The composition of vowel phonemes in the system of the Russian language is determined on the basis of their semantic role in a strong position. For the vowel phonemes of the Russian language, the position under stress not between soft consonants is absolutely strong (both perceptually and significatively). However, in a perceptually weak position, a phoneme does not enter into neutralization with other phonemes; therefore, to determine the composition of vowel phonemes, it is sufficient to take into account which position is significatively strong. For the vowel phonemes of the Russian language, this is the position under stress. In this position, six vowels are distinguished: [a] - [o] - [i] - [s] - [e] - [y]. But two vowels positionally alternate: [and] / [s]. Positionally alternating sounds are representatives of one phoneme. In a perceptually strong position - after and between solid consonants [s] appears, however, only [s] occurs at the beginning of a word, therefore it is considered to be the main version of the phoneme, and [s] only a variation of the phoneme<и>. So, the composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language is as follows:<а>– <о>–< and> –< e> –< y> (she – [ʌn a ], it – [ʌn about], they [ʌn’ and ], those - [t ' uh ], here at ]).
Significatively weak for Russian phonemes is the position not under stress. However, for each phoneme it is individual. Yes, phoneme<у>does not enter into neutralization with any other phoneme. For<а>, <о>all unstressed positions are weak. In position, the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants, four vowel phonemes enter into neutralization<а> –< o> – < e> – < and>: h [and e] sy, m [and e] doc, r [and e] ka, l [and e] sa. Perceptually weak for Russian vowels are positions: after soft consonants mint[m'ˑat], before soft consonants mother[matˑt '] and between soft consonants knead [m'ät '].
STRONG AND WEAK POSITIONS OF CONSONANTS AND THE COMPOSITION OF CONSONANT PHONEMES OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
The composition of voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes is determined by strong positions for voiced and voiceless consonants. Strong positions are:
1) Before vowels: ko[z]a - ko[s]a (<з> – <с>);
2) Before sonorant consonants: [z'l ']it - [s'l']it (<з’> – <’с>);
3) Before / in /, / in ’/: in [s’v ’] ut - [s’v ’] ut (<з’>– <’с>).
Weak positions for voiced and voiceless noisy consonants:
1) At the end of the word: ro [d] a-ro [t], r [t] a - ro [t] (<д>neutralized with<т>in option [t]);
2) Before a voiced consonant: ko[s']it - ko[z'b]a (<с’>neutralized with<з’>in the variant [h ']);
3) Before deaf consonants: lo [d] points - lo [tk] a (<д>neutralized with<т>option [t]).
Sonorant consonants do not neutralize with any other consonant phonemes on the basis of voiced/deafness, so all positions for them are strong on this basis.
In terms of hardness-softness, strong positions for consonant phonemes of the Russian language are:
1) Before vowels<а>, <о>, <и>, <у>, <э>: garden - sit down (<д> – <д’>), nose - carried (<н> – <н’>), bow - hatch (<л> – <л’>), soap - mil (<м> – <м’>), pole - slot (<ш> –<ш’:>);
2) At the end of the word: horse - horse (<н> – <н’>), angle – coal (<л> – <л’>);
3) Before back-lingual consonants: hill - bitterly (<р> – <р’>), shelf - polka (<л> – <л’>).
However, weak positions in terms of hardness-softness are “individual”:
1) For dental consonants - before soft dental consonants: evil - anger (<з>neutralized with<з’>in the variant [h ’]), chant - song (<с>neutralized with<с’>in the variant [c']);
2) For dental consonants - before soft labial consonants: story - dawn (<с>neutralized with<с’>in the variant [c']);
3) For labial consonants - before soft labial consonants: again - together (<в>neutralized with<в’>in the variant [in ']);
4) For dental<н>- in front of the anterior<ч’>and<ш’:>: boar - boar (<н>neutralized with<н’>in the variant [n ']), deception is a deceiver (<н’>neutralized with<н’>in the variant [n ']).
Requires special comment position before a vowel<э>. For centuries, the Russian language had a law: a consonant, falling into a position before<э>, softened. Indeed, in native Russian words before<э>the consonant is always soft: forest, river, light, summer, wind. The exception is hard hissing (rustling, gesture), but they were originally soft. Therefore, the position before<э>for consonants it was weak in hardness-softness. In 20-30 years. XX century there have been changes in the phonetic system of the Russian language. On the one hand, abbreviations are actively formed, which become common words: NEP, DNEPROGES, power lines. On the other hand, many borrowings, passing into the category of mastered ones, bypass the stage of phonetic adaptation. So, the words in common use, without a doubt, include the words: antenna, atelier, stand, tennis, muffler. consonant before<э>these words are pronounced firmly. Thus before<э>in modern Russian, hard and soft consonants are possible. This means that the position has changed from weak to strong.
In fact, all positions are strong in hardness-softness, except for the weak ones listed above. The range of weak positions in terms of hardness-softness has narrowed over the past 50-80 years. The "destroyed" positional patterns include:
1) Softening consonants before
2) Softening of the labials in front of the soft posterior lingual: paws [lap'k'i], rags [tr'ap'k'i].
In fact, the positional patterns of softening of the labials before the soft labials and the teeth before the soft labials are also in the stage of destruction. The Russian Grammar indicates possible pronunciation options in these positions: [s'v'et] and [sv'et], [v'm'es't'] and [vm'es't']. The reasons for such changes in the phonetic system of the Russian language will be discussed in the next paragraph.
A special position in the system for back-lingual consonants. Hard and soft back lingual consonants alternate positionally: soft back lingual consonants are possible only before front vowels<и>, <э>. In these positions, there are no hard back-lingual ones: ru [k] a - ru [k '] and, ru [k '] e; but [g] a - but [g '] and, but [g '] e; sti [x] a - sti [x '] and, o sti [x '] e. Consequently, hard and soft posterior linguals are representatives of the same phonemes. Since hard backlinguals are possible in most positions, they are considered the main variants of consonant phonemes -<г>, <к>, <х..
Thus, the composition of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language is as follows:<б> – <б’> – <п> – <п’> –<в> – <в’> – <ф> – <ф’> – <д> – <д’> – <т> – <т’> – <з> – <з’> – <с> – <с’> – <м> –<м’> – <н> – <н’> – <л> – <л’> – <р> – <р’> – <ж> – <ж’:> – <ш> – <ш’:> – <ч’> – <ц> –
PHONEMATIC TRANSCRIPTION
Phonetic transcription is used to accurately capture sounding speech. Phonemic transcription reflects the composition of phonemes. It is a record of abstract units of the language, not meant to be read.
The procedure for performing phonemic transcription:
1) Perform phonetic transcription;
2) Perform a morphemic analysis of the word (to determine which morpheme a particular phoneme belongs to);
3) Determine the nature of the position for each sound unit (strong position is indicated by "+", weak position - "-");
4) Select checks for all phonemes in weak positions: a) for phonemes in the root of a word - cognate words; b) for phonemes in prefixes - words of any part of speech with the same prefix (with the same meaning); c) for phonemes in suffixes - words with the same suffixes (checks "automatically" will belong to the same part of speech and the same grammatical category); d) for phonemes in endings - words of the same part of speech, the same grammatical category, in the same grammatical form.
5) Transfer the entry to phonemic transcription.
Note. Remember that it is necessary to check the positions of consonants by two parameters - by sonority-deafness and by hardness-softness.
Sample.
1) correspondence [p'yr'i e p'isk];
2) [p'yr'i e -p'is-k-b];
3) [p 'b r 'and e -p 'and s-k-b];
+ - + - + + - + - (for consonants by voicedness / deafness)
+ + + + + (for hardness/softness consonants)
4) Check for vowels in the prefix: P e rewriting, transˈ e abusive; for the root consonant [s], which is in a weak position in voicedness / deafness: rewrite; for an unstressed vowel [ъ] at the end: Spring(the ending of a feminine noun in the singular, nominative case).
5) After checks, we transfer the record to phonemic transcription:<п’эр’эп’иска>.
Performing phonemic transcription of different words, memorize checks for various prefixes, suffixes, endings of different parts of speech in different grammatical forms.
Since it is the phonemic principle that is the basis of Russian graphics and spelling, the recording of a word in phonemic transcription largely coincides with the spelling appearance of the word.
1) What does phonology study? Why is it also called functional phonetics?
2) Define a phoneme. Explain why the phoneme is considered the smallest sound unit of a language. What is the function of the phoneme? Illustrate your answer with examples.
3) What alternations are classified as phonetic positional? Give examples of phonetic positional alternations of vowels and consonants. What are the differences between phonetic non-positional (grammatical positional) alternations? In which case are the alternating sounds representative of one phoneme, in which case are they representative of different phonemes? How can a phoneme be defined in terms of positional alternations?
4) Give a definition of the strong and weak position of phonemes from the perceptual and significative points of view. In which case is the phoneme represented by its main variant? With your variations? Options? What are allophones?
5) Define a hyperphoneme and illustrate your answer with examples.
6) Name strong and weak positions for Russian vowels. What is the composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language?
7) Name the strong and weak positions of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language in terms of voicedness - deafness.
8) Name the strong and weak positions of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language in terms of hardness-softness.
9) What is the composition of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language?
Practical tasks
№1 . Write down the definition of the phoneme in your workbook. Justify each word in this definition.
№2 . Pick up rows of words in which vowels, voiced and deaf consonants, hard and soft consonants perform a semantic function. Prove that a semantic function can be performed by the order of sound units in a word.
№3. Determine what alternations are observed in the following cases: a) house - house a- domovik; b) traces - trace; c) play along - signature d) graze - pasture; e) evil - to anger; f) honor - honest; g) walk - I walk; h) frost - freeze; i) table - about the table. Which of these alternations are phonetic positional? Pick up similar examples of phonetic positional and phonetic non-positional alternations.
№4. Transcribe the text. Set possible phonetic positional and non-positional alternations: Snow fell until midnight, darkness fell over the gorges, and then it became quiet, and a young moon rose ... This world, it is driven and alive from time immemorial by transformations, sometimes invisible, sometimes obvious, countless of them(Yu. Levitansky).
№6 . Prove that for alternations [s’]/[w] and [d‘]/[w] in pairs wear - wear, walk - walk there are exceptions and, therefore, these alternations are phonetic non-positional.
№7 . Show what different sounds the phoneme /з/ can be represented (in the preposition without). Indicate the main variant of this phoneme, its variations, options.
№8. Transcribe the words and determine which row of positionally alternating sounds are represented by Phonemes<э>, <о>, <а>: running, running, running; walk, walked, walkers; thunderstorms, thunderstorm, thunderstorm; anger, wisdom; record, record, record.
№9. What phonemes and in what positions are neutralized in the examples of task 3?
№10. Select examples illustrating the neutralization of phonemes:<б> – <п>; <и> – <э>; <э> – <о>; <д> – <д’>.
№11. Transcribe the words. Designate strong and weak positions for vowel phonemes: domovik, honey plant, golden, groovy, subscription, story, kindness, youth, copier, cotton wool, field, strict. Pick up checks for vowels in weak position. Which vowel phonemes do they represent?
№12 . Transcribe the words. Indicate the strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes according to voiced-deafness. Pick up phonemic checks: crab, trace, thunderstorm, long, hawk, braid (short adjective), dexterous, cat, piece of wood, mowing, carving, interspersed, signature, echo, jump, heartless, soundless, laugh, break.
№13 . Write down the words in phonetic transcription, indicating strong and weak positions for consonant phonemes in terms of hardness-softness: elephant, horse, hill, bitterly, goat, song, together, with Vitya, racer, boar, cog, difference, removable, branching. Pick up checks for phonemes in a weak position.
№14 . What are the hyperphonemes in the following words: watercolor, crimson, left-handed, turquoise, wife, lean, suddenly, wax, becoming, light, everywhere?
№15. Give examples of words that have hyperphonemes:<а/о>; <и/э>; <а/о/э>; <а/о/э/и>; <с/з>; <г/к>; <с’/з’>; <т’/д’>; <с/c’/з/з’>.
№16. Perform phonemic transcription of words: young, flew, show, prose writer, stay, riddle, quiet, armchair, sea, play along, wash, kerosene, blind, furnish, closet, delight, asphalt, here.
№19. Using the materials of the paragraph and the completed exercises, write in a notebook and remember the checks for morphemes: a) prefixes on-, for-, under-, re-, roses-; b) suffixes
-ost-, -chik-, -from-, -out-; c) endings of nouns of different types of declension, adjectives, personal endings of verbs; d) infinitive suffix -th and postfix -ss reflexive verbs.
The Russian language is a difficult subject. We spell words quite differently from how they are actually pronounced. In speech, the same phonemes manifest themselves in different sound forms. Compare, for example, the words "honey" - [m" from] and "honey" - [m" idok]. It all depends on whether phonemes occupy strong positions or weak positions within a word. Let's talk about this in more detail.
Speech is a continuous stream of phonemes, in which the pronunciation of a sound is largely determined by its place in the word, adjacent vowels and consonants. AT weak position articulation undergoes significant changes. Phonemes lose some of their characteristics, begin to appear in other variants. For example, [o] in an unstressed position begins to sound like [a]: [vada], [sava]. The final [g] is pronounced like [k]: [druk], [kruk]. It is in such places that we make mistakes in writing.
AT strong position the phoneme, on the contrary, is heard distinctly and stands in its basic form. It does not depend on the position in the word, its quality is not affected by neighboring sounds. This is, for example, the phoneme [o] in the words "water", "owl". Or the sound [g] in the words "friend", "around".
Morphological principle of spelling
Why does an ordinary person, far from linguistics, need to know the strong and weak positions of phonemes? The fact is that the spelling of 90% of Russian words is regulated by the so-called morphological principle. According to him, we should not take into account phonetic alternations when we pick up a pen or type on a keyboard. Roots, suffixes, prefixes, endings are always written the same way. Vowel reduction, softening of consonants before some sounds, their voicing or stunning are not taken into account.
The conclusion follows from this: when writing, one cannot rely on hearing. Only sounds in strong positions are written as they are heard. All others need to be checked. Having determined that the phoneme is in a weak position, we begin to select a test word with the same morpheme. For example, tooth - tooth, lime - pine, hike - train, to the lamp - to the water. In the test word, the phoneme must be in a strong position, and be in the same morpheme. Otherwise, you can make a mistake.
Strong and weak positions of vowels
Already in elementary school, children know: the sound under stress is heard for a long time, clearly and does not need to be checked. We can safely write the words "som", "sam" in a notebook. This is a strong vowel position.
Quite another matter is an unstressed position. Such a vowel is in a weak position, we pronounce it shortly, with less force, indistinctly. Compare the words "soma" and "sama". They sound almost the same. In order not to make mistakes when writing them, schoolchildren are taught to select test words.
The Russian language is characterized by:
- "akanye", when unstressed [a] and [o] are pronounced the same after solid consonants (for example, the words "at home", "gave");
- "hiccups", in which unstressed [a] and [e] are indistinguishable after soft consonants (for example, in the words "ball" and "sword").
Vowels [and], [y] and [s] in a weak position are pronounced shorter, but do not change their quality sound. However, it is better to be careful here too. Unstressed [and], for example, can be easily confused with the phonemes [a] and [e] after soft consonants.
Consonant positions: voiceless and voiceless
Consonant sounds form pairs according to such features as "deaf-voiced" and "hard-soft". Accordingly, strong and weak positions of consonants are also determined by these two characteristics.
A strong position on the basis of "deaf-voiced" for consonants is the position:
- before a vowel: tom-house, fence-cathedral;
- before sonorants: firewood - grass, layer - evil;
- before the letter "v": the creator is the palace.
In these cases, consonants are heard clearly and do not require verification. It is hardly possible to make a mistake in writing which do not have a pair of deafness. These include [l], [l "], [n], [n"], [p], [p "], [m], [m"], [th"]. Phonemes [x], [ c], [x "], [u"] and [h "], on the contrary, do not have a voiced paired sound. They can occupy different positions in words, retaining their main characteristics and not coinciding with other consonants during pronunciation.
When can consonants be voiced or stunned?
Now we will learn to distinguish between strong positions and weak positions of paired ones according to the voiced-deafness of phonemes. When do we run the risk of making a mistake in writing? This position:
- at the end of a word, where both voiced and deaf phonemes coincide in their sound: eye - voice, oak - dull, bough - meadow;
- before a paired voiced sound, when the adjacent consonant is also pronounced loudly: shave - [br] shave, give - o[dd]at;
- before a deaf consonant, when a nearby sound is deafened: spoon - lo [shk] a, entrance - [ph] od.
To avoid mistakes, we must understand in which morpheme the questionable sound is located. Then find a test word where the required phoneme is in a strong position. To make it not take a lot of time, you need training. Let's select test words for the examples given above: eye - eyes, voice - voice, oak - oak, stupid - stupid, bough - bough, meadow - meadows; shave - fold, give - drive off; spoon - impose, entrance - to the left.
Consonant positions: hardness and softness
It's time to consider the strong and weak positions of consonants on such a basis as "hard-soft". There are many dangers here. The morphological principle does not always save. For example, the sounds [zh] and [w] are always hard, but we know that in some cases a soft sign is written after them (rye, hear). After a hard [c], the letter "y" (chicken) or "i" (circus) can stand.
The sounds [h "] and [u"] are always pronounced softly, but from the first grade we remember the spelling of the syllables "cha-scha" and "chu-shu". Another principle is at work here, called traditional or historical. Only a clear knowledge of the rules of the Russian language will save you from a mistake.
However, back to theory. In which case do consonants that have a pair of hardness-softness do not change their qualitative characteristics? This position:
- before a vowel: [small] - [m "al", [ox] - [v "ol], [bow] - [l "uk], [life"] - [b "it"];
- at the end of the word: [kon] - [kon "], [brother] - [brother"];
- absolutely any for phonemes [l], [l "]: in [ln] a - in [l "n] a, after [l "z] a - in [lz] at;
- before posterior lingual [g], [k], [x], [g "], [k"], [x"] and hard labial [b], [m], [p] for front lingual sounds: go [rk] a - go [r "k] o, and [zb] a - re [z "b] a;
- before hard dental [s], [s], [c], [d], [t], [l], [n] for dental: ko [ns] cue - ju [n "s] cue;
- before solid anterior lingual [c], [h], [t], [d], [c], [l], [r], [n], [w], [g] for sonorant anterior linguals: Jan [rs] cue - September [r "s] cue, ma [nzh] eta - de [n "f] ata.
Weak positions on the characteristic "softness - hardness"
There are positions in which hard consonants soften under the influence of neighboring sounds. They are considered weak. This position:
- Before [th "]: raven - voro [n" y "o]. The exception is the consonants at the end of the prefix before [th"]: [vy" est] - entry.
- Before soft teeth for sounds [c], [n], [s]: together with [s "t"] e, [s "d"] are.
- Before the phonemes [h "] and [u"] for the sound [n]: drum [n "u"] ik, roll [n "h"] ik.
In general, it is very difficult to distinguish between strong positions and weak positions on the basis of "hard-soft consonant". The fact is that not all cases can be found examples. So, in Russian, before [n] we meet only solid [m]: compote, shampoo, etc. Not a single word has a sound [m "] in this position. Therefore, we cannot be completely sure whether phoneme [m] or [m "].
Absolute positions for consonants
Let's summarize. With vowel sounds, everything is clear. If they are under stress, the position is considered strong. If the stress falls on another phoneme in the word, then the position is weak. Consonants are more difficult.
For example, in the word "tooth" the sound at the end is deafened. The position on the basis of "voicedness-deafness" will be weak. But it is also strong on the soft-hard scale. When weak positions on both characteristics coincide, the phoneme is considered to be absolutely weak. It realizes itself in various variations and requires the application of spelling rules.
It happens that the consonant is in a strong position both on the basis of "voiced-deaf", and according to the characteristic "soft - hard". Often this is observed in the position before the vowel sound. This position is called absolutely strong.
Knowing the strong positions and weak positions of phonemes is necessary for every person who wants to write correctly. This will allow you to determine the "erroneously dangerous" place in the word in time and remember the corresponding rule.
Ticket texts grade 8.
Ticket number 1.
The Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication.
Language is the main means of human communication. With the help of language, people communicate with each other, convey their thoughts, feelings, desires.
As a means of communication, the language is connected with the life of society, with the people - the native speaker of this language.
The Russian language in the modern world performs three functions:
1) the national language of the Russian people;
2) the state language of the Russian Federation;
3) the language of interethnic communication of the peoples of Russia.
Let's look at these three functions.
Russian language is national language of the Russian people, which, together with other peoples, played a big role in the history of our country.
The Russian language is the language of science, technology and culture. The works of outstanding Russian writers were created in Russian: A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, N. V. Gogol, I. S. Turgenev, L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, A. M. Gorky , K. G. Paustovsky and others.
Russian is one of the richest languages in the world. It has a large vocabulary, has developed expressive means for denoting all the necessary concepts in any sphere of human activity. The richness and expressiveness of the Russian language was noted by many writers and public figures: V. Belinsky, N. Gogol, I. Turgenev, A. N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, K. Paustovsky. “There is no doubt that the Russian language is one of the richest languages in the world,” V. Belinsky. “The richest, most accurate, powerful and truly magical Russian language has been given to us,” - K. Paustovsky.
The basis of the Russian national language is the literary language. Literary language is the language of books, newspapers, theater, radio and television, government agencies and educational institutions. Literary language is studied at school.
Russian literary language is a normalized language. The pronunciation of words, the choice of words and the use of grammatical norms, the construction of sentences in a literary language are subject to literary rules or norms.
Literary language has oral and written forms. Oral speech- it is speech sounding, pronounced. In oral speech, it is important to correctly pronounce sounds, words, sentences, observe intonation and stress. It is characterized by simple short sentences. Written speech associated with writing. It is formatted correctly and accurately in terms of spelling and punctuation. In writing, complex and complicated sentences are used.
Russian language is state language of the Russian Federation. It adopts all the laws of the country, the head of state, the President of Russia, speaks at it, the main law of our country, the Constitution of the Russian Federation, is written in this language. Party congresses and conferences on various fields of knowledge are held in Russian.
The Russian Federation is a multinational state. Among the equal national languages, the Russian language acts as language of interethnic communication of the peoples of Russia. Knowledge of the Russian language along with the native language is necessary for the exchange of information in various fields. As a means of interethnic communication, the Russian language helps to solve the problems of the national, economic and cultural development of our multinational country. With the help of the Russian language, the peoples of Russia can join the riches of Russian and world scientific thought and culture. The Russian language plays the role of an intermediary between all the languages of the peoples of Russia, serves to mutually enrich national cultures. The Russian language is the most widespread among other languages in our country.
Ticket number 2.
Classification of vowels and consonants. Strong and weak positions of sounds.
In the forest, on the street, at home, we hear many different sounds. Speech sounds differ from all other sounds primarily in that they form words.
By the sounds of speech The sounds that make up words are called. Sound is the basic unit of language along with words and sentences. Sounds play an important semantic role in the language: they create an external, sound shell of words and thus help to distinguish words from each other.
The branch of language science that deals with the sounds of speech is called phonetics.
The sounds of the tongue are formed in the speech apparatus when air is exhaled. The vocal apparatus includes the larynx with vocal cords, oral and nasal cavities, tongue, lips, teeth, and palate. In the speech apparatus, the exhaled air passes through the larynx between the tense vocal cords and through the oral cavity, which can change its shape. This is how vowel sounds. They consist only of voice. Exhaled air can meet an obstruction in the oral cavity in the form of a closure or convergence of the speech organs and exit either through the mouth or through the nose. This is how consonants are formed. They are made up of noise, and some are made up of voice and noise.
There are 6 vowels in Russian: [a"], [o"], [u"], [s"], [i"], [e"]. Vowels are stressed (for example, juice [o "], var [a"], drill [u"], forest [e "], blue [i"]) and unstressed (for example, water [a], grass [a ], pike perch [y], wood [and], fox [and], was [s]). in a strong position, and without the accent - in a weak. Sounds [y], [s] always stand in a strong position. To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to choose such a single-root word or change the word in such a way that this sound is stressed: amazing - marvelous, heavy - heaviness, window - windows.
Consonants: [b], [c], [g], [d], [g], [h], [k], [l], [m], [n], [p], [r], etc. A total of 36 consonants. The consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Pairs of voiced and voiceless sounds are formed:
Do not form voiced pairs [l], [m], [p], [n], [th].
Deaf [x], [c], [h], [u] do not form pairs.
Sounds [g], [w], [h], [u] are called hissing.
Strong position of voiced and voiceless consonants in position before vowels: d about R about G a, n a h a l about, with about in e t s; before voiced consonants [l], [m], [n], [r], [th]: with lovo, with pier, with nova, P true, in south. Weak position of consonants: stun at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants: du b[n], ro g[k], [f] in se; voicing before voiced consonants: young t b[ d"]ba, s[s] beat. To check the spelling of paired voiced and deaf consonants at the end and in the middle of words before consonants, you need to choose such a single-root word or change the word in such a way that after the consonant there is a vowel sound: oak - oaks, low - low, pointer - indicate, fairy tale - fairy tale, threshing - threshing, request - ask, etc.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are divided into hard and soft. Consonants form pairs of hard and soft sounds:
| Solid | [m] | [n] | [P] | [R] | [with] | [t] | [f] | [X] |
| soft | [m"] | [n"] | [P"] | [R"] | [with"] | [t"] | [f"] | [X"] |
Solid [g], [w], [c] do not form pairs.
Soft [h], [u], [d] do not form pairs.
Ticket number 3.
The word as a unit of language. The lexical meaning of the word. Groups of words by lexical meaning.
The basic meaningful unit of language is word. The totality of all the words of a language constitutes its vocabulary. The branch of the science of language that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology. The more words a person knows, the richer his speech, the more accurately he can express his thoughts. Reading is especially enriching.
Words in the language serve to designate specific objects, signs of objects, actions, signs of actions, quantities. What a particular independent word means is its lexical meaning. For example, there is an item bridge' and there is the word ' bridge” designating this item. The lexical meaning of the word " bridge”the following: “a structure for crossing, crossing a river, a ravine, a railway track.”
According to the lexical meaning, words are divided into single-valued and polysemantic, words with direct and figurative meaning, homonyms, synonyms, antonyms. Let's take a closer look at each of these groups.
Single words are words with one lexical meaning. For example, coat of arms- a distinctive sign of a state or city, which is depicted on flags, coins, seals. Polysemantic words are words that have multiple lexical meanings. In a polysemantic word, one meaning is connected with another in meaning. For example, the word crest an object for combing hair, and the top of a mountain, and the top of a wave, and the top of a freshly plowed layer of earth, and a fleshy growth on the head of a rooster are indicated. At the same time, there is a similarity in form between these objects. There are more polysemantic words in the language than unambiguous ones. In explanatory dictionaries, separate meanings of polysemantic words are distinguished by numbers in one dictionary entry.
The direct meaning of the word is its main lexical meaning. For example, the word howls denotes the sounds produced by the wolf: wolf howling. The figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one and is connected with it in meaning: the wind is howling. The appropriate use of the word in a figurative sense makes speech vivid, figurative.
Homonyms- these are words that are the same in sound and spelling, but completely different in lexical meaning. Usually homonyms refer to one part of speech, for example, onion- garden plant and onion- weapons, sports equipment; key- an object for unlocking and locking the lock and key- a spring. It is necessary to distinguish between polysemantic words and homonyms. In polysemantic words, the meanings are interconnected. Homonyms are different words that have nothing in common in their meanings. In explanatory dictionaries, homonyms are given as different words, in different dictionary entries.
Synonyms- words of the same part of speech, different in sound, but the same or similar in lexical meaning. For example, words blizzard, blizzard, snowstorm, blizzard, blizzard have a common lexical meaning: snow falling in windy weather. Synonyms make up a series of words called synonymous next. One of the synonyms is the main one, it is placed first in dictionaries. Synonyms in speech are used:
1) for a more accurate expression of thought (wet and wet);
2) to express emotional coloring (fell and blurted out);
3) as a means of overcoming the unjustified repetition of the same word;
4) as a way of linking sentences in the text.
Antonyms- these are words of one part of speech, opposite in lexical meaning: true - false, beautiful - ugly, start - finish, up - down etc. The use of antonyms makes our speech brighter and more expressive.
Ticket number 4.
Groups of words by use and origin.
By use and origin, words are divided into common and non-common (limited in use), dialect, professional, obsolete, new (neologisms), borrowed. Let's take a closer look at each of these groups.
The main part of the vocabulary of the Russian language is made up of commonly used words, i.e. such words that all Russian people use, regardless of profession and place of residence: father, mother, son, daughter; good, beautiful, long; one two Three; I you he; talk, walk, write. Such words can be used in any style of speech, both when we speak and when we write.
Words restricted in use include dialect words (dialectisms) and professional words (professionalisms).
Dialectisms are words that are used mainly by residents of the same locality. There are three main groups of dialects in Russian: North Russian dialects, South Russian dialects, Central Russian dialects. The same objects (signs, actions) in dialects and in the literary language are often called differently: cock (literary language and North Russian dialect) - kochet (South Russian dialect); speak (literary language) - bait (Northern Russian dialect) - Gutar (South Russian dialect). Many dialect words become common and are included in synonymous groups, for example, house (common), hut (Northern Russian), hut (Southern Russian). Dialect words are used in works of art to convey the peculiarities of the speech of the inhabitants of a certain area.
Professional words are words used in the speech of people united by any profession, specialty. In mathematics, for example, denominator, numerator, multiplier, term; in the science of language: phonetics, spelling, syntax, etc. Special words denoting scientific concepts are called terms. Professional words are used in works of art to more accurately describe people and their activities.
Obsolete words (archaisms) are words that have come out of active, everyday use: konka, policeman, butler. Most often, words become obsolete if objects, tools, concepts, etc., called these words, go out of use. In fiction, obsolete words are used to more accurately describe people's lives in the past.
Neologisms (new words) are words that appear in the language to name new objects, tools, cultures, new ideas about the world, etc. Some neologisms quickly lose their shade of unusualness, novelty, becoming common (cosmonaut, pie, traffic light), others retain this shade for a longer time (landing on the moon, moon rover). Some new words do not pass into the category of common ones, remaining neologisms (most often author's neologisms): lips drain from the cold (in Mayakovsky; they become plum-colored, blue with a hint of purple).
By origin, the vocabulary of the Russian language contains native Russian words (that is, those that arose in the Russian language) and borrowed ones (that is, those that are taken from other languages). There are about 10% of borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language. Words are borrowed from other languages for various reasons: to name borrowed objects, tools, concepts (oboe, tractor, ballet, art); to clarify the names of similar items, tools, machines (hotel, motel; jam, marmalade, jam, confiture). Most often, words are borrowed from Greek, Latin, French, English, German, Turkic languages. When borrowing other people's words in the Russian language, they undergo phonetic, semantic, morphological changes, as well as changes in the composition of the word.
Ticket number 5.
Phraseologism: its lexical meaning, functions in a sentence and text.
Phraseological units are stable combinations of words that are similar in lexical meaning to one word. The phraseologism as a whole has a lexical meaning, for example: to beat the buckets - to mess around; for distant lands - far away.
Like a word, a phraseological unit can have synonyms and antonyms. Phraseologisms-synonyms: two boots of steam, one field of berries (one is not better than the other); at the end of the world, where the raven did not bring bones, where Makar did not drive calves (far). Phraseologisms - antonyms: lift up to heaven - trample into the dirt; rolled up sleeves - later sleeves; brew porridge - disentangle porridge; heavy to lift - easy to lift. Phraseologism cat cried has a synonym for little and an antonym for a lot.
Most of the phraseological units reflect the deeply folk, original nature of the Russian language. The direct (original) meaning of many phraseological units is connected with the history of our Motherland, with some of the customs of the ancestors, their work. So, the expression to beat the buckets (to mess around) arose on the basis of the direct meaning "to split a block of wood into buckets (chocks) to make spoons, ladles out of them", i.e. do a very simple, easy thing.
Phraseologisms are bright and expressive means of language. They often occur in speech. For example: "Here you will pass the exams and you will be a free Cossack (free)." (A. I. Kuprin). Yegor, although a debater, is a wet chicken (a slob). Afraid of a cart creak (a coward).
Phraseologisms characterize all aspects of a person's life - his attitude to work, for example, golden hands, beat the buckets, attitude towards other people, for example, a bosom friend, a disservice, personal strengths and weaknesses, for example, does not lose his head, lead by the nose.
Phraseologism plays the role of one member of the sentence: Finishing, cleanliness of the casket
rushed into the eyes (stand out, differed). (I. Krylov) The guys worked with their sleeves rolled up (well, diligently).
The meaning of phraseological units, proverbs, sayings is acquired by quotes from literary works: Happy hours are not observed (A. S. Griboedov) Sow reasonable, kind, eternal ... (N. A. Nekrasov)
People do not use spoken sounds in isolation. They don't need it.
Speech is a sound stream, but a stream organized in a certain way. The conditions in which a particular sound appears are important. The beginning of a word, the end of a word, the stressed syllable, the unstressed syllable, the position before the vowel, the position before the consonant - these are all different positions. We will figure out how to distinguish between strong and weak positions, first for vowels, and then for consonants.
Strong position one in which the sound appears in its basic form, when it is not subject to positionally determined changes.
For vowels, the strong position is stressed, and the weak position is unstressed.
In unstressed syllables, vowels undergo changes: they are shorter and not pronounced as distinctly as under stress. This change in vowels in a weak position is called reduction. Due to reduction, fewer vowels are distinguished in the weak position than in the strong position.
Sounds corresponding to stressed [o] and [a], after hard consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. Normative in the Russian language is recognized as "akanye", i.e. nondiscrimination O and BUT in an unstressed position after hard consonants.
Under stress: [house] - [lady] - [o] ≠ [a].
without stress: [d a ma´] -at home´- [d a la´] -dala´ - [a] = [a].
Sounds corresponding to stressed [a] and [e], after soft consonants in a weak, unstressed position, sound the same. The normative pronunciation is "hiccups", i.e. nondiscrimination E and BUT in unstressed position after soft consonants.
under stress: [m'ech '] - [m'ach '] - [e] ≠ [a].
without stress: [m’ich’o´m] - sword´ m - [m'ich'o´m] - ball´ m - [and] = [and].
What about the vowels [and], [s], [y]? Why was nothing said about them? The fact is that these vowels in a weak position undergo only quantitative reduction: they are pronounced more briefly, weakly, but their quality does not change. That is, as for all vowels, an unstressed position for them is a weak position, but for a schoolchild these vowels in an unstressed position do not present a problem.
[ski'zhy], [in _lu'zhu], [n'i't'i] - both in strong and weak positions, the quality of vowels does not change. Both under stress and in an unstressed position, we clearly hear: [s], [y], [and] and write the letters with which these sounds are usually denoted.
End of work -
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Orthoepy. Phonetics. Graphic arts. Classification of sounds, transcription
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PHONETICS. GRAPHIC ARTS. ORTHOEPY. ACCENTOLOGY
Phonetics (Greek Phone - sound) is a section of linguistics that studies the sound side of the language: the sounds of human speech, the methods of their formation, acoustic properties,
SPEECH SOUNDS
Speech sounds are the sounds that make up words. Speech sounds are the smallest sound unit that stands out during sequential sound division.
The following symbols are used to represent sounds.
1. To distinguish a sound from a letter, the sounds are enclosed in square brackets - . [a], [o], [l]. The entire transcription is enclosed in square brackets.
vowels and consonants
Depending on the method of formation, sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The vowel sounds consist only of the voice. When arr
Vowels and consonants
1. In the formation of each specific sound, the movement of the organs of speech is strictly individual. For example, when forming sounds [d], [t], the tip and front part
Consonants
There are 36 consonants in Russian, including 15 pairs of hardness-softness, 3 unpaired hard and 3 unpaired soft consonants.
VOICED AND VOID CONSONANTS
Depending on the presence of a voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf. Sounds consisting of noise and voice are called calls and m and: [b], [c], [g
HARD AND SOFT CONSONANTS
Consonants are divided into hard and soft sounds. The pronunciation of hard and soft sounds differs in the position of the tongue. Compare, for example
SOUNDS OF SPEECH AND LETTERS. ALPHABET
Sounding speech in a letter is transmitted using special graphic signs - letters. We pronounce and hear sounds, and we see and write letters. List of letters in specific order
Speech sounds and letters
1. In accordance with what sounds are indicated by letters, all letters are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowels 10:
Transcription
Transcription is a special recording system that displays the sound. The following symbols are accepted in transcription: - square brackets, which are the designation of transcription.
Vowels and consonants
Sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. Vowels are sounds
Method of formation of consonants
Consonants are sounds, during the pronunciation of which the air meets an obstacle in its path. In Russian, there are two types of barriers: a gap and a bow - these are the two main ways of forming according to
Voiced and voiceless consonants
According to the ratio of noise and voice, consonants are divided into voiced and deaf.
The designation of the softness of consonants in writing
Let's digress from pure phonetics. Consider a practically important question: how is the softness of consonants indicated in writing? There are 36 consonants in Russian, among which there are 15 pairs of hardness-m
Place of formation of consonants
Consonants differ not only in terms of signs already known to you: deafness-voicedness, hardness-softness, method of formation: bow-slit. The last one is important
Strong-weak positions for consonants. Positional changes of consonants
For all consonants without exception, the strong position is the position before the vowel. Before vowels, consonants appear in their basic form. Therefore, making phonetic analysis, do not
Positional changes of consonants according to deafness-voicedness
In weak positions, consonants are modified: positional changes occur with them. Voiced ones become deaf, i.e. deafened, and the deaf - voiced, i.e. voiced. Positional changes of observations
Assimilation of consonants
The logic is this: the Russian language is characterized by the likeness of sounds if they are similar in some way and at the same time are close. Learn the list: [c] and [w] → [w:] - stitch
Simplifying consonant clusters
Learn the list: vst - [stv]: hello, feel zdn - [zn]: late zdts - [sts]: under the bridle lnts - [nts]: sun
Letters and sounds
Letters and sounds have different purposes and different nature. But these are comparable systems. Poe
ACCENT
Word stress is the emphasis on the greater power of the voice and the duration of the pronunciation of one of the syllables in the word. In Russian, stress is free (various
stress
Stress is the selection of a group of words, a single word or a syllable in a word. In Russian, the stressed element is pronounced with greater force, more distinctly and with more
Russian word stress (compared to other languages) has a number of features.
1. In many languages, the stress is fixed, constant, that is, the stress is assigned to a certain syllable in a word. In French, the stress is always pa.
PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS
1. Vowels under stress are pronounced distinctly: boron - [boron], garden - [sat]. 2. In an unstressed position, vowel sounds, like
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANTS
1. Consonants, paired in deafness-voicedness, can change their quality depending on the position in the word. Voiced consonants at the end of a word and before deaf ones are stunned, i.e. pronunciation
PRONUNCIATION OF CONSONANT COMBINATIONS
1. The combinations of szh, zzh, ssh, zsh at the junction of the prefix and the root, the root and the suffix are pronounced like long hard consonants [g], [w]: compress - [g] at, carrying - ve [w] y, n
PRONUNCIATION OF ENDINGS -OGO -IT
In the endings of the -th, -of its genitive case of adjectives and participles of the masculine and neuter gender, in place of the letter g, the sound [v] is pronounced: good - good [in
PRONUNCIATION OF LOANWORDS
1. Before the letter e in many borrowed words, the consonants [d], [t], [h], [s], [n], [p] are pronounced firmly: antenna - an [te] nna, model - mo [de]
SOME ACCENTOLOGICAL NORMS OF THE MODERN RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
1. For a number of feminine nouns of the 1st declension with an accent on the ending, the accent in the accusative case of the singular is transferred to the first syllable: head
WEAK POSITIONS OF CONSONANTS
For voiceless and voiced consonants weak positions are positions at the end of a word or before other consonants.
At the end of a word, voiced consonants become deaf, deafened. Pillar we pronounce like table[n], hike- as like[t], garage- as gara[w]. The same thing happens before voiceless consonants. Story reads like ska[s]ka, a a boat- as lo[t]ka.
With deaf consonants, the opposite is true - before voiced ones, they themselves voice themselves. In place of the phoneme C in the word request sounds [ h].
In what position can you see the real phoneme? This is the position before a vowel or sonorant consonants (super voiced sounds[ r, l, m, n,j], in which there are more voices than noise).
Let's select test words for our words: let's turn pillar in tableb ik, hike- in liked ny, boat- in lod point, a request- in aboutwith it. That's when we will understand which letter needs to be written in place of a weak consonant in order to preserve the basic principle of Russian spelling - recording a real phoneme.
To reduce the number of cases of obscure
And so that the answers were not bad,
Listen to the consonants
In order not to confuse voiced and deaf ...
Deaf sounds are fidgets,
They don't want to live in peace
They seek a ringing neighbor
Stun by all means.
If you hear a paired sound,
Be careful my friend.
Double check immediately
Feel free to change the word:
Substitute a vowel next!
There are weak and strong positions hard and soft consonants. According to the laws of the Russian language, in many cases the subsequent soft consonant makes the preceding hard consonant soften. And the hard one has to give in.
For example, here is the word bridge. All consonants are solid. But it is worth changing according to t and turn into soft, as soon as softening extends to the neighboring [ with] - mo[s’t’]ik. the same process occurs in pairs of words forest - le [s'n '] ik, bow - ba [n't '] ik. People unknowingly can insert a soft sign between two soft consonants in these cases. This is not necessary, since the softness of the first consonant is not real, but acquired, “softness from a neighbor.”
There are times when in weak positions, phonemes disappear altogether. If there are several consonants nearby, then the middle sound is not pronounced at all. Heed the words local, tourist, dutch, festive. Are all written letters representing phonemes really pronounced? Is it possible to choose among these words such words in which the phonemes would be in a strong position (we remind you that the main one is before the vowel)?
Mest ny - montht ah, turist sky - turist uh golland tsy - golland ets, holidayd equal
Sometimes found in words
Terrible consonants.
They don't pronounce
And what to write, it is not clear to you ...
To know how to write
We need to change the word.
And behind the incomprehensible sound
Look for a vowel quickly.
