source of which he saw in the inability to distinguish in mental phenomena those aspects of them that constitute the subject of psychology. Thus, according to Galperin, "the question of the subject of study is not only the first and most difficult of the great theoretical questions of psychology, but at the same time a question of urgent practical importance"3.
Working for more than 30 years together with Galperin, first in line with his research on the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts, and later in the field of the history of psychology, the author of this book tried, based on ideas about the paramount importance of the subject of science and based on the experience of presenting the history of psychology in world and domestic science, consider the history of psychology as a process of becoming its subject4. The history of psychology then appears as a process of ongoing transformation of its subject area in the context of the causes and conditions that caused it. Each new understanding of the subject, combined with new methodological research procedures, is seen as opening a new aspect in psychic reality, bringing it closer to its more and more complete scientific understanding.
Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1976. S. 7.
Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1976. S. 9.
There. S. 7.
Zhdan A.N. The history of psychology as the formation of its subject: Diss. for the competition Art. doctor of psychology nauk.- M., 1994.
Extremely schematically, the historical process of transformation of the subject of psychology can be represented as follows.
Psychology arose as the science of the soul. The idea of the soul gave rise to psychology as a science. However, within the framework of the science of the soul, psychology was shackled by the concept of the soul as an explanatory principle, which is the cause of not only mental, but all processes in the body. The rejection of it and the transition to the study of proper mental, i.e., mental phenomena, is connected with the isolation of their distinguishing feature, which was considered consciousness. Thus, the conscious psyche, consciousness, became the subject of research.
The prerequisites for this transition took shape gradually. They are noticeable already in Antiquity, but the great discoveries in the field of various sciences in the 16th century especially contributed to a new understanding. especially in anatomy and medicine. This was an important step towards the knowledge of the mental: consciousness now acted as a special reality, and introspection (self-observation) - as a method of its study.
Difficulties of introspective psychology, which began from the time of Descartes and were growing more and more in the future, in resolving issues related to explaining the adaptive behavior of animals, the psyche in children, the mentally ill, problems of mental development, etc., became insurmountable when psychology clashed in the last quarter of the 19th century. with practical tasks in applied areas of research. The isolation of consciousness and, above all, its separation from behavior (activity) and the subjective method of its study became the main obstacle to the development of psychology. Emerged at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. functional psychology, followed by behaviorism and other variants of the psychology of behavior, were aimed at overcoming the subjectivism of the psychology of consciousness in relation to understanding its subject and method and outlined the paths of objective research. The subject of study was behavior, but at the same time, psychological content was excluded from his study, as inaccessible to objective registration. Thus, this transformation occurred due to the loss of the phenomena studied by psychology - the psyche and consciousness. The movement that began in neobehaviorism, aimed at including in the structure of behavior the formations that mediate it (images, plans, cognitive maps, etc.), led to the emergence of modern cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology has made central the question of the role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject. With psychoanalysis, the myth of the identity of the psyche and consciousness was finally buried. The problem of the unconscious entered science and, along with it, the idea of the subject area of psychology as a deep structure of the mental.
Historically and culturally oriented trends introduced into psychology the problem of the historical nature of the human psyche and pointed to the need to include value and semantic orientations of the individual in psychological research. Modern humanistic psychology has made the personality, not the psyche, the subject of our science. In domestic science, cultural-historical and activity psychology revealed the leading role of the assimilation of culture and one's own activity in the generation, functioning and development of the psyche, thereby providing scientific research with the means of Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 13 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 14 of 245 not only descriptions, but also explanations of the psyche. At the last stage of the development of psychological thought, the unity of the historically broken consciousness and behavior (activity) is restored due to the real implementation of an objective approach to psychological cognition.
If, on the whole, history testifies to the steady progress of psychological knowledge, then the situation is more complicated in individual segments of the path of its development. Not always the knowledge that appeared later turned out to be at the same time more meaningful, progressive in all its aspects; often in the new concept, the positive that was in the old one was discarded. Thus, Gestalt psychology, which opposed associationism, ignored the problem of increasing experience in the process of development of the subject in the global criticism of this trend and turned into an antigenetic theory, which significantly limited its explanatory possibilities.
The development of science, including psychology, is not a linear, but a very complex process, along the way of which zigzags, unrecognized discoveries, returns to already passed decisions, “marking time”, crises are possible. But in general, “a change in scientific opinions is development, progress, not destruction” 1; tracking the process of growth of psychological knowledge in the chronological sequence of their appearance with constant attention to the assessment of achievements - and losses - at each time stage reveals more and more new aspects of psychic reality and explains them more fully.
Periodization of the history of psychology Psychology has a long history: the first scientific ideas arose in the 6th century. BC e. Therefore, the question arises of periodization of the history of psychology, the task of which is to dismember this process, to single out stages, and to determine the content of each of them.
In the history of psychology, two large periods are distinguished: the first, when psychological knowledge developed in the depths of philosophy, as well as other sciences, primarily natural science; the second - when psychology developed as an independent science. They are incommensurable in time: the first period (6th century BC - mid-19th century) covers about 2.5 thousand years, the second - a little more than a century (mid-19th century - present). According to G. Ebbinghaus, psychology has a long past, but a very short history2. The allocation of these two periods does not require special justification, since its criteria are obvious, but since each of them stretches over centuries, a more fractional periodization is necessary.
It can be carried out on purely formal grounds - in particular, chronological, since scientific knowledge arises and unfolds in time. In accordance with the time factor in the holistic process of the development of science, one can distinguish between the history of psychology of the 17th century, the history of psychology of the 18th century. etc.
It is possible to distinguish between the periodization of world and domestic psychology3. Other approaches to the question of periodization are also possible.
Freud 3. The future of one illusion // Questions of Philosophy.
1988. No. 8. S. 159.
Cit. by: Boring E.L. History of Experimental Psychology.- N.Y., 1929. P. 385.
Budilova E.A. On the periodization of the history of psychology in the USSR // Actual problems of the history and theory of psychology. Materials of the conference. - Yerevan, 1976.
Given the conditionality of any periodization and taking into account the lack of development of this problem, the periodization of the history of psychology proposed below should be considered only as one of its possible variants. At the same time, the history of domestic psychological thought is considered as an integral part of the development of world science. As a basis for dividing this process into stages, substantive criteria were chosen that determined the change in views on the nature of the mental.
An interesting fact came out (however, it is also observed in other areas of spiritual activity, in particular, in art) - it can be called one of the laws of the historical and psychological process: it turned out that the duration of the stages is not the same. The deeper one or another idea of an object goes into history, the longer the time of its life in science. Conversely, the closer to the present, the shorter this time. So historically, the first definition of the subject of psychology as a science of the soul existed (albeit with some changes) for more than 20 centuries. In the 20th century, views on the subject of psychology changed so rapidly that some of them existed in science for no more than 10–20 years (see Table 1).
Driving Forces and Causes of the Historical Development of Psychological Ideas Can the development of psychological knowledge be considered a process determined only by one's own logic of cognition in accordance with the nature of the object being studied - the psyche? Like any other science, psychology has only relative independence, and psychologists as scientists "are under the dominant influence of economic development"1. The complex relationship between science and society was characterized by A.S. Vygotsky: “Regularity in the change and development of ideas, the emergence and death of Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 14 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 15 of 245 concepts, even changing classifications, etc.
- all this can be explained on the basis of the connection of this science:
1) with the general socio-cultural subsoil of the era; 2) with the general conditions and laws of scientific knowledge;
3) with the objective requirements that the nature of the phenomena under study makes for scientific knowledge at the given stage of their research”2.
Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 34. S. 419.
Vygotsky L.S. Sobr. op. T. 1. S. 302.
Table 1 Chronology of the stages of development of psychology
I. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN PHILOSOPHY
Time Subject of study Key findings– – –
believed that only cognitive factors have a determining influence on its development, science has its own internal history. The internalist approach to the problem of factors in the development of scientific knowledge is criticized by supporters of another - externalist - approach, according to which the history of science cannot be explained without referring to social factors, so they should be used in the theoretical reconstruction of the historical process of the development of science. In this regard, it is impossible to draw a hard line between the internal and external history of science (T. Kuhn, S. Toulmin, M. Polanyi).
Since the recognition of the influence of the sociocultural environment on the development of science is practically generally accepted, it is necessary to clarify the nature of its influence on the development of psychology.
Analysis of the development of psychological knowledge requires the study of the historical background. However, simply synchronizing them with indicators of the level of socioeconomic development is not enough: social conditions largely influence the choice of a problem, as well as the nature of its solution. So, analyzing the work of 3. Freud, K. Neary came to the conclusion: “The Interpretation of Dreams is the main source of information about those social and political impressions that shaped the thinking and worldview of the creator of psychoanalysis from an early age!”.
The history of psychology must also take into account the special situation in science in the period under study. The fact of the relationship of psychology with other sciences characterizes its development at all stages of history. The influence of mathematics, physics, astronomy, linguistics, physiology, biology, ethnography, logic and other sciences on psychology is varied. Firstly, within the framework of these sciences, Niri K. Philosophical thought in Austria-Hungary. - M., 1987, pp. 111 - 113.
knowledge about mental phenomena was accumulated (for example, the study of the problem of the connection between language and thinking in the works of linguists A. Potebnya, V. Humboldt, and others, the study of reaction time by astronomers, etc.). Secondly, the methods of these sciences were used in psychology, in particular, the experiment was borrowed by V.
Wundt from the physiology of the sense organs, psychophysics and psychometry. Third, there was the use of scientific methodology. So, the development of mechanics in the XVII and XVIII centuries. led to the emergence of a mechanistic model of the behavior of animals (and partly of man) by R. Descartes, the mechanistic concept of associations by D. Gartley, "mental physics" by J. Mill. The interaction of psychology with other sciences continues to this day. J. Piaget considered interdisciplinary connections to be a feature of both the current stage in the development of psychology and its future. At the same time, he said that "the future of psychology is, first of all, its own development"1. There is no contradiction here: the connection with other sciences should not turn into reductionism, that is, the reduction of psychological laws to the laws of other sciences. Such a reduction threatens psychology with the loss of its own object.
The history of psychology is rich in examples of such a danger becoming a reality. In particular, in reflexology V.M. Bekhterev, the whole psyche was reduced to combination reflexes. But F. Engels also wrote: “We will undoubtedly “reduce” thinking sometime experimentally to molecular and chemical movements in the brain; but is this the essence of thinking?
Taking into account the connections of psychology with other sciences and the conditionality of its development by sociocultural factors, it is necessary to reveal its own logic of the development of its ideas as an objective process.
Principles of historical-psychological analysis The most important of them is the principle of historicism.
In historical research, this principle becomes fundamental. It requires the historian to consider one or another segment of the past throughout Piaget J. Psychology, interdisciplinary connections and the system of sciences. - M., 1966. P. 1.
Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 20. S. 563.
the completeness of its specific content, in the system of relevant socio-cultural conditions, as determined by the general situation in science and studied in comparison with previous knowledge.
This allows you to show the originality and uniqueness of the phenomenon under study. At the same time, it is necessary to present the history of science in its entirety, at least its most significant facts. There should be no blank spots in history, forgetfulness of certain historical events or persons.
The principle of historicism requires such an attitude to the past, in which “... not a single theory is discarded in the form of historical rubbish, but, on the contrary, gets its rightful place ... everything made sense for its time, was the result of historical necessity and was organically included in universal human progress of thought.
In accordance with the principle of historicism, an assessment of the past is also made. It reveals the new that contains the considered knowledge in comparison with the previous stage. At the same time, the inevitable limitation of any stage in the development of knowledge in comparison with its later stages must be revealed. This is how prominent representatives of science assessed their predecessors (see.
for example, I.P. Pavlov's teachings of Hippocrates about temperaments, the concept of a reflex by R. Descartes, etc.).
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 18 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 19 of 245 Violation of the principle of historicism in the understanding of the past are presentism and antiquarianism. Presentism limits historical research only to what is significant for the present stage of the development of science and, instead of studying the historical process of the development of science in its entirety, focuses on highlighting only such fragments of its content that are most consistent with modern views. Of course, such an approach is justified for solving certain research problems that require a mandatory reliance on the achievements of the past. However, a selective approach cannot be adopted when the goal is to reconstruct the history of science as a whole. Presentism leads to the modernization of the historical process and contradicts the principle of historicism.
Losev A.F. Vl. Solovyov.- M., 1994.- S. 176.
Antiquarianism also contradicts it, that is, such an approach that considers past history, regardless of the tasks of the present, as something frozen, petrified. Such a "pure history"
turns into a simple registration of events in their temporal sequence and does not fit into the practice of modern scientific research.
A deviation from the principle of historicism is the one-sidedness and schematism of the depiction of the events of past history. At the same time, the requirement of integrity and concreteness imposed on historical thought not only does not exclude, but necessarily presupposes the identification of a general pattern in the phenomenon under study. The fulfillment of this requirement is ensured by relying on the principle of the unity of the logical and the historical, according to which the historian must not only describe one or another stage of historically developing knowledge, but present it theoretically and, therefore, reveal something permanent in it.
For example, behind the historically limited empirical material of specific knowledge about the psyche in Antiquity, the most important problems of psychology hidden in it (almost all) are revealed. On the other hand, adherence to the principle of the unity of the logical and the historical warns against the absolutization of historically limited truths and allows one to evaluate their actual significance. Thus, the idea of the heritability of intellectual abilities, presented in the naturalistic conceptions of a person as the natural, the only possible, i.e., natural and obligatory, in reality should be evaluated only as one of the explanations limited by the framework of this particular concept and the empirical fact of intellectual differences between people. Any generalization of the history of science begins to be understood not as a frozen structure, but historically, that is, in its true meaning, as a stage on the endless path of scientific knowledge.
Historical and psychological knowledge requires the identification of the socio-political orientation, the ideological essence of psychological ideas, which allows them to be assessed more adequately. For example, analyzing the logic of the development of Freudianism, Vygotsky wrote: “... brought to a philosophical form, seemingly obscured by many layers and very far from the immediate roots and social causes that gave rise to it, the idea actually only now reveals what it wants, what it is, from what social tendencies it arose, what class interests it serves. Only after developing into a worldview or acquiring a connection with it, a particular idea from a scientific fact again becomes a fact of social life, that is, it returns to the womb from which it arose”1.
Attention to the ideological side of psychological knowledge contributes to a deeper understanding of their own scientific content:
the inclusion of psychological concepts in the context of social life means at the same time the verification of their truth by the criterion of social practice. Revealing the ideological essence of psychological concepts once again indicates the responsibility of the scientist in connection with the role played by psychological science in the life of society.
This approach opposes both objectivism, which considers scientific concepts outside their real social role in the life of society, and subjectivism in historical science. Manifested in assessments of the past, in a one-sided approach to the selection of material, in the silence of some facts or figures, etc.
subjectivism leads to a one-sided and, consequently, distorted idea of the path of development of science.
As studies by M.G. Yaroshevsky, in the formation of a scientific picture of mental life, the key role belongs to the principle of determinism2. The principle of determinism requires the historian to be able to discover a way of causally explaining the mental as conditioned by the factors that give rise to it.
According to Yaroshevsky, different types of determinism are represented in history: premechanical, mechanical, biodeterminism, psychodeterminism, sociodeterminism. Each of them opposes indeterminism in the interpretation of mental phenomena as supposedly arising spontaneously.
The principles of historical psychological research, together with specific methods, form the basis of a scientific analysis of the historical development of psychology.
Vygotsky L.S. Sobr. op. T. 1. S. 304.
Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology. - M., 1985.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 19 Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 20 of 245 Methods in the History of Psychology The real danger in the history of psychology is empiricism, that is, descriptiveness in the presentation of historical material. The danger lies, of course, not in the very appeal to empiricism, which is represented here by ideas about the psyche in the past. “Empiricism in history is manifested not in the fact that they turn to facts, but in the way they are treated, in helplessness in the face of facts. A work that contains only a heap of factual data, unverified, unsystematized, unexplained, loses the quality of scientific research and is adjacent to the category of sources that need to be processed”1.
The main task of the methods and techniques of historical research is to find sources, and then internal organization, systematization of the material under study, which includes facts, theories, laws, concepts. Together, these components constitute the empiricism of historical-psychological research.
The work of a historian requires a synthesis of empirical and theoretical approaches to the subject of study. It presupposes both knowledge of specific material and possession of the methodology of historical research, the historian's conceptual apparatus, which opens up opportunities for orientation in the material. Communication with modernity is one of the important requirements for the professional activity of a historian. Its necessary components are intuition, personal attitude to the events of the past2.
Some of the methods and techniques of historical and psychological research are borrowed from civil history, science of science, and philosophy of science. In this regard, the history of psychology acquires an interdisciplinary character.
The main method of the history of psychology is the theoretical reconstruction, description and critical analysis of the scientific systems of the past, specific programs for obtaining, substantiating and systematizing psychological knowledge. Such an analysis is based on the methodological principles of the historical research of Gulyg A.N. On the nature of historical knowledge // Questions of Philosophy.- 1962.- No. 9. P. 35.
Polanyi M. Personal knowledge. - M, 1985.
and is produced from a position and in relation to the achievements and problems of modern psychology. Its result is a retrospective reproduction of scientific concepts, problems, research methods, etc. in their historical sequence in accordance with the logic of the subject.
Of course, the historian deals with the development of knowledge in a social context. However, a researcher of the history of science should not allow a bias in sociological analysis, so as not to impoverish the actual meaningful, cognitive aspect of scientific programs. It should be noted that such a danger has appeared in our psychological literature of recent years. It was revealed in particular when considering the domestic psychology of the 1920s, the fate of individual scientists: when recreating the picture of scientific psychological knowledge in this period, the prevailing place was given to materials on the social situation in the country - and less attention was paid to the analysis of its content side.
One of the areas of historical research can be a scientific school: “The historical and scientific reconstruction of the activities of productive scientific schools allows us to get closer to understanding the determinants and patterns of the genesis of the development of new concepts, methods of research programs and entire areas in science”1. The study of scientific schools is an important source of understanding the mechanism of science development, since it allows revealing the very activity of knowledge production in the context of interpersonal relations, the nature of scientific communication within the school team, including such forms of interaction between its members in the process of joint work as the clash of different opinions, mutual criticism, etc. In the classic work of R. Woodworth "Modern Schools in Psychology"
(1931) uses exactly this approach for a historical review of the psychology of the 20th century.
Special procedures require the study of archival materials. This is a search, commenting, supplying footnotes, notes, etc.
In the history of psychology, the method of interviewing is used. This form of research in the history of science Umrikhin V.V. Development of the Soviet school of differential psychophysiology. - M., 1987. P. 8.
called "oral history" (oral history). With its help, the creative mechanisms of the process of generating scientific knowledge, the genesis of scientific interests, etc. are studied. The interview method is a conversation on a list of questions prepared in advance by the researcher, aimed at obtaining materials in accordance with a specific research task. Examples of the use of this method in the history of psychology are the conversations of R. Ivens, an American psychologist, with C. Jung, E. Jones, E.
Fromm and others. Of the Soviet researchers, this method was used by V. Umrikhin, H.A. Danilichev. In connection with the 100th anniversary of A.N. Leontiev (1903 - 2003), material was collected from 40 interviews with famous psychologists, students and associates of A.N. Leontiev, in which the history of the school he created is recreated, the features of the bright personality of this outstanding psychologist of the 20th century are resurrected.1 Biographical and autobiographical methods recreate the atmosphere of real life, are a source of knowledge about the spiritual development of the scientist, the stages of his scientific work. The method plays a huge role in Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 20 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 21 of 245 propaganda of science, provides unique material about the life of people of science, scientific creativity. In foreign science, the most interesting of the works of this kind is the series "The History of Psychology in Autobiographies"
(ed. K. Murchison (1930-1967, vols. 1-4) and E. Boring (1967-1974, vols. 5, 6), in Soviet psychology - A.R.
Luria, Stages of the Path Traveled. Scientific autobiography” (M., 1982).
The analysis of scientific references, i.e., the establishment of the frequency of citation of scientific works, is carried out in order to obtain information about the links between scientific areas, about the cutting edge of science and its development trends. The significance of this technique for studying the state and dynamics of scientific research is limited, since the frequency of citation is determined not only by the objective value of scientific work, but also by other factors1. Thus, due to language barriers, domestic psychology is not well known abroad. This technique can be used in historical research only in conjunction with other methods.
Psychology at the university. 2003. No. 1 - 2; Journal of Practical Psychology. 2003. No. 1-2.
Sources of the history of psychology These are all materials that reflect the historical process of the accumulation of psychological knowledge, and above all the works of psychologists of the past, as well as philosophers, in which psychological problems are studied.
An important source for the development of psychological knowledge is social practice - medicine, education and upbringing, legal practice, material production, etc. To date, medicine, especially psychiatry, has turned out to be the most mastered area by psychologists. E.A. Budilova analyzed the materials of the jury trial, the works of religious figures, lawyers, military theorists, the Russian Geographical Society, ethnographic collections, the works of psychiatrists, journals and other sources and showed the formation of socio-psychological problems in Russian science of the 19th century. O. G. Noskova2 obtained interesting results in the search and analysis of sources containing psychological knowledge about labor and the subject of labor.
The source of psychological knowledge is also other sciences - natural science (including physics, chemistry, astronomy), linguistics, ethnography, anthropology, etc. This determines the need for the historian of psychology to turn to the history of other sciences.
The problems associated with finding and using sources constitute a special area - the study of sources in the history of psychology. An example of research in this area is the experience of studying psychological thought contained in various spheres of culture, areas of social practice and consciousness in Russia in the 18th century. Based on this material, the initial period of the formation of psycho-pedagogical, ethno-psychological and other ideas in Russia3 is recreated.
See: Yaroshevsky M.G., Markusova V.A. Computer and citation ethics // Priroda.- 1987.- № 9. P. 100See: Noskova O.G. Psychological knowledge about labor and the worker in Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries:
Cand. diss. - M., 1986.
Psychological Thought in Russia: Age of Enlightenment / Ed. V.A. Koltsov. - SPb., 2001.
test questions
1. What is the specificity of the subject of the history of psychology?
2. What are the advantages and limitations of various conceptions of the history of psychological science?
3. What is the categorical approach to the methodology of the history of psychology? Who is the author of this approach?
4. What is the significance of the question of the subject of psychology for the reconstruction of the historical-psychological process?
5. What are the conditions, causes and periodization of the development of psychological knowledge?
6. What research methods have been developed in the history of psychology?
Literature1
1. Kuhn T. The structure of scientific revolutions. M., 1977.
2. Levin K. The transition from the Aristotelian to the Galilean way of thinking in psychology // Levin K.
Dynamic psychology: Selected works. M., 2001. S.54-84.
3. Teplov B.M. On some general questions of the development of the history of psychology // Teplov B.M. Selected works. M., 1985. V.2. pp. 191 - 198.
4. Teplov B.M. On the culture of scientific research. There. pp.310-317.
5. Yaroshevsky M.G. Psychology of Science. SPb., 1995.
From the sources below, the teacher recommends individual fragments at his own discretion.
This remark applies to the bibliography of all sections.
– – –
THE FRAMEWORK OF THE DOCTRINE ABOUT THE SOUL
Chapter 1. ANTIQUE PSYCHOLOGY Ideas about the soul already existed in ancient times and preceded the first scientific views on its nature. They arose in the system of primitive beliefs of people, in mythology.Artistic folk art: poetry, fairy tales, as well as religion - show great interest in the soul. These pre-scientific and extra-scientific ideas are very peculiar and differ from the knowledge about the soul that is developed in science and philosophy, in the way they are obtained, in the form of their embodiment, in their purpose. The soul is considered here as something supernatural, as “the animal in the animal, the man inside the man. The activity of an animal or a man is explained by the presence of this soul, and his calm in sleep or death is explained by its absence; sleep or trance represents the temporary, and death the permanent absence of the soul. Since death is the constant absence of the soul, one can protect oneself from it either by closing the exit of the soul from the body, or, if it has left it, by achieving its return. The precautions taken by savages to achieve one of these ends appear in the form of prohibitions or taboos, which are nothing more than rules designed to achieve the permanent presence or return of the soul.
In contrast, the very first scientific ideas about the soul are aimed at explaining the soul and its functions. They originated in ancient philosophy and constituted the doctrine of the soul. The doctrine of the soul is the first Frazer J. Golden Branch. - M., 1980. S. 205.
a form of knowledge in the system of which psychological ideas began to develop: “... psychology as a science had to begin with the idea of the soul,” wrote L.S. Vygotsky. It was "the first scientific hypothesis of ancient man, a huge conquest of thought, to which we now owe the existence of our science"1.
Philosophy arose in the era of the replacement of the primitive communal system by a class slave-owning society almost simultaneously both in the East - in Ancient India, Ancient China, and in the West - in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. Psychological problems were part of philosophy, they inevitably arose, since the subject of philosophical reflections aimed at a rational explanation was the world as a whole, including questions about a person, his soul, etc. In connection with this, the problem of continuity arises in the development of psychological knowledge in countries of East and West, the problem of mutual influence of psychological and philosophical thought between East and West. Contacts between peoples, the interaction of cultures is a constant factor in the historical development of peoples. It is known that Ancient Greece had rich ties with the countries of the Middle East - Syria, Babylonia, Egypt. However, due to the historical conditions of development, by the 6th century. BC e., when philosophy arose in Ancient Greece, it did not develop in Babylonia and Ancient Egypt: here the religious-mythological ideology continued to exist. With regard to scientific knowledge, a number of the peoples of Africa and Western Asia were ahead of the Greeks: they had written language earlier; Egyptian and Babylonian priests developed astronomical and mathematical knowledge.
This knowledge was actively assimilated by the ancient Greeks. A number of ideas about nature and the psyche are consonant in the philosophical schools of ancient Greece and ancient India and China. For example, the search for the first principles, the fundamental principles of natural phenomena, the understanding of the soul as a source of movement and the attribution of the mental to all physical nature, the idea of the transmigration of souls are characteristic of ancient Indian and ancient Greek thinkers. However, this consonance of ideas does not yet prove their penetration into L.S. Vygotsky. Sobr. op. T.1.- M., 1982. S. 429.
Ancient Greece from India and China. Studies have shown that ancient Indian philosophy was the source of philosophical thought throughout the East. The philosophy of ancient Greece had a determining influence on the subsequent development of European culture. F. Engels noted: “In the diverse forms of Greek philosophy, almost all the later types of worldviews are already in embryo, in the process of emergence”2. In Antiquity, classical forms of philosophy developed, in which worldview ethical, ontological and epistemological aspects were harmoniously combined, they were associated with the sciences and aimed at understanding the world, asserting the role of experience and reason. The psychological ideas of Western European thought originate from Antiquity.
At the same time, Western scientists (philosophers and psychologists, when psychology emerged as an independent field of scientific knowledge) were attracted by Eastern thought: its depth, spirituality, ideas about a person and ways of his improvement, the power of its impact on people. However, the big differences between the philosophy of the East and the West, determined by the peculiarities of the socio-economic development of the countries of the West and the East, the traditions of their spiritual life, make it difficult to synthesize ideas about a person in these two directions. Particularly great interest in the East is seen in psychology in the 19th and 20th centuries. (for example, in the psychoanalytic concept of C. Jung, E. Fromm) in connection with the need to clarify the true essence of man, the spirituality of his aspirations, etc., which has become aggravated in the conditions of the crisis of bourgeois society.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 22 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 23 of 245 Considering what has been said and taking into account the extremely insufficient knowledge of ancient Indian and ancient Chinese psychology, we will begin the presentation of the process of formation of psychological knowledge from Antiquity. Ancient psychology arose and developed in the conditions of an ancient slave-owning society as a reflection of the demands of social practice and in close connection with the science of its time.
Changes undergone See: Shcherbatskoy F.I. Selected works on Buddhism. - M, 1988.
Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 20. S. 5.
Valiate the slave-owning socio-economic formation of history, explain the specifics in the interpretation of man, including the teachings about the soul, the change of aspects and directions in approaches to problems related to the soul. Ancient psychology was nourished by the humanism of Greek culture with its idea of the fullness of life as the harmony of the bodily and spiritual sides, the cult of a living, healthy, beautiful body, and love for earthly life. It is distinguished by subtle intellectualism, a high attitude towards reason. The importance of ancient psychology is great.
Here is the beginning of all scientific psychology, of all its fundamental problems.
Basic Provisions of the Materialistic Doctrine of the Soul in Ancient Psychology BC e. and was historically the first form of ancient Greek philosophy. The first ideas about the soul arise in the period of the early classics (VI - V BB. BC) in the natural philosophy of the ancient Ionians Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and the Ephesian Heraclitus. These thinkers teach about the four elements that underlie everything. According to Thales, this is water, according to Anaximenes - air, according to Heraclitus - fire.
Parmenides called the earth the primary element. Heraclitus also called fire the Logos, which he identified with Reason. Logos is also a law that, despite changes (“everything flows”, “nothing has stability”, “you cannot enter the same stream twice”), leaves the structure of the whole unchanged. The soul is part of the divine fire. The more fire, the more soul. "A dry soul is the wisest and best."
When leaving the body, the fire continues to exist.
Empedocles of Agrigentum introduces idealistic ideas about two forces that govern the mixing and separation of the elements of the world: connecting - he calls it Love - and separating - he calls it Hatred - which form the whole world from four elements. In these ideas of Empedocles, the 20th-century psychologist 3. Freud saw the correspondence of his psychoanalytic theory about the two initial instincts - the desire for Eros and the desire for destructiveness, which, as he argued, guide the life of an individual and the development of culture as a whole1.
The pinnacle of ancient materialism was atomistic materialism, the founders of which are Democritus and his teacher Leucippus (5th century BC). Democritus acted during the period of the ascending development of the slave system, which was accompanied by the greatest rise in ancient Greek science, art (architecture, sculpture) and literature. In the Hellenistic period, the teachings of Democritus were developed by Epicurus (IV-III centuries BC) and his school, known in history as the "Garden". In this school, in connection with a change in the historical situation, the center of gravity in philosophy shifts from questions relating to nature to the problems of man, the knowledge of nature begins to occupy a subordinate place.
A follower of Epicurus in Rome until the 1st century. BC e. was Lucretius, who expounded the Epicurean worldview in the philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things."
The system of atomistic materialism was developed by the Stoics in the first materialistic period of their existence (III century BC, the founders are Chrysippus and Zeno the Stoic; this system also developed in the next two centuries BC and the first centuries AD. ). Among the Stoics, in the context of the deepening process of Greece's loss of its political independence, which followed after the conquests of Alexander the Great (334 - 233 BC), there is a further development of philosophy in the direction from speculation to the solution of moral problems by the individual: only by focusing on one's inner life, you can find freedom, independence from the outside world. Next, the psychological ideas of ancient atomistic materialism will be considered2. At the same time, in order to create a holistic view of this direction in its development from Democritus to the Stoics, i.e. from the 5th century. BC e. to V B.N.E.
deviation from the chronological principle of presentation is allowed.
Freud 3. Analysis finite and infinite // Psychological counseling and psychotherapy:
Reader. T.1. Theory and Methodology. - M., 1999. S. 98-99.
See: Materialists of Ancient Greece / Ed. M.A. Melon. - M., 1955; Lucretius K. On the nature of things.- M., 1958.
The basis of the psychological views of these philosophers was ancient atomistic materialism.
According to this theory, everything that exists consists of two principles - being (indivisible atoms) and non-being (emptiness). Atoms are the smallest substances, indivisible and inaccessible to the senses, differing according to Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 23 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 24 of 245 form, size and mobility. All things are formed from the atoms that make them up. The so-called sensory qualities - color, taste, etc. - Democritus did not attribute to atoms. “Only in the general opinion there is color, in the opinion - sweet, in the opinion - bitter, but in reality there are only atoms and emptiness”1. These qualities arise in human perception and are the product of the combination of atoms. The ancient commentators of Democritus drew attention to the contradictory nature of these provisions. “Reducing sensible qualities to the forms of atoms, he at the same time says that the same thing seems bitter to some, sweet to others, still differently”2. Epicurus, who followed Democritus and accepted his system for its naturalness, believed that sensual qualities also exist objectively. He attributed weight to the atoms, for it is necessary, he said, that bodies move by gravity.
Epicurus introduced into the atomic doctrine the idea of spontaneous deflection of atoms, due to which their movement actually occurs along curves. Based on this position, Epicurus explains the origin of the world as a result of the collision of atoms. The dialectical meaning of the idea of spontaneous deflection of atoms was first revealed by K. Marx in his doctoral dissertation “The difference between the natural philosophy of Democritus and the natural philosophy of Epicurus”, evaluating this idea as an indication of the presence of a source of movement in matter itself, a question that was most difficult for all mechanistic materialism.
New aspects were introduced into ancient atomistic materialism, into its physics, by the Stoics3. They developedSee: Materialists of Ancient Greece. S. 61.
There. S. 81.
The Stoics divided philosophy into physics (the doctrine of nature), logic (the doctrine of knowledge) and ethics, an important part of which was the doctrine of affects.
whether the doctrine of the stages of evolution of the world. At the initial stage, there are only the finest particles - the atoms of fire. The universe is all mind. Then the movement to weighting begins.
The Stoics considered the formation of the world as the transformation of the original fire into a vaporous mass, from which first inanimate nature, then plants, animals and, finally, man are formed. After a while, the reverse process begins, when everything returns to the beginning, again turns into a fiery vapor. The world cycle is coming to an end. Then follows a new formation of the world, and everything in it will take place according to the same laws, until everything is destroyed again. The life of the world consists of world cycles that are endlessly repeated.
Thus, two principles rule over the world:
the regularity with which creation and destruction follow, and fate, or fate, as their manifestation in a single human life.
On the basis of physical representations, a psychological doctrine of the soul, cognition, feelings, will was developed, and practical questions in the field of human behavior were posed and resolved.
The doctrine of the soul Democritus understood the soul as the cause of the movement of the body. The soul is material and consists of the smallest, round, smooth, unusually mobile atoms scattered throughout the body. The soul, like fire, is composed of these atoms: it is the atoms of fire in its form and activity. When small particles penetrate heavy ones, they, due to the fact that by their nature they are never at rest, moving, set the body in motion, becoming the soul of these heavy bodies. Thus, the soul is understood as the product of the distribution of atoms in the body. Democritus attributed movement to the soul in the material sense as spatial movement. When complex bodies disintegrate, small ones come out of them, disperse in space and disappear. This means that the soul is mortal and is destroyed along with the body. When we breathe, we draw into ourselves the particles that make up the soul, which are in large numbers in the air; when we breathe out, we throw out some part of our soul. Thus, the soul is continuously materially renewed with each breath.
Democritus believed that the soul belongs to everyone, even the dead body, but only the latter has very little soul. So Democritus comes to panpsychism: everything - both plants and stones - has a soul.
Disease is a change in the proportion of atoms. In old age, the number of mobile atoms decreases. In the sense organs, small atoms are closest to the external world, therefore they are adapted for external perception.
A particularly favorable ratio of light and heavy atoms is in the brain: it is the place of higher mental functions, the ability to know. The organ of noble passions is the heart, sensual desires and desires - the liver. Thus, Democritus gives a natural understanding of the soul. The soul is a product of the organization of the body, and is not the original principle. It does not exist outside the body.
The limitation of the views of Democritus is the quantitative principle, which does not allow distinguishing mental processes from material ones. It is characteristic that, distinguishing the soul from the body, Democritus considers it a body, albeit a special body. Ancient materialism is characterized by the materialization of the soul: the soul is not only considered in unity with the body - this is a sign of any materialistic doctrine of the soul, but is itself a body. At the same time, the argument in favor of the materiality of the soul is the following reasoning: if the soul moves the body, then it is corporeal itself, since the mechanism of the action of the soul on the body was conceived as a material process like a push. Arguments in favor of the corporality of the soul in detail Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 24 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 25 of 245 is developed by Lucretius.
Epicurus, Lucretius, as well as the Stoics continued to develop Democritus' ideas about the soul. According to Epicurus, only those beings that can sense have a soul.
The Stoics identified eight parts of the soul:
the controlling principle (mind in humans or instinct in animals), from it “seven other parts of the soul come, spreading through the body like the tentacles of an octopus. Five of these seven parts of the soul are the senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch. Vision is a pneuma extending from the governing part to the ears; the sense of smell is pneuma extending from the control part to the nose; taste is a pneuma extending from the governing part to the tongue; touch is pneuma extending from the controlling part to the surface of things that can be touched by the senses.
Of the remaining parts, one is called reproducing - it is pneuma, extending from the control part to the reproductive organs. The other part is what Zeno the Stoic called the voice - it is pneuma, extending from the control part to the throat, tongue and other organs of speech. The control part is located, as if in the universe, in our spherical head. In the doctrine of the Stoics about the soul, rationalism is manifested, which is characteristic of their worldview as a whole:
the mind is the leading higher part of the soul. Lucretius distinguishes between the spirit and the soul: the spirit is also called the mind, it is the soul of the soul.
The doctrine of knowledge In ancient atomistic materialism, two types of knowledge are distinguished - sensation (or perception) and thinking. The beginning and source of knowledge are sensation and perception.
They give knowledge about things:
sensation cannot arise from something that does not exist. This is true knowledge, sensations do not deceive us.
The most reliable, says Epicurus, is to turn to the senses external and internal. Errors arise from the intervention of the mind. Democritus calls sensory knowledge a "dark" kind of knowledge. It is limited in its possibilities, since it cannot penetrate to too little, to the atom, to the innermost, according to Epicurus. The materialistic doctrine of Democritus on sensation contains inconsistency associated with the distinction between qualities that exist “truly” (i.e., objectively) and those that exist only “in general opinion” (sensory qualities). This distinction gave rise to the great philosophical problem of primary and secondary qualities developed in modern times (J. Locke, 17th century). Perception was seen as a natural physical process. From things Quoted. Quoted from: Anthology of World Philosophy. In 4 volumes / Ed. V.V. Sokolov. T. 1.- M., 1969. S. 491-492.
separate - expire - the thinnest films, copies, images, idols (eidols), similar in appearance to the object itself. They are forms or kinds of things. They fly in space and get into the sense organs, for example, into the eye. At the same time, a counter stream of soul atoms is directed from the eye, which, like tentacles woven from the finest ethereal substance, spread through the organ of vision and capture - feel - images. The large image shrinks to a size that allows it to enter the eye.
When the flow of images from the inside merges with the flow coming from outside, the air between the eye and the object receives an imprint, which is reflected in the moist part of the eye. Thus, the image arises without the participation of the subject and is only captured by him. “We see as a result of the entry of idols (images) into us”1.
Images can be perceived by any part of the body, only in this case the perception will be worse than the sense organs2.
The theory of Democritus is a naive way of solving the problem of the process of perception, but it is important that he made an attempt to explain the process of perception in a materialistically quite natural way. Democritus' idea of sensory knowledge was developed by Epicurus, Lucretius and the Stoics. Epicurus defends the theory of outflows, explains how vision, hearing, smell, etc. occur. He points to the integral nature of perception: all sensory qualities are captured not separately, but accompanied by the whole.
Lucretius dwells on some questions of perception: about the force of influence capable of producing a sensation, about the perception of distance, etc. “It is impossible to refute feelings”3, they give true knowledge.
The Stoics introduced a number of new points into the doctrine of sensation. “The Stoics said: when a person is born, his controlling part of the soul is like a leaf of papyrus, ready to receive inscriptions. It is in the soul that a person writes down his every thought, and his first See; Materialists of Ancient Greece... S. 89.
There. S. 96.
Lucretius. On the nature of things. - M., 1946. Book. IV.
the recording is made by the senses. Comprehending representations, i.e., representations “which they consider to be the criterion of any object”2, are the product of a special process - catalepsy, which involves the participation of the mind.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 25 Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 26 of 245 Thinking is a continuation of sensation. Democritus calls it a bright kind of knowledge, true, lawful knowledge. It is a more subtle cognitive organ and grasps an atom that is inaccessible to sensation, hidden from it. According to Epicurus, in contrast to sensation, thinking gives knowledge of the general in the form of concepts or general representations, allows you to cover a greater number of particular phenomena - this is its advantage over sensation, which gives a single representation.
For Democritus, as well as Epicurus, Lucretius and the Stoics, such an understanding of the process of cognition is characteristic, in which its sensual stage does not break away from thinking, although they certainly differ.
Thinking is similar to sensation in terms of its mechanisms: both are based on the outflow of images from objects. “... Sensation and thinking arise as a result of images coming from outside. For no sensation or thought comes to anyone without an image falling into it.
The Stoics distinguished between external and internal thinking. Inner intelligence is the ability to follow the correlation of things in a situation and the ability to correctly plan the appropriate behavior. Formed on the basis of perception. External thinking, or external speech, is verbal thinking, the transformation of internal thoughts into external reasoning. In connection with the separation of speech thinking, the Stoics began to analyze the word as a phenomenon of language. Chrysippus introduced the distinction between signifier, signifier, and object;
laid the foundation for the doctrine of the word and its origin (etymology). This posed the problem of the meaning of the word.
Anthology ... S. 492.
Diogenes Laertes. On the life, teachings and sayings of famous philosophers. - M, 1979. S. 283.
Materialists ... S. 89.
The problem of feelings Feelings were considered in the system of atomistic materialism in connection with ethical problems as the basis for ethics. Democritus distinguished between pleasure and displeasure as indicators of useful and harmful. “Pleasure ... is a state corresponding to the nature of a living organism, and suffering is a state alien to this nature. Pleasure and pain serve as criteria for deciding what to strive for and what to avoid. Democritus considered the goal of life “a good calm disposition of the spirit (euthymia), which is not identical with pleasure, as some, not understanding properly, interpreted, but such a state in which the soul lives serenely and calmly, not disturbed by any fear or fear of demons, nor any other passion." This state is attained if one makes one's pleasures independent of transitory things, in general "on moderation in enjoyment and a harmonious life"3.
According to Epicurus, feelings are some kind of hindrance, and for a satisfied state it is necessary to avoid mental anxieties. At the same time, Epicurus argued that the purpose of life is reasonable pleasure.
Pleasure is freedom from displeasure, anxietylessness is ataraxia. There is no contradiction between these statements. By pleasure as the goal of life, Epicurus understood “not the pleasures of libertines and not the pleasures that consist in sensual pleasure ... but ... freedom from bodily suffering and mental anxieties”4. The main feelings that disturb the peace of mind are the fear of death and the fear of the gods, on which, supposedly, the fate of a person depends. “Accustom yourself to the idea that death has nothing to do with us. After all, everything good and bad consists in sensation, and death is the deprivation of sensation.
Materialists ... S. 85.
There. S. 154.
There. S. 160.
There. S. 212.
There. S. 209.
We must free ourselves from the fear of the gods. Epicurus did not deny the existence of the gods, but called for a correct idea of them. It is achieved by theoretical knowledge “... if we treat everything with attention, then we will correctly determine the causes that cause confusion and fear, and by determining the causes of celestial phenomena and other sporadically occurring facts, we eliminate everything that is extremely frightening for individual people”1 .
According to Lucretius, feelings are entirely dependent on the mind. Otherwise, they mislead us.
The Stoics confused aspirations and feelings in the concept of affect and made a great contribution to the doctrine of affects.
Affects are excessive, unreasonable and unnatural movements of the soul, associated with wrong ideas about things. They also applied the definition of “unreasonable” to individual affects, for example, desire is an unreasonable desire or search for the expected good, pleasure is an unreasonable excitement from an existing good, grief is an unreasonable mental contraction from an existing evil, etc. In total, the Stoics counted 26 affects and depending on from time and objects to which they Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 26 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 27 of 245 relate, distributed them into classes: pleasure (joy, pleasures, gaiety); displeasure (sadness, suffering) and its varieties - compassion, envy, competition, grief, embarrassment, resentment, sadness, despondency; desire (its varieties are need, hatred, anger, love, anger, annoyance); fear (fear, indecision, shame, fright, shock, anxiety).
The Stoics distinguished three stages in the growth of an affective state.
1. Under the influence of external influences, physiological changes occur in the body: affects, like any other manifestation of the soul, bodily, there are no affects without bodily changes.
2. Involuntarily, there comes an opinion about what happened and how to react. This is a mental, but involuntary component.
Materialists ... S. 196.
3. Reason must intervene. Two cases are possible:
a) the mind does not allow the attraction to become an affect, making a judgment about the value of what is happening from the point of view of good or evil (good, evil and indifference are the basic concepts of the ethical part of the philosophy of the Stoics);
b) if the mind is weak or weighed down by ordinary prejudices, it is carried away to an incorrect judgment, and then an affect arises.
Thus, although the affect is counter-intelligible, because it is in conflict with the correct judgments of the mind, it has its basis in the mind, namely, in the wrong judgment. That is why the Stoics call passion judgment. To be or not to be an affect also depends on the mind. Therefore, where there is no reason, there are no passions: in children, in animals, in the feeble-minded, although they have natural inclinations. These impulses cannot be considered passions, since the passion is based on a wrong judgment, Chrysippus calls it an error of reason. We must not make this mistake, and the moral task preached by the Stoics was not to mitigate affects, but to unconditionally eradicate them.
An absolutely negative attitude towards affects from a moral point of view is combined among the Stoics with the position of the presence of good passions. There are three of them: joy, caution and will. Joy is the opposite of enjoyment, and is intelligent excitement; Caution is the opposite of fear and is a reasonable avoidance (thus, sage, will not be timid, but will be cautious); will is the opposite of desire and is a rational excitation.
For cases when the affect nevertheless becomes inevitable, a “recipe” was developed to combat affects.
1) to prevent the affect from taking on external expression: the external expression strengthens the affect. Therefore, it is extremely important to struggle with the external manifestations of passions;
2) not to exaggerate the affect by imagination;
Anthology ... S. 511.
3) not to hurry with the approval of the affect, to "postpone" the last stage of the growth of the affective state (for example, count to 10) and thereby create a distance between the affect and the activity in the direction of the affect;
4) be distracted by a different kind of memory, for example, when afraid to recall examples of courage, endurance;
5) to expose the actions to which the affect pushes, etc.
The problem of will and character The problem of will is resolved by Democritus on the basis of the doctrine of necessity and chance. An organic part of the materialism of Democritus is rigid determinism: "Nothing happens by chance, but there is some definite reason for everything that we say that it happened spontaneously and accidentally"1.
Everything that exists in the world is subject to necessity. The world arose as a result of the vortex-like movement of atoms, during which atoms collide, spin, stick together and form celestial bodies and other complex bodies. Democritus rejects the idealistic doctrine of expediency in nature, and the movements of the soul are entirely determined from the outside. But the mechanistically understood determinism of everything removes all freedom and, therefore, moral evaluation. Already the ancient commentators of Democritus saw the contradiction of his teaching to the facts. “It does not escape us how great is the difference between when a person walks by himself and when he is led, between free choice and action under compulsion...”2. Elsewhere: “... in the same way that we directly perceive ourselves, we directly comprehend what happens in us by free choice, and what is due to external influence”3. On Malurya S.Ya. Demokrit.- L., 1970. S. 213.
There. S. 218.
There. S. 222.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 27 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 28 of 245 in the theory of Democritus' teaching, it becomes obvious that it is impossible to solve the problem of the freedom of the human will on the basis of rigid determinism. Epicurus, having extended the doctrine of the spontaneous deflection of atoms to the nature of human behavior, believed that each person is endowed with an element of free will.
He is not only under the influence of external forces, but is also an active acting subject, laughing at fate, fulfilling intentions and achieving good in life.
The dialectical concept of the relationship between free will and necessity was continued by Lucretius.
The Stoic understanding of freedom is peculiar. Since everything in reality obeys laws, everything that happens in the world and with an individual person is perceived by the mind as a necessary and natural inexorable action of objective circumstances. It remains for a person to voluntarily accept the prescriptions of fate. In this voluntary obedience to necessity lies freedom. Thus, humility and submission to conscious necessity are combined with the affirmation in oneself of a feeling of inner freedom, which makes a person capable of defending himself even in spite of the unfavorable natural course of the historical process. The ideology of humility, submission to fate was adopted and developed by Christianity. Engels called Seneca, a supporter of the philosophy of Stoicism, "the uncle of Christianity." Stoicism proclaims contempt for wealth, the idea of the equality of all people, and some other ideas consonant with Christianity. The social basis of Stoicism was the historical conditions of the slave-owning society of that period as a time of "general economic, political, intellectual and moral decay, when the present is unbearable, the future, perhaps, is even more threatening"1. Under these conditions, humility became one of the ways of personal self-determination and behavior. The faith of the Stoics in the strength of the soul before fate brought up respect for a strong character, strengthened the moral spirit of a person. According to the teachings of the Stoics, Marx K., Engels F. Soch. T. 20. S. 312.
See: L.A. Seneca. Moral letters to Lucilius. - M., 1977.
character is a certainty, a seal of originality, which distinguishes the actions of one person from another and expresses a specific attitude of a person to the world, to himself and to other people. “It is a great thing to always play the same role ... Demand one thing from yourself - what you were at the beginning, stay that way until the end.
Make it so that you are praised, but if you can’t, at least to be recognized, ”wrote Seneca. The most valuable character traits of the Stoics included courage, self-control, peace of mind, and justice.
Character is based on a worldview, based on ideas of good, evil and indifference.
The life difficulties that a person encounters acquire the significance of technical interference.
“In an inaccessible place is the soul that has left everything external and defends its freedom in its own fortress:
no spear will reach her,” wrote Seneca. This statement should not be understood as a call to avoid life's affairs and duties; the Stoics demanded from a person the fulfillment of his civil, family and other duties. A wise man can give his life for the fatherland and for his friends. The main role in the formation of character belongs to the tempering of the spirit with long exercises, by performing actions, as well as by observing the actions of the heroes, thinking about them. Everyone can and should develop a strong character. “If something is beyond your power, then do not decide that it is generally impossible for a person. But if something is possible for a person and is characteristic of him, then consider that it is also available to you.
In general, in the philosophy of Stoicism, a person appears as a free being, although he acts in accordance with his duty: he does what is proper to do. He is inclined to internal contemplation, "... he must tirelessly watch himself" - the characteristic name of one of the sections of the teachings of Epictetus (55-135 years, late standing). “Look inside yourself” is one of the advice of Marcus Aurelius (also Late Standing, 121-180). He is not vain and impassive. But his impassivity is Aurelius Mark. Alone with myself. Reflections. - M., 1914. S. 77 - 78. Book six.
different from other impassibility, callous and cruel person. The ideal of a person in Stoicism is independence from external circumstances, autonomy, self-sufficiency (autarky), in contrast to the Christian ideal of a person who seeks help from God.
There is too much intellectualism in the strict morality of Stoicism. How many could use stoic wisdom? The words of the Apostle Paul turned out to be much closer to the average person: “I do not understand what I am doing, because I do not do what I want, but what I hate, I do.” Thus Stoicism prepared the ground for Christianity.
The idealistic psychology of Plato According to Engels, “for all the naive-materialistic nature of the worldview as a whole, the ancient Greeks already have the seed of a later split. Already in Thales, the soul is something special, different from the body (he attributed the soul to the magnet), in Anaximenes it is air (as in the Book of Genesis), in the Pythagoreans it is already immortal and migrates, and the body is something purely accidental for it. And among the Pythagoreans, the soul is a “split off particle of ether”1. It is in the interpretation of the characteristics of the soul in their difference from the body that Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 28 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 29 of 245 idealistic tendencies gradually increase. The Pythagorean Philolaus was the first to designate the body as a prison for the soul. Anaxagoras put forward the doctrine of the mind - "nous" - as the cause of everything, as the principle of the cosmos, movement, expediency, while recognizing the causes of an empirical natural-scientific nature. Socrates (470 - 399 BC) spoke out against this inconsistency of Anaxagoras, as well as against the movement of the sophists with their positions on the relativity of knowledge, the concepts of good and evil, a decrease in interest in questions of natural philosophy and criteria of behavior. Socrates devoted his energies to the struggle for the existence of philosophy and the moral truth associated with it, and laid the foundation for it. The purpose of Socrates and the teaching of the Sophists was to make people better. Sophists according to K. Marx, F. Engels Op. T. 20. S. 504.
they understood this goal in the worldly sense as the task of making people more dexterous in worldly and political affairs. In doing so, they relied on practically useful knowledge serving the interests of the subject; asserted the relativity of the ethical concepts of the best, virtue, etc. "Man is the measure of all things," was the main position of sophistry. So the sophist Protagoras said: “He who comes to me will learn only what he came for. This science is intelligence in domestic affairs, the ability to manage your home in the best possible way, as well as in public affairs: thanks to it, you can become stronger both in actions and in speeches relating to the state. ”1 The art of living was reduced to the ability to deceive others, for example, to represent the weak - strong. Among other techniques that the sophists offered to young people was mnemonics (a set of techniques that facilitate memorization): learning oratory required memorizing extensive material. In the sense of Socrates, before making citizens better, it is necessary to understand what a person is. “Know thyself” is the motto of Socrates. Unlike the sophists, who brought virtue closer to prudence in everyday affairs and believed that it could be taught like any other art - “acquired and instilled by education”, Socrates chooses a different path. To find signs of virtue by isolating from the empirical ideas about good that are in the mind random impermanent signs and identifying those that are inherent in all types of virtue, that is, the very essence of virtue. Divine reason, according to Socrates, is the sole cause of all phenomena. From the position of the irreducibility of the general to individual manifestations, Socrates came to the neglect of the individual and the recognition of the objectivity of the general. The basis of a moral act is the knowledge of the good. Virtue consists in knowing the good and acting in accordance with that knowledge.
The brave is the one who knows how to behave in danger, and does so. Knowledge has active power.
It is stored in the secrets of the soul of every person. He can be freed from walking false opinions with the help of midwifePlato. Works: in 3 volumes. T. 1.- M., 1968. S. 200.
art, which allows you to bring true knowledge to the light of day. Midwifery (maieutics) is a conversation in which, with the help of questions, the interlocutor should discover the need for more in-depth self-knowledge, verification of one's own views. Destroying current ideas that people repeat without sufficient understanding, Socrates insisted on the possibility of accurate knowledge of moral virtues, proving that the true good of a person does not consist in satisfying random desires, but in living in accordance with virtue. For his sermons, he was accused of undermining faith in the gods and corrupting youth, and was sentenced to death by an Athenian court.
The accusation was false, but he did not justify himself. The activity of Socrates was crowned with his valiant death. Compiled by Plato on behalf of Socrates, the "Apology" (defensive speech) recreates the image of a fearless sage, free from fear, completely devoted to the truth.
In the doctrine of the soul, Socrates first pointed out the distinction between the body and the soul and proclaimed the immateriality and immateriality of the soul. He defined the soul negatively as something other than the body. The soul is invisible, unlike the visible body. She is the mind, which is the beginning of the divine.
He defended the immortality of the soul.
Thus, the movement of ancient thought gradually began to take shape in the direction of an idealistic understanding of the soul.
Idealism reaches its highest development in the student of Socrates - Plato (427 - 347 BC), who became the founder of objective idealism. The greatest place is given to psychological problems in Plato's dialogues "Phaedo", "Phaedrus", "Feast", "State", "Phileb".
The central philosophical problem of Plato is the doctrine of ideas. Ideas are a truly existing being, immutable, eternal, having no arisen Socrates expressed his views orally, in conversations with different people. Information about their content has come down to us in the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon. The most important sources on the art of Socratic conversation are Xenophon's Memories of Socrates and Plato's dialogues (Theaetetus and others).
a vision not embodied in any substance. They are formless and invisible, exist independently, independently of sensible things. Unlike ideas, matter is nothingness, formless invisible. It is nothing that can become any thing, i.e. everything, when combined with a certain idea. Finally, the sensible world, that is, material things, objects, natural (the world of nature) and made by man.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 29 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 30 of 245 This world comes and goes, but never really exists. The correlation of ideas and things is such that the world of ideas has undeniable primacy. Ideas and things are not equal: ideas are examples, things are their likenesses. In poetic form, this understanding was conveyed by the Russian philosopher Vl. Solovyov: "... everything we see is only a reflection, only shadows from the invisible with our eyes." The idea acts as a goal towards which, as to the supreme good, everything that exists strives. Plato's doctrine of ideas is objective idealism.
An integral part of the idealistic philosophy of Plato is the doctrine of the soul. The soul acts as a beginning mediating between the world of ideas and sensible things.
The soul exists before it enters into union with any body. In its primitive state, it is part of the world spirit, resides in a premier space, in the realm of eternal and unchanging ideas, where truth and being coincide, and is engaged in the contemplation of what is.
Therefore the nature of the soul is akin to the nature of ideas. “To the divine, immortal, intelligible, uniform, indecomposable, constant and unchanging in itself, our soul is most similar.” Unlike the soul, the body is like “human, mortal, comprehended not by the mind, diverse, decomposable and perishable, impermanent and dissimilar to itself”2.
The individual soul is nothing but the image and outflow of the universal world soul. Plato explains its connection with the body by falling away from truth to that which has being from it. Soul according to Plato. Cit.: In 3 volumes. T.2.- M, 1970. S. 45.
There. S. 45.
nature is infinitely higher than the perishable body and therefore can rule over it, and it must obey its movements. The corporeal, the material is passive in itself and receives all its reality only from the spiritual principle. At the same time, Plato teaches about the connection between the soul and the body: they must correspond to each other. Plato distinguishes 9 categories of souls, each of which corresponds to a specific person. He points to the need to develop the soul and body in balance so that there is proportion between them. Plato decides the question of the localization of the soul in the body. In general, Plato teaches about "a two-part union, which we call a living being"1, with the leading role in this union of the soul.
Plato gives metaphorical figurative definitions of the soul. In The State, he uses the comparison of the soul with a herd, a shepherd and a dog helping him. In the Phaedra, the soul is likened to a winged team of two horses, which is driven by a charioteer. “We will liken two parts of it to horses... the third to a charioteer... One of the horses is good, and the other is not.”2 These definitions figuratively express the position of the triple composition of the soul - lustful, passionate and reasonable.
According to Plato, there are three principles of the human soul. The first and the lowest are common to man, animals and plants. This is a lustful, unintelligent beginning. Possessing it, every living being seeks to satisfy its bodily needs: it feels pleasure, reaching this goal, and suffering - otherwise. It is with this part of the soul that a person “falls in love, experiences hunger, thirst and is captured by other lusts”3. It makes up a large part of the soul of every person. Another - rational - beginning counteracts or opposes the aspirations of the lustful beginning. The third principle is a furious spirit. With this part, a person “boils up, becomes irritated, becomes an ally of what seems fair to him, and for this he is ready to endure hunger, cold and all similar torments, if only to win; he will not give up his noble aspirations - either Plato ... T. 3 (I) .- M., 1971. S. 535.
Plato... T. 2. S. 190.
Plato... T. 3. (I). S. 233.
get your way or die; unless he is humbled by the arguments of his own reason, which will call him back like a shepherd calls his dog away.
All sides of the soul must be in a harmonious relationship to each other under the dominance of a reasonable principle. Its function is “to take care of the whole soul as a whole... but the furious principle must obey it and be an ally”2. The unification of all principles communicates the integrity of a person's spiritual life. According to Plato, “a person has the power of a truly internal influence on himself and on his abilities”3.
The real ratio of the parts of the soul is far from ideal, which is the harmony between them, in the soul there is a real strife between the lustful and rational principles. This struggle is revealed in the dreams of a person, revealing behind the appearance of a quite moderate-looking person “some kind of terrible lawless and wild kind of desires”4. Disruption of harmony leads to suffering, its restoration - to pleasure. Thus, feeling is necessarily introduced into the description of the life of the soul.
Plato's doctrine of the fate of the soul after the death of the body is clothed in the form of a myth and pursues ethical, state-pedagogical goals: "If the soul is immortal, it requires care not only for the present time, which we call life, but for all time, and if someone does not care about our souls, henceforth we will consider this a formidable danger ... 5 While living, people must believe that after death the soul is responsible for all the actions of the body. This faith will cause everyone to fear retribution in the Hereafter, so as not to fall into the denial of all morality and duty. The myth of the immortality of the soul depicts the reincarnation of souls - then Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 30 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 31 of 245 falling from heaven to earth, then ascending from earth to heaven, as a cyclical process. The idea of the immortality of the soul hides another meaning: spiritual experience does not die with the death of a person, it is eternal.
Plato... T. 3. (1). S. 234.
There. S. 236.
There. S. 239.
There. S. 391.
Plato... T. 2. S. 81.
In describing the manifestations of the soul, Plato pays special attention to knowledge and the pleasure and pain that are inseparable from it.
Plato distinguishes between opinion, reason and reason, depending on the object of knowledge:
whether it is directed to ideas or to the sensible world. The disunity of these objects in being, which is the essence of Platonic idealism, is depicted in the form of a myth in Book VII of the "States". The life of a person in the world of sensible things is likened to the life of prisoners chained at the bottom of a dungeon - a cave, from the depths of which they can see through a wide gap only what is right before their eyes; they see only shadows from themselves and from people and objects that are above, and not these objects themselves, and hear only the echoes of voices from above. The philosophical meaning of this myth is as follows: the contemplation of the sensual world of changing phenomena does not give knowledge, but only an opinion. In opinion, the soul refers to things and their reflections, to everyday life, eternally arising, but never existing (listen, look, love beautiful sounds, colors, images). Opinion is something intermediate between knowledge and ignorance.
It is neither ignorance nor knowledge: opinion is darker than knowledge and clearer than ignorance. Opinion is sensory knowledge, the lowest kind of knowledge. Cognition directed at being (ideas), that is, at the intelligible world, gives true knowledge. This intellectual knowledge, the highest kind of knowledge, exists in two forms. First, the mind. Reason belongs to the realm of ideas, but at the same time the soul uses images that it considers depicting. For example, the geometer deals with visible forms and reasons about them, but thinks not about them, but about those that are likened to these: about the quadrilateral and its diagonal in themselves, and not about those that are depicted, etc. Using images, people they try to discern those that can be seen only by thought.
Reason, or intellect, is the comprehension of ideas estranged from all sensibility. Here the soul is directed to the being without images, under the guidance of some ideas in themselves to an unconditional beginning, to the essence of any object, by the power of one dialectic. The term "dialectics" refers to knowledge through concepts. This ability to build the individual and particular to a general idea by comparing opinions and finding contradictions in them - gives knowledge. Plato calls this process reasoning and describes it as a kind of internal dialogue with an invisible interlocutor. “Thinking, it [the soul] does nothing more than reason, asking and answering itself, affirming and denying”1.
Since there are no ideas in perceived objects - the world of ideas and the world of things are separated - things do not contain ideas, they are only copies of ideas, since sensations, feelings cannot be a source of true knowledge.
Concepts cannot be formed from the impressions of sense experience. According to Plato, images are only occasions, external stimuli, contributing to the fact that by thinking we grasp an idea that is different from them and similar to them: visualization allows us to maximally embrace the ideal that is. Images can be the occasion for grasping an idea, because ideas - and our souls - existed before we were born. However, the process of the soul's fall from heaven to earth is accompanied by the soul forgetting everything that it previously saw in heaven. At the same time, she can recall lost ideas. The means of this restoration is recollection: "... to seek and to know - this is exactly what it means to remember"2.
The process of cognition, according to Plato, is a recollection - anamnesis. This process is purely rationalistic, logical. In it, sensory experience serves only as an impetus, an occasion to recall the ideas that are dormant in our soul: “Remembering truly existing, looking at what is here”3.
The term "recollection" in Plato has another meaning - as a process of memory. The mechanism of associations is guessed in its description. “Whenever the sight of one thing causes you to think of another, either similar to the first or dissimilar, it is a recollection”4.
Since the sensory impressions of earthly life do not provide material for true knowledge, one must study not the external world, but one's own soul as a receptacle of ideas, but under the influence and with the help of external impressions.
Plato... T. 2. S. 289.
Plato... T. 1. S. 385.
Plato... T. 2. S. 37.
There. S. 186.
Plato highly appreciates the contemplation of beautiful things - colors, shapes, sounds. Love for the beautiful is a necessary means of the formation of the soul. At the same time, sensory knowledge is separated from knowledge in ideas. Feelings interfere with true knowledge: “... we cannot achieve pure knowledge of anything except by renouncing the body and contemplating things in themselves with the soul itself. Then we will have what we strive for with the ardor of lovers, namely the mind. Attraction to the knowledge of the idea Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 31 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 32 of 245 takes the form of love in the teachings of Plato - Eros. Eros, as the perception of the eternal in the transient, goes through four stages, is carried out gradually in four forms. They are: love for beautiful bodies, for beautiful souls, for the beauty of knowledge, for the idea as eternal and unchanging beauty, unmixed with anything material. The concept of Eros is set forth in the dialogues "Phaedrus", "Feast".
Plato's theory of knowledge is rationalistic: the leading role in knowledge is assigned to the mind. However, in man there is a power that is higher and more beautiful than human properties. She is a divine gift. It manifests itself in the work of the poet, which Plato distinguishes from the activities of the architect, craftsman and craftsman. These latter are not creators - but masters. Only a poet needs divine inspiration - frenzy - it is given by the gods. Thanks to divine power, “the creations of the sane will be eclipsed by the creations of the violent,” Plato claims.
An integral part of Plato's doctrine of the soul is the doctrine of the senses. Plato refutes the notion that the highest good lies in pleasure. “The first place does not belong to the ability of pleasure, even though all the bulls, horses and other animals claimed this on the ground that they themselves are chasing pleasures,” 2 Plato wrote in the Philebus dialogue in connection with a discussion of the issue of moral health person. And in another place: “... pleasure does not belong to either the first or even the second place; it is far from the third...”3. But the blessing will not be concluded by Platon ... T. 2. S. 25.
Plato... T. 3 (1). S. 87.
There. S. 25.
lives exclusively and only in the understanding, so that it does not seem worthy of choice a life that does not share in either pleasure or sorrow.
Pleasure, pain and the absence of both are considered as three states of the soul and their corresponding three kinds of life. Plato gives a list of feelings: anger, fear, desire, sadness, love, jealousy, envy. In them, as in life in general, most often pleasures are mixed with suffering.
The dialectic of their connections is such that “pleasures seem greater and stronger than sadness, and sadness, compared to pleasures, intensifies in the opposite sense”1.
There are lower and higher pleasures (the former are associated with physical needs, the latter with aesthetic and mental pursuits); the pleasures inherent in the three principles of the soul; strong (large) and small (in the strong there is no measure, and proportionality is characteristic of the weak); spiritual pleasures precede bodily pleasures.
According to Plato, in the state people should take a place in accordance with their natural inclinations:
“For someone who, according to his natural inclinations, is suitable for shoemakers, it will be right only to shoemaker and not do anything else, and who is suitable for carpentry, let him be a carpenter. The same is true in other cases."
But at the same time, Plato attached great importance to education. “Proper upbringing and training awaken good natural inclinations in a person, and those who already had them, thanks to such upbringing, they become even better - both in general and in the sense of passing them on to their offspring,” we read in The State3. Plato's thoughts on education received an enthusiastic assessment from Rousseau.
Russo wrote:
“If you want to get a concept of public education, read Plato's “State”. This is not a political work at all, Plato... T. 3 (1). P. 53. W. Wundt presented this pattern of feelings in the law of mental contrasts.
There. S. 238.
There. S. 212.
as those who judge books by their titles think, this is the finest treatise on education that has ever been composed.
– – –
The pinnacle of ancient psychology is the doctrine of the soul of Aristotle (384 - 322 BC). In the words of Hegel, "the best we have in psychology, up to the latest times, is what we have received from Aristotle." Aristotle is the author of the treatise "On the Soul", the first systematic study in the world literature on the problem of the soul. It is important to note that the treatise for the first time gives a historical overview of the opinions about the soul of the predecessors, and their critical analysis is made. The historicism inherent in Aristotle's concept as a whole perfectly reflects his insightful remark: "Not once and not twice, but endlessly the same opinions return to us."
Being a student of Plato, he disagreed with him in understanding the nature of ideas, rejecting the position on the separation of ideas from things: “... it seems, perhaps, impossible that the essence and that of which it is the essence are apart; therefore, how can ideas, being the essences of things, exist apart from them? According to Aristotle, every thing is a unity of matter and form. All nature is a collection of forms associated with matter. For example, in relation to a house, matter is bricks, logs from which it is made, and the form - the purpose of the house - is to be a shelter from rain and heat. However, Aristotle admits the existence of forms without matter - this is the non-material energy mind, the supreme Rousseau J.-J. Pedagogy. op. T. 1.- M., 1981. S. 29. Aristotle. Cit.: In 4 vols. T. 1.- M., 1975. S. 330.
intelligence. He is the form of forms. Aristotle's system is characterized by duality: in the doctrine of form, he remains on the positions of objective idealism.
The soul, according to Aristotle, is the form of a living organic body. This position is explained by the following metaphors. “Just as if some tool, for example, an ax, were a natural body, namely, the being of an ax would be its essence, and it would be its soul. And if you separate it, then the ax would already cease to be an ax ... What has been said must also be considered in relation to parts of the body. If the eye were a living being, then its soul would be sight. For sight is the essence of the eye as its form; with the loss of sight, the eye is no longer an eye, except in name, just like an eye made of stone or painted.
What has been said about a part of the body must be applied to the whole living body ... but the living in the possibility is not that which is devoid of a soul, but that which possesses it. The soul makes the body alive. Without a soul, it would be a corpse. In the soul, the cause - the basis - of all manifestations of the living body; growth, breathing, as well as feeling, thinking are conditioned by it. In the soul lies the goal of the activity of the living body, all of it according to the working vital forces. The soul, under the influence of an external cause, powerfully compels the body to carry out activities of a certain type, inherent in the body as the goal of its development: the plant strives to be a plant, the animal - to be an animal. The body and all its organs and parts are an instrument in the service of the soul.
“For all natural bodies are instruments of the soul, both in animals and in plants, and they exist for the sake of the soul.”
Aristotle's doctrine of the soul as a goal is imbued with teleologism. Its epistemological roots are the transfer of specific features of human activity and consciousness, which are purposeful, to the lower levels of mental organization and to nature in general. “As the mind acts for the sake of something, so does nature, and that for which it acts is its goal”2.
Aristotle ... T. 1. S. 395.
There. 402.
Thus, the soul as a form of the body means that it is the essence of the body, the cause and purpose of all its actions. All these characteristics of the soul Aristotle combines and generalizes in the special concept of entelechy, which denotes the full reality of the body, that which makes it alive, the constant possibility of its vital functions, i.e., existing even when the soul does not manifest itself actively (for example, in time to sleep). The soul is inextricably linked with the body: after all, it is a state of activity of the body. It is not the soul that acts, Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 33 Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 34 of 245 a corresponding body, but an animate body. “Perhaps it is better not to say that the soul sympathizes, or learns, or reflects, but to say that a person does this with his soul, sympathizes, learns or reflects ...
Reflection, love or disgust are not states of the mind, but of the being that possesses it... That is why, when this being is damaged, it neither remembers nor loves: after all, memory and love were not related to the mind, but to the connection soul and body that has disappeared.” 1. All mental states are accompanied by bodily manifestations. Therefore, the study of the soul is the work of two researchers - the natural scientist and the dialectician.
For example, “a dialectician would define anger as the desire to avenge an insult or something like that; but one who talks about nature is like the boiling of blood or heat around the heart. Although the soul is incorporeal, its carrier is a special organic substance - pneuma, which in animals is produced in the blood.
The organ of the soul is the heart. The brain performs an auxiliary function, in it the blood is cooled to the desired rate. Aristotle criticized Plato for dividing the soul into parts, separated by their localization in the body, and, proving the unity of the soul, he spoke not about parts, but about individual abilities, powers (dyunamis) of the soul, which he called parts only in a figurative sense. At the same time, Aristotle recognized the independence and separation of at least two principles - the soul as an entelechy of the body, which is destroyed when it is destroyed, and the soul as a manifestation of the divine essence that comes into the body and leaves it at the time of death: “... each of the parts possesses sensation and ability Aristotle ... T. 1. S. 402.
There. S. 374.
I want to move in space, and if there is a sensation, then there is also a desire. After all, where there is sensation, there is sadness and joy, and where they are, there must also be desire. Concerning the mind and the ability to speculate, there is still no evidence, but it seems that they are a different kind of soul and that only these abilities can exist separately, as the eternal - apart from the transient. As for the other parts of the soul, it is clear from what has been said that they cannot be separated from each other, contrary to the assertion of some.
Aristotle has conflicting indications regarding the parts of the soul. His classification is based on the allocation of three stages of life: plant, animal, human, while the abilities of the highest level include the abilities of the previous ones and cannot exist without them. “Both in figures and in animate beings, the future always contains the antecedent in the possibility, for example, in the quadrilateral - the triangle, in the ability of sensation - the plant ability"2. The vegetable and animal souls were understood materialistically. “It is clear that the most important psychic abilities, psychic facts, whether they belong to all animals or whether they represent a special property of only a few, belong to these animals both in soul and body - such, for example, are the ability of sensory knowledge, memory, aspiration, desire and, in general, will, desire, pleasure and pain can also be included here, these abilities are inherent in almost all animals. The rational soul, according to Aristotle, is ideal, separable from the body, its essence is divine. After the death of the body, it is not destroyed, but returns to the incorporeal ether of air space. Aristotle, rightly feeling the qualitative difference between man and animals and even more so from plants, idealistically explains its source.
Discussing the general issues of the study of the soul, Aristotle noted the difficulties of its knowledge. “To achieve something reliable in all respects about the soul Aristotle ... T. 1. S. 397-398.
There. S. 400.
Cit. by: Kazansky A.P. Aristotle's doctrine of the meaning of experience. - Odessa, 1891. S. 30-31.
definitely the hardest." The description of the types of its activities (abilities) he chooses as a way of presenting everything known about the soul. Aristotle singles out cognitive abilities, driving abilities, feelings and affects, and also describes the general warehouse of the soul (character).
The doctrine of the processes of cognition The beginning of cognition forms the ability of sensation. Cognitive abilities "... originate from sensory perception"2. Sensation is caused by external influence and therefore is a state of suffering. “The force that produces it (sensation - A.Zh.) comes from the outside from the visible, from the audible, etc.
felt" 3. The assimilation of sensation to the perceived object occurs through the five external senses and is carried out both by the soul and the body. And that sensory knowledge is for the soul, but through the body - this is clear both by reasoning and without reasoning, at first glance. The sense organ can reflect the impact because it has a sensing faculty in the possibility. In the act of sensation, this possibility becomes reality. “... The sensing ability in potency is what sensation is in reality ... but only after experiencing the impact, it is likened to the sensed and becomes the same as it”5. The process of sensation is the process of assimilation to the perceived object.
“Sensation is that which is capable of receiving the forms of the sensible without its matter, just as wax receives the imprint of a ring without iron or gold.”6 Assimilation, according to Aristotle, as well as knowledge in Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 34 Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 35 of 245 in general, includes the activity of the cognizing subject. In rational cognition, only the mind is the real agent.
gg. The study of the problems of socio-economic development of post-war Germany has a serious historiographical tradition1. However, some…”
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Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 3 of We do not want to be Ivans who do not remember kinship; we do not suffer from megalomania, thinking that history begins with us; we do not want to get a clean and flat name from history; we want a name on which the dust of centuries has settled. In this we see our historical right, an indication of our historical role, a claim to the realization of psychology as a science. We must consider ourselves in connection with and in relation to the former; even denying it, we rely on it.
L.S. Vygotsky Aristotle I.M. Sechenov SP. Botkin, V.L. Psychological Institute. L.G. Shchukina at Gruber Moscow University. Founded in 1912
Wilhelm Wundt The task of the history of psychology cannot be to find statements from individual progressive figures of the past that sound perfectly acceptable in our time, or to represent such outstanding scientists of the 19th century as, for example, I.M. Sechenov, in as a kind of beacon or ideal, approaching which is the task of modern science. Indeed, in this case, science will not develop, but move in a circle.
B.M. Teplov Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p.
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REVIEWERS.Department of General Psychology and History of Psychology of the Moscow Humanitarian and Social Academy;
doctor of psychological sciences V.A. Ivannikov Zhdan A.N.
J42 History of psychology. From Antiquity to the Present Day: Textbook for High Schools. - 5th ed., Revised. and additional - M .:
Academic Project, 2004.- 576 pp.- ("Gaudeamus", "Classical University Textbook").
ISBN 5-8291-0439 The textbook represents the result of many years of teaching experience by the author of the History of Psychology course at Moscow State University. A systematic presentation of the history of domestic and foreign psychology from Antiquity to the present time as a process of changing the subject, methods and main problems of psychological knowledge is presented. The considered transformations of the subject of psychology in the aggregate represent the approaches to the cognition of the mental developed by science over the centuries-old path of its development. This edition includes new material based on primary sources and research of recent years.
The book is intended primarily for students, graduate students and professors of psychological faculties of universities.
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– – –
electronic table of contents electronic table of contents
Introduction
The subject of the history of psychology
Periodization of the history of psychology
Driving Forces and Causes of the Historical Development of Psychological Ideas.......................
Table 1 Chronology of the stages of development of psychology
Table 1 continued
End of table 1
Principles of historical-psychological analysis
Methods of the history of psychology
Sources of the history of psychology
test questions
Literature1
Section I. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF
SOULChapter 1. ANTIQUE PSYCHOLOGY
The main provisions of the materialistic doctrine of the soul in ancient psychology
Teaching about the soul
The doctrine of knowledge
The Problem of Feelings
The problem of will and character
Idealistic psychology of Plato
Aristotle's doctrine of the soul
Aristotle (384-322 BC).
The doctrine of the processes of cognition
Teaching about feelings
The problem of will
About character
The teachings of ancient doctors
Further development and results of psychology in Antiquity
Chapter 2
General characteristics of the psychology of the Middle Ages
The doctrine of the soul and knowledge in the main directions of scholastic philosophy
The meaning of mystical teachings
PSYCHOLOGICAL ideas of the Renaissance
Chapter 3
THE FRAMEWORK OF THE DOCTRINE ABOUT THE SOULtest questions
Literature
Section II. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN THE PHILOSOPHICAL DOCTRINES ABOUT
CONSCIOUSNESSChapter 1
The Psychological Doctrine of Rene Descartes
R. Descartes (1596-1650)
The Psychology of Benedict Spinoza
Chapter 2
Epiphenomenalism of T. HobbesThe foundation of empirical psychology in the work of J. Locke
J. Locke (1632-1704)
The historical meaning of the controversy between G. Leibniz and J. Locke
Chapter 3. FORMATION OF ASSOCIATIVE PSYCHOLOGY
D. Gartley (1705-1757)
Chapter 4. FORMATION OF THE EMPIRICAL TREND IN FRENCH PSYCHOLOGY
18th centuryChapter 5. PSYCHOLOGICAL THOUGHT ABOUT RUSSIA IN THE 18TH CENTURY
Chapter 6. PSYCHOLOGICAL IDEAS IN GERMAN CLASSICAL PHILOSOPHY OF THE END OF XVIII
FIRST HALF XIX century
test questions
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Literature
Section III
DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE OF CONSCIOUSNESS IN THE PERIOD BEFORE
FORMATION OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGYChapter 1. FORMATION OF GERMAN EMPIRICAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE FIRST HALF
19th centuryI.F. Herbart (1776-1841)
Chapter 2. DEVELOPMENT OF ASSOCIATIVE PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 19TH CENTURY
Chapter 3. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIA IN THE XIX CENTURY
test questions
Literature
DEVELOPMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE AND FORMATION
OF THE NATURAL SCIENTIFIC PREREQUISITES OF SOLIDING PSYCHOLOGY IN
INDEPENDENT SCIENCEChapter 1
90 E.G. Weber (1795-1878) Formulated the law of different sensitivities
Chapter 2
G.T. Fechner (1801-1887) Founder of psychophysics
Chapter 3. DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY IDEAS IN BIOLOGY AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE FOR PSYCHOLOGY
C. Darwin (1809-1882)
test questions
Literature
Section V. SELECTION OF PSYCHOLOGY INTO AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE AND ITS
DEVELOPMENT BEFORE THE PERIOD OF OPEN CRISIS (60s of the 19th century - 10s of the 20th century)Chapter 1. THE FIRST PROGRAMS OF PSYCHOLOGY AS AN INDEPENDENT SCIENCE
W. Wundt (1832-1920) (center) with employees. Leipzig, 1912
Pension "Trierianum" at the University of Leipzig, where the Institute for Experimental Psychology was founded in 1879
THEM. Sechenov (1829-1905) conducts an experiment on the study of the work of the muscles of the hands
K.D. Kavelin. Writer, lawyer, philosopher. Known in connection with the controversy with I.M. Sechenov on the development of psychology as an independent science
Chapter 2
INDEPENDENT SCIENCEE. Titchener (1867-1927)
K. Stumpf (1848-1936)
W. James (1842-1910)
J. Dewey (1859-1952)
N.Ya. Grotto (1852-1899). Founded the first Russian journal on philosophy and psychology, Questions of Philosophy and Psychology (1889)
G.I. Chelpanov (1862-1936) and his student, later the famous philosopher and psychologist G.
H.H. Lange (1858-1921). One of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia
V.M. Bekhterev (1857-1927)
I.P. Pavlov (1849-1936)
Chapter 3. DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL AND APPLIED FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY.
G. Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
Psychological Institute. L.G. Shchukina at Moscow University. Founded in
test questions
Literature
Section VI. FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PERIOD OF OPEN CRISIS (10s - MIDDLE 30s of XX century)
Chapter 1. Crisis IN PSYCHOLOGY
Chapter 2. BEHAVIORISM
J. Watson (1878-1958)
C. Hull (1884-1952)
– – –
Chapter 3. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
M. Wertheimer (1880-1943)
W. Köhler (1887-1967)
Chapter 4. DEEP PSYCHOLOGY
3. Freud (1856-1939)
System of psychoanalysis
Individual psychology of A. Adler
A. Adler (1870-1937)
Analytical psychology of C. Jung
K.G. Jung (1875-1961)
Neo-Freudianism
Erich Fromm (1900-1980)
Chapter 5. FRENCH SCHOOL OF SOCIOLOGY
E. Durkheim (1858-1817)
Lucien Levy-Bruhl (1857-1939)
Chapter 6. DESCRIPTIVE PSYCHOLOGY
W. Dilthey (1833-1911)
test questions
Literature
CURRENT STATE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN RUSSIAL.S. Vygotsky (1896-1934)
A.R. Luria (1902-1977)
S.A. Rubinstein (1889-1960)
A.N. Leontiev (1903-1979) and A.B. Zaporozhets (1905-1981)
P.Ya. Halperin (1902-1988)
B.G. Ananiev (1907-1972)
test questions
Literature
Section VIII. CURRENT STATUS AND MAJOR TRENDS
DEVELOPMENT OF FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGYW. Neisser (p. 1928) One of the founders of cognitive psychology
C. Rogers (1902-1987). Developed a model of non-directive client-centered psychotherapy
J. Piaget (1896-1980). Founder of the Swiss School of Genetic Psychology...............20 Table 2 Classification of the stages of intelligence development
C. Levi-Straus (b. 1908). Founder of structural anthropology
test questions
Literature
Conclusion
APPENDICES1. Teaching psychology at Moscow University ..............................
Literature
MOSCOW PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIETY (1885-1922)1
Literature
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX
NAME INDEX
– – –
– – –
Introduction The specificity of scientific work implies the need to have information about the past. Own research should be organically connected with the history of the issue being studied, because there is no such problem in modern science that could be solved without taking into account the previous history. “The history of the question goes directly into the formulation of the research problem. The latter must flow organically from the former. The depth, fundamental nature of this part of the study is currently one of the most necessary conditions in psychological science that determines the scientific value of this work,” wrote B.M. Teplov1. The immediate history, covering our century, organically enters the present: the doctrine of integrity in Gestalt psychology, the unconscious in depth psychology, the understanding of thinking in the Würzburg school, etc. form the basis of modern research.
The material of a more distant and even very distant history “is not completely denied, the understanding of its limitations does not prevent its partial inclusion in a wider system of knowledge”2.
The mastery of history, of course, is not limited to the reproduction of the views of the past. The historical past can fully serve the present only if it is used to solve urgent problems. K. Levin in the article "The conflict between the Aristotelian and Galilean ways of thinking in modern psychology", comparing the theoretical Teplov B.M. On the culture of scientific research // Selected Works. T. P. - M., 1985. S. 313.
Einstein A., Infeld L. Evolution of Physics.- M, 1965. S. 125.
constructions of Aristotle and Galileo in the context of the pressing problems of modern experimental and theoretical psychology, wrote: “My goal is not historical, rather, I believe that some issues of great importance for the restructuring of the theories of modern psychology can be resolved and more accurately formulated with the help of such a comparison that will provide a view that goes beyond the difficulties of today.
Turning to history in connection with the development of new ways of psychological research is characteristic of all the work of L.S. Vygotsky2.
In a constant dispute with the main psychological trends, D.N.
Uznadze. S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev, B.G. Ananiev, B.M. Teplov, P.Ya. Galperin paid much attention to the history of psychology, although for none of them it was an area of special study.
Considering the problem of the significance of the history of psychology, M.G. Yaroshevsky calls such an appeal to history a “creative dialogue with the past”3.
Of course, in order to talk about the Aristotelian way of thinking, it is necessary to know the works of Aristotle well. Just as the performance of a musical work can become expressive only after mastering its technical side, so the use of history in modern research becomes possible only on the basis of knowledge of all the concrete material accumulated by science.
Hence the need arises for the history of psychology as a special area of research that studies the achievements of psychology throughout the entire path of its historical development.
Knowledge of the history of psychology is necessary to understand the various theories and directions of modern psychology, the ways and trends of its development. Only inclusion in the historical context allows us to understand their essence, identify their initial positions, appreciate the true novelty and realize their historical meaning. A historical approach is necessary to understand the current situation in psychological science, for Lewin K.A. Dynamik Theory of Personality.- N.Y., 1965. P. 1.
See, for example, his "Historical Meaning of the Psychological Crisis"; “Teaching about emotions. Historical and psychological research”, etc.
Yaroshevsky M.G. History of psychology. - 3rd ed. - M., 1985. S. 6-9.
5 shaping new points of view, taking into account and based on the traditions and achievements of the past1.
The study of the history of psychology is of great educational and moral importance. “History is more useful, it is full of wisdom,” wrote the 15th century Italian humanist philosopher. Lorenzo Valla. It acquaints us with the life of people of science, reveals a dramatic struggle in the name of truth, and evokes a variety of feelings: from respectful admiration to disappointment and bewilderment.
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 10 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 11 of 245 The subject of the history of psychology Unlike the subject and methods of psychology, the history of psychology studies not psychic reality itself, but ideas about it, as they were at different stages of the progressive development of science.
Historical thought itself also has a history. The history of historical science is historiography. Its subject is the characteristics of historians, historiographic concepts.
The task of the history of psychology is to recreate historical scientific psychological thought, to analyze the emergence and further development of scientific knowledge about the psyche, which should give a complete and coherent picture of their development and growth. Scientific knowledge is systematic knowledge, internally bound by some principles, general premises; obtained by scientific methods; based on evidence and allowing logical and experimental verification of the correctness of its statements and their use in various forms and in relation to various areas of society. Scientific knowledge is developed in the process of scientific activity; it has an author and a date of establishment.
Knowledge gained in the course of everyday practical activity, religious ideas about the psyche, the results of other non-scientific methods of mental activity are not specifically considered.
This, of course, does not mean that they are underestimated, and in the following presentation, in a number of cases, data from extrascientific experience about psychic reality are involved.
There are various conceptions of its history in psychological science. The famous historian of psychology Vasilyuk F.E. Methodological analysis in psychology. - M., 2003.
6 E. Boring, in order to explain scientific discoveries in psychology, used the concept of Zeitgeist (zeitgeist). According to Boring, the "magical" concept of Zeitgeist means the atmosphere of opinions characteristic of each particular moment, under the influence of which the thinking of the researcher is under the imperious influence. Discovery is not made until the time is ready for it. It happens when time has prepared. The facts of synchronous discoveries available in science, for which it is proved that they are not borrowed (the laws for gases of R. Boyle and E. Mariotte, the calculus of small quantities G.
Leibniz and I. Newton, the theory of emotions by W. James and K. Lange, etc.), are also explained by the spiritual climate of the era. Zeitgeist fulfills a dual role: it helps, promotes scientific progress, but also hinders it, since knowledge itself bears the stamp of its time. Zeitgeist is changing.
For example, when in 1850 G. Helmholtz measured the speed of nerve impulse conduction, it was believed that a spiritual act is immeasurable in time. Helmholtz took a step forward in scientific thinking, changed the Zeitgeist in a certain area. But he could not have done this without relying on existing ideas.
Boring's approach draws attention to the need to take into account the traditions in science when considering the changes taking place in it and reveals an undoubtedly important factor in its development.
A variant of the Zeitgeist point of view is T. Kuhn's paradigm theory. According to this theory, social and cultural processes give rise to paradigms as “generally recognized scientific achievements that, over time, provide the scientific community with a model for posing problems and solving them”1. When anomalies arise within a given scientific paradigm - facts that are incompatible with this paradigm - they generate a crisis. A scientific revolution is taking place, as a result of which a new paradigm takes the place of an inadequate paradigm. The concept of a paradigm is widely used in psychological science. However, the possibility of its application to the description of the historical-psychological process is assessed by historians of psychology with restraint, and often negatively, since the facts of the history of our science do not fit into Kuhn's scheme, the existence of a universally recognized paradigm in psychology at some stage of its development is denied.
Kuhn T. Structure of scientific revolutions. - M., 1977. S. 11.
7 At the same time, attempts to identify the common foundations and attitudes that can be traced in the development of psychology throughout its history constitute a stable trend in the methodology of historical psychological research. As such attitudes, different authors identify various bipolar positions: determinism - indeterminism; elementalism - holism; empiricism - rationalism, etc. From the point of view of these dispositions, the systematization and generalization of psychological facts and theories is carried out. This approach, although it highlights important characteristics of the mental, does not create a holistic historically specific image of psychology as a science at each of its stages.
The description of history in the concept of a school is aimed at a more holistic view of the historical process.
This approach was implemented by R. Woodworth in relation to the psychology of the 20th century1. He singled out eight of the most famous schools: structural psychology, functional psychology, associationism, psychoanalysis, personalistic and organismic psychology, target or hormic psychology, behaviorism, Gestalt psychology. In relation to each school, the problems developed in it, methods and methods of research, etc. are described. There is a tendency to blur the boundaries between schools.
Another approach to history has been called the theory of great men. It was put forward by an English historian and philosopher of the 19th century. T. Carlyle. According to this approach, history - civil and scientific - is done by Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p.
Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 12 of 245 great people like Caesar, Napoleon, Galileo, Newton. "The history of the world is ... the biographies of great people," - this is how T. Carlyle expressed his view on the importance of the individual in history2. Despite the obvious one-sidedness, it has an irrational grain. He draws attention to outstanding personalities, including the role of the personality of a scientist in the development of scientific knowledge. In psychology, in line with this approach, the history of science was outlined by the American historian R. Watson3.
Woodworth R.S. Contemporary Schools of Psychology. Ronald (witch M. Sheehan). 1931.
Carlyle T. Heroes, the cult of heroes and the heroic in history. SPb., 1891. S. 18.
Watson R. I. The Great Psychologists: From Aristotle to Freud. Lippincott, 1963.
8 The considered approaches in the field of methodology of the history of psychology make it possible to identify real patterns in the development of psychological knowledge. It seems impossible to understand the past without understanding the spiritual context, without biographies of great psychologists, without distinguishing between Lockean and Cartesian tendencies, without comparing objective and subjective approaches, atomism and holism, etc. But taken in isolation from one another, these approaches do not cover the historical -psychological process in the fullness of its features and determinants. It is no coincidence that in a number of manuals on the history of psychology, the authors prefer an eclectic position, meaning their joint use in a specific historical study.
Since the 19th century, major works on the historiography of psychology have been published in Russia (M.I. Vladislavlev, F.A. Zelenogorsky, M.M. Troitsky, E.A. Bobrov, A.P. Kazansky, V.N. Ivanovsky and others). The foundations of Russian historical and psychological science were laid by L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, B.M.
Teplov, B.G. Ananiev, D.N. Uznadze, P.Ya. Galperin, A.A. Smirnov. Works of historians of psychology O.M. Tutundzhyan, V.A. Roments, M.S. Rogovina, M.V. Sokolova, A.A. Nikolskaya, E.A.
Budilova made a great contribution to the development of the methodology of historical and psychological research.
V.A. Romenets presented the history of scientific psychology in connection with the history of culture. He singled out a number of major historical, cultural and psychological themes and traced their evolution. For the first time, the least studied process of the development of psychology in the Middle Ages in Russian history, especially the patristic direction in Ukraine in the 13th - 15th centuries, is considered in detail. On the basis of the developed methodology, the author has created a number of books - teaching aids on the history of world psychology (9 published in Ukrainian).
O.M. Tutunjyan developed the theoretical problems of historiography, paying special attention to periodization, in particular, the periodization of Russian psychological thought.
At present, in domestic science, work on the study of the history of psychology continues in the works of L.I. Antsyferova, V.A. Koltsova, T.D. Marcinkowska, A.B. Petrovsky, V.A. Yakunin and others. In the fundamental works of A.V. Petrovsky highlights the events of the psychology of the Soviet period in all their complexity and in the context of social conditions, gives an objective assessment of pedology, psychotechnics, reflexology and other currents of psychological thought in Russia.
A particularly significant contribution to the national history of psychology was made by M.G. Yaroshevsky (1915 - 2001).
He developed an original concept of the history of psychology, known as categorical analysis. The concept includes an analysis of the categorical apparatus, explanatory principles and global problems, their transformation in the course of the historical path of science development. Specific concrete-scientific categories are identified that reproduce various aspects of psychological reality: image, action, motive, psychosocial attitude, personality. The system of these categories together with the explanatory principles - determinism, consistency, development - form the categorical apparatus of science, its invariant core. The use of categorical analysis makes it possible to see their permanent components in the changing knowledge about subjective reality. Yaroshevsky noted that the subject of psychology is given in the categorical system, but he paid the main attention to the categories, tracing their historically changing content. His concept also involves taking into account socio-cultural conditions and the role of the personality of a scientist in explaining the emergence and development of psychological knowledge. Among the socio-psychological factors of scientific creativity, Yaroshevsky singles out the opponent circle of the scientist, which includes all the authors, in polemics with which new ideas are generated, new scientific knowledge is emerging. On the basis of the developed methodology, Yaroshevsky created fundamental works1.
The famous theorist and historian of psychology P.Ya. Galperin considered the question of the subject of study to be the main theoretical issue and important in practice. This idea runs through all his work. Reviewing the historical path of psychology, Galperin came to the conclusion: “All the definitions, descriptions and indications of the subject of psychology proposed so far turned out to be See, in particular, his History of Psychology, 1966 and other editions; "Psychology in the XX century", 1971, 1974;
"Historical Psychology of Science", 1995, etc.
10 are not only insufficient, but simply untenable”1. In the course of lectures on the history of psychology,
– – –
which he read at Moscow University. M.V. Lomonosov, considering the psychological concepts of the past, he singled out the understanding of the subject of study contained in them in an explicit or hidden form. The conclusion about the inconsistency and fallacy of all ideas about the subject of psychology did not mean that Galperin underestimated all historical experience - although the critical aspect is very significant in his consideration. For example, assessing the achievements in the development of psychology as an experimental science, he writes that they boil down to "... a relatively small number and, as it were, an accidental nature of the most important results, such frequent ups and downs of theoretical constructions"2. Behind these harsh words lies a preoccupation with the unsatisfactory state of affairs in psychology, the source of which he saw in the inability to distinguish in mental phenomena those aspects of them that constitute the subject of psychology. Thus, according to Galperin, "the question of the subject of study is not only the first and most difficult of the great theoretical questions of psychology, but at the same time a question of urgent practical importance"3.
Working for more than 30 years together with Galperin, first in line with his research on the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts, and later in the field of the history of psychology, the author of this book tried, based on ideas about the paramount importance of the subject of science and based on the experience of presenting the history of psychology in world and domestic science, consider the history of psychology as a process of becoming its subject4. The history of psychology then appears as a process of ongoing transformation of its subject area in the context of the causes and conditions that caused it. Each new understanding of the subject, combined with new methodological research procedures, is seen as opening a new aspect in psychic reality, bringing it closer to its more and more complete scientific understanding.
Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1976. S. 7.
Galperin P.Ya. Introduction to psychology. - M., 1976. S. 9.
– – –
Zhdan A.N. The history of psychology as the formation of its subject: Diss. for the competition Art. doctor of psychology nauk.- M., 1994.
Extremely schematically, the historical process of transformation of the subject of psychology can be represented as follows.
Psychology arose as the science of the soul. The idea of the soul gave rise to psychology as a science. However, within the framework of the science of the soul, psychology was shackled by the concept of the soul as an explanatory principle, which is the cause of not only mental, but all processes in the body. The rejection of it and the transition to the study of proper mental, i.e., mental phenomena, is connected with the isolation of their distinguishing feature, which was considered consciousness. Thus, the conscious psyche, consciousness, became the subject of research.
The prerequisites for this transition took shape gradually. They are noticeable already in Antiquity, but the great discoveries in the field of various sciences in the 16th century especially contributed to a new understanding. especially in anatomy and medicine. This was an important step towards the knowledge of the mental: consciousness now acted as a special reality, and introspection (self-observation) - as a method of its study.
Difficulties of introspective psychology, which began from the time of Descartes and were growing more and more in the future, in resolving issues related to explaining the adaptive behavior of animals, the psyche in children, the mentally ill, problems of mental development, etc., became insurmountable when psychology clashed in the last quarter of the 19th century. with practical tasks in applied areas of research. The isolation of consciousness and, above all, its separation from behavior (activity) and the subjective method of its study became the main obstacle to the development of psychology. Emerged at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. functional psychology, followed by behaviorism and other variants of the psychology of behavior, were aimed at overcoming the subjectivism of the psychology of consciousness in relation to understanding its subject and method and outlined the paths of objective research. The subject of study was behavior, but at the same time, psychological content was excluded from his study, as inaccessible to objective registration. Thus, this transformation occurred due to the loss of the phenomena studied by psychology - the psyche and consciousness. The movement that began in neobehaviorism, aimed at including in the structure of behavior the formations that mediate it (images, plans, cognitive maps, etc.), led to the emergence of modern cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology has made central the question of the role of knowledge in the behavior of the subject. With psychoanalysis, the myth of the identity of the psyche and consciousness was finally buried. The problem of the unconscious entered science and, along with it, the idea of the subject area of psychology as a deep structure of the mental.
Historically and culturally oriented trends introduced into psychology the problem of the historical nature of the human psyche and pointed to the need to include value and semantic orientations of the individual in psychological research. Modern humanistic psychology has made the personality, not the psyche, the subject of our science. In domestic science, cultural-historical and activity psychology revealed the leading role of the assimilation of culture and one's own activity in the generation, functioning and development of the psyche, thereby providing scientific research with the means of Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p.
Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 14 of 245 not only descriptions, but also explanations of the psyche. At the last stage of the development of psychological thought, the unity of the historically broken consciousness and behavior (activity) is restored due to the real implementation of an objective approach to psychological cognition.
If, on the whole, history testifies to the steady progress of psychological knowledge, then the situation is more complicated in individual segments of the path of its development. Not always the knowledge that appeared later turned out to be at the same time more meaningful, progressive in all its aspects; often in the new concept, the positive that was in the old one was discarded. Thus, Gestalt psychology, which opposed associationism, ignored the problem of increasing experience in the process of development of the subject in the global criticism of this trend and turned into an antigenetic theory, which significantly limited its explanatory possibilities.
The development of science, including psychology, is not a linear, but a very complex process, along the way of which zigzags, unrecognized discoveries, returns to already passed decisions, “marking time”, crises are possible. But in general, “a change in scientific opinions is development, progress, not destruction” 1; tracking the process of growth of psychological knowledge in the chronological sequence of their appearance with constant attention to the assessment of achievements - and losses - at each time stage reveals more and more new aspects of psychic reality and explains them more fully.
Periodization of the history of psychology Psychology has a long history: the first scientific ideas arose in the 6th century. BC e. Therefore, the question arises of periodization of the history of psychology, the task of which is to dismember this process, to single out stages, and to determine the content of each of them.
In the history of psychology, two large periods are distinguished: the first, when psychological knowledge developed in the depths of philosophy, as well as other sciences, primarily natural science; the second - when psychology developed as an independent science. They are incommensurable in time: the first period (6th century BC - mid-19th century) covers about 2.5 thousand years, the second - a little more than a century (mid-19th century - present). According to G. Ebbinghaus, psychology has a long past, but a very short history2. The allocation of these two periods does not require special justification, since its criteria are obvious, but since each of them stretches over centuries, a more fractional periodization is necessary.
It can be carried out on purely formal grounds - in particular, chronological, since scientific knowledge arises and unfolds in time. In accordance with the time factor in the holistic process of the development of science, one can distinguish between the history of psychology of the 17th century, the history of psychology of the 18th century. etc.
It is possible to distinguish between the periodization of world and domestic psychology3. Other approaches to the question of periodization are also possible.
Freud 3. The future of one illusion // Questions of Philosophy.
1988. No. 8. S. 159.
Cit. by: Boring E.L. History of Experimental Psychology.- N.Y., 1929. P. 385.
Budilova E.A. On the periodization of the history of psychology in the USSR // Actual problems of the history and theory of psychology. Materials of the conference. - Yerevan, 1976.
Given the conditionality of any periodization and taking into account the lack of development of this problem, the periodization of the history of psychology proposed below should be considered only as one of its possible variants. At the same time, the history of domestic psychological thought is considered as an integral part of the development of world science. As a basis for dividing this process into stages, substantive criteria were chosen that determined the change in views on the nature of the mental.
An interesting fact came out (however, it is also observed in other areas of spiritual activity, in particular, in art) - it can be called one of the laws of the historical and psychological process: it turned out that the duration of the stages is not the same. The deeper one or another idea of an object goes into history, the longer the time of its life in science. Conversely, the closer to the present, the shorter this time. So historically, the first definition of the subject of psychology as a science of the soul existed (albeit with some changes) for more than 20 centuries. In the 20th century, views on the subject of psychology changed so rapidly that some of them existed in science for no more than 10–20 years (see Table 1).
Driving Forces and Causes of the Historical Development of Psychological Ideas Can the development of psychological knowledge be considered a process determined only by one's own logic of cognition in accordance with the nature of the object being studied - the psyche? Like any other science, psychology has only relative independence, and psychologists as scientists "are under the dominant influence of economic development"1. The complex relationship between science and society was characterized by A.S. Vygotsky: “Regularity in the change and development of ideas, the emergence and death of Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p.
Yanko Slava (Fort/Da Library) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 15 of 245 concepts, even a change in classifications, etc. - all this can be explained on the basis of the connection of this science:
1) with the general socio-cultural subsoil of the era; 2) with the general conditions and laws of scientific knowledge;
3) with the objective requirements that the nature of the phenomena under study makes for scientific knowledge at the given stage of their research”2.
Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 34. S. 419.
Vygotsky L.S. Sobr. op. T. 1. S. 302.
15 Table 1 Chronology of the stages of development of psychology
I. DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY WITHIN PHILOSOPHY
Time Subject of study Key findings– – –
believed that only cognitive factors have a determining influence on its development, science has its own internal history. The internalist approach to the problem of factors in the development of scientific knowledge is criticized by supporters of another - externalist - approach, according to which the history of science cannot be explained without referring to social factors, so they should be used in the theoretical reconstruction of the historical process of the development of science. In this regard, it is impossible to draw a hard line between the internal and external history of science (T. Kuhn, S. Toulmin, M. Polanyi).
Since the recognition of the influence of the sociocultural environment on the development of science is practically generally accepted, it is necessary to clarify the nature of its influence on the development of psychology.
Analysis of the development of psychological knowledge requires the study of the historical background. However, simply synchronizing them with indicators of the level of socioeconomic development is not enough: social conditions largely influence the choice of a problem, as well as the nature of its solution. So, analyzing the work of 3. Freud, K. Neary came to the conclusion: “The Interpretation of Dreams is the main source of information about those social and political impressions that shaped the thinking and worldview of the creator of psychoanalysis from an early age!”.
The history of psychology must also take into account the special situation in science in the period under study. The fact of the relationship of psychology with other sciences characterizes its development at all stages of history. The influence of mathematics, physics, astronomy, linguistics, physiology, biology, ethnography, logic and other sciences on psychology is varied. Firstly, within the framework of these sciences, Niri K. Philosophical thought in Austria-Hungary. - M., 1987, pp. 111 - 113.
19 knowledge about mental phenomena was accumulated (for example, the study of the problem of the connection between language and thinking in the works of linguists A. Potebnya, V. Humboldt and others, the study of reaction time by astronomers, etc.). Secondly, the methods of these sciences were used in psychology, in particular, the experiment was borrowed by V.
Wundt from the physiology of the sense organs, psychophysics and psychometry. Third, there was the use of scientific methodology. So, the development of mechanics in the XVII and XVIII centuries. led to the emergence of a mechanistic model of the behavior of animals (and partly of man) by R. Descartes, the mechanistic concept of associations by D. Gartley, "mental physics" by J. Mill. The interaction of psychology with other sciences continues to this day. J. Piaget considered interdisciplinary connections to be a feature of both the current stage in the development of psychology and its future. At the same time, he said that "the future of psychology is, first of all, its own development"1. There is no contradiction here: the connection with other sciences should not turn into reductionism, that is, the reduction of psychological laws to the laws of other sciences. Such a reduction threatens psychology with the loss of its own object.
The history of psychology is rich in examples of such a danger becoming a reality. In particular, in reflexology V.M. Bekhterev, the whole psyche was reduced to combination reflexes. But F. Engels also wrote: “We will undoubtedly “reduce” thinking sometime experimentally to molecular and chemical movements in the brain; but is this the essence of thinking?
Taking into account the connections of psychology with other sciences and the conditionality of its development by sociocultural factors, it is necessary to reveal its own logic of the development of its ideas as an objective process.
Principles of historical-psychological analysis The most important of them is the principle of historicism.
In historical research, this principle becomes fundamental. It requires the historian to consider one or another segment of the past throughout Piaget J. Psychology, interdisciplinary connections and the system of sciences. - M., 1966. P. 1.
Marx K., Engels F. Op. T. 20. S. 563.
20 completeness of its specific content, in the system of relevant socio-cultural conditions, as determined by the general situation in science and studied in comparison with previous knowledge.
This allows you to show the originality and uniqueness of the phenomenon under study. At the same time, it is necessary to present the history of science in its entirety, at least its most significant facts. There should be no blank spots in history, forgetfulness of certain historical events or persons.
The principle of historicism requires such an attitude to the past, in which “... not a single theory is discarded in the form of historical rubbish, but, on the contrary, gets its rightful place ... everything made sense for its time, was the result of historical necessity and was organically included in universal human progress of thought.
In accordance with the principle of historicism, an assessment of the past is also made. It reveals the new that contains the considered knowledge in comparison with the previous stage. At the same time, the inevitable limitation of any stage in the development of knowledge in comparison with its later stages must be revealed. This is how prominent representatives of science assessed their predecessors (see.
for example, I.P. Pavlov's teachings of Hippocrates about temperaments, the concept of a reflex by R. Descartes, etc.).
Zhdan A.N. = History of psychology. From Antiquity to the present day:. - 2004. - 576 p. 18 Yanko Slava (Library Fort/Da) || http://yanko.lib.ru || [email protected] 19 of 245 Violation of the principle of historicism in the understanding of the past are presentism and antiquarianism. Presentism limits historical research only to what is significant for the present stage of the development of science and, instead of studying the historical process of the development of science in its entirety, focuses on highlighting only such fragments of its content that are most consistent with modern views. Of course, such an approach is justified for solving certain research problems that require a mandatory reliance on the achievements of the past. However, a selective approach cannot be adopted when the goal is to reconstruct the history of science as a whole. Presentism leads to the modernization of the historical process and contradicts the principle of historicism.
Losev A.F. Vl. Solovyov.- M., 1994.- S. 176.
Antiquarianism also contradicts it, that is, such an approach that considers past history, regardless of the tasks of the present, as something frozen, petrified. Such a "pure history"
turns into a simple registration of events in their temporal sequence and does not fit into the practice of modern scientific research.
A deviation from the principle of historicism is the one-sidedness and schematism of the depiction of the events of past history. At the same time, the requirement of integrity and concreteness imposed on historical thought not only does not exclude, but necessarily presupposes the identification of a general pattern in the phenomenon under study. The fulfillment of this requirement is ensured by relying on the principle of the unity of the logical and the historical, according to which the historian must not only describe one or another stage of historically developing knowledge, but present it theoretically and, therefore, reveal something permanent in it.
For example, behind the historically limited empirical material of specific knowledge about the psyche in Antiquity, the most important problems of psychology hidden in it (almost all) are revealed. On the other hand, adherence to the principle of the unity of the logical and the historical warns against the absolutization of historically limited truths and allows one to evaluate their actual significance.
Thus, the idea of the heritability of intellectual abilities, presented in the naturalistic conceptions of a person as the natural, the only possible, i.e., natural and obligatory, in reality should be evaluated only as one of the explanations limited by the framework of this particular concept and the empirical fact of intellectual differences between people. Any generalization of the history of science begins to be understood not as a frozen structure, but historically, that is, in its true meaning, as a stage on the endless path of scientific knowledge.
Historical and psychological knowledge requires the identification of the socio-political orientation, the ideological essence of psychological ideas, which allows them to be assessed more adequately. For example, analyzing the logic of the development of Freudianism, Vygotsky wrote: “... brought to a philosophical form, seemingly obscured by many layers and very far from the immediate roots and social causes that gave rise to it, the idea actually only now reveals what it wants, what it is, from what social tendencies it arose, what class interests it serves. Only after developing into a worldview or acquiring a connection with it, a particular idea from a scientific fact again becomes a fact of social life, that is, it returns to the womb from which it arose”1. Attention to the ideological side of psychological knowledge contributes to a deeper understanding of their own scientific content:
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Doctor of Psychological Sciences and teacher of the history of psychology at Moscow State University, A. N. Zhdan proposed her own concept of the history of psychology - from the standpoint of the gradual transformation of its subject, methodology and range of basic problems. No scientific knowledge can be formed without immersion in the history of the issue and the definition of the research problem. And the way these criteria changed in the course of the development of scientific psychology is of undoubted interest not only for psychologists, but also for everyone who is interested in psychology. The historical formation of psychological knowledge is applicable, among other things, in solving urgent problems.
Why is it important to study the history of psychology today?
Firstly, to orientate in the diverse schools, directions and concepts of modern psychology. Secondly, in order to form unique approaches, taking into account the accumulated world experience. The inner world of a person is potentially infinite and unique, therefore there can be no unified approach to it. What "works" in one case, ceases to have an effect in another.
The subject of the history of psychology is the views on psychic reality that were formed historically and collected into a system. The novelty of the approach of A. N. Zhdan is that she proposed an interpretation of the history of psychology as a phased formation of its subject. As the subject changes, the very methodology of science changes. And this is a truly fascinating journey into the world of scientific achievements and insights.
Stages of development of psychological knowledge
The first chapter of the scientific work is devoted to the study of the early concepts of psychology - as a science of the soul, first in unity with the body, and then - in isolation from the body, in the study of mental phenomena, processes and states proper. Their unique feature was the possibility of their awareness. That is, initially the conscious psyche was the subject of research. This approach was formed from the era of antiquity and reached its peak in the 16th century, with the development of anatomy and medicine. Consciousness began to be perceived as a "separate" phenomenon, despite the fact that introspection (self-observation) was the main method of studying the psyche in ancient times.
The second important stage was the end of the 19th century, when the method of self-observation revealed its failure in the study of the behavioral strategies of animals, children, persons with mental illness, etc. Functional psychology and the school of behaviorism concentrated on the objectification of the study. The internal causes of behavior were not considered, but external manifestations were analyzed. The subject of the study was behavior, to the detriment of the psyche and consciousness. Within neobehaviorism, a direction was born that absorbed the synthesis of behavioral models and the phenomena that predetermined it: images, attitudes, cognitions, etc. This gave impetus to the emergence of modern cognitive approaches in psychology. They focused on the role of knowledge in the behavioral strategies of the individual.
The psychoanalytic school helped to show that the psyche and consciousness are far from being the same thing. Psychoanalysts have given a powerful impetus to the study of the nature and phenomenon of the unconscious and the deep structures of the psyche.
With the passage of time, it became obvious that values and semantic guidelines should not be discounted. As for Russian science, the cultural-historical and activity approaches actualized the basic meaning of cultural assimilation and personal activity in the formation, functioning and development of the psyche.
The next stage in the development of psychological thought was the return to the synthesis of consciousness and behavior through the implementation of an objective approach to psychological research.
Periodization of the history of psychology
Psychology is considered a relatively young science, but the first views in its mainstream appeared already in the 6th century. BC e. The monograph by A. N. Zhdan focuses on two huge periods:
- the fusion of psychology with philosophy and natural science (6th century BC - mid-19th century);
- branches of psychology into an independent branch of scientific knowledge (mid-19th century - present time).
This is the most general approach. A more detailed periodization can be carried out by centuries of development, taking into account the division into world and domestic science, or in some other way. A. N. Zhdan proposes to take as a basis the substantive categories that led to a change in views on mental phenomena. Moreover, the duration of the periods is not at all the same. The earlier the knowledge, the longer it exists in science. And vice versa, the more modern it is, the faster it transforms. For example, ideas about the soul as a subject of study in psychology have been preserved for almost two centuries, and in the 21st century science has stepped far forward, and now new concepts are emerging, including the study of the human energy potential and spiritual practices.
The main stages in the development of psychology in the book by A. N. Zhdan are as follows:
- from the era of antiquity to the 16th century - as the concept of "soul" as a central concept;
- from the 16th century to the first half of the 19th century, when the concept of consciousness came to the fore in the study of psychological science;
- in the 19th - early 20th century, when associative and experimental psychology was born;
- in the XVIII - XIX centuries in connection with the enrichment of psychological knowledge due to the achievements of the natural sciences and physiology;
- 60s 19th century - 10th years. 20th century - the time of the definition of psychology as an independent science;
- a period of open crisis in foreign psychology (10s - mid-30s of the 20th century);
- Soviet psychological school;
- current state of psychological knowledge.
The work of A. N. Zhdan resembles an encyclopedia: it contains not only control questions for students studying the history of psychology course, but also a glossary. It comprehensively examines the evolution of views on the subject and methods of psychological knowledge, with biographical information and experimental results, with a powerful scientific base of psychological works and citation of the classics of psychological science. It seems that this monograph is an attempt to systematize a truly immense material, knowledge of which not only provides a basis for students of specialized faculties, but also allows developing unique modern methods and approaches to theoretical and practical work.
