Properties and reasons for the placement of natural complexes. Characteristics of natural objects

The structure and properties of the geographical shell

Natural complexes of land and ocean

Natural zoning

Earth exploration by man. Countries of the world

1. The structure and properties of the geographical shell

Before the appearance of life on Earth, its outer, single shell was made up of three interconnected shells: the lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. With the advent of living organisms - the biosphere, this outer shell has changed significantly. All of its components have also changed. The shell, the Earth, within which the lower layers of the atmosphere, the upper parts of the lithosphere, the entire hydrosphere and biosphere mutually penetrate each other and interact, is called the geographic (earth) shell. All components of the geographic envelope do not exist in isolation, they interact with each other. Thus, water and air, penetrating deep into rocks through cracks and pores, participate in weathering processes, change them and at the same time change themselves. Rivers and underground waters, by moving minerals, are involved in changing the relief. Particles of rocks rise high into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions, strong winds. Many salts are contained in the hydrosphere. Water and minerals are part of all living organisms. Living organisms, dying, form huge strata of rocks. Different scientists draw the upper and lower boundaries of the geographic shell in different ways. It has no sharp boundaries. Many scientists believe that its thickness is on average 55 km. Compared to the size of the Earth, this is a thin film.

As a result of the interaction of the components, the geographic shell has properties inherent only to it.

Only here are substances present in the solid, liquid and gaseous state, which is of great importance for all processes occurring in the geographical envelope, and above all for the emergence of life. Only here, at the solid surface of the Earth, first life arose, and then a person and human society appeared, for the existence and development of which there are all conditions: air, water, rocks and minerals, solar heat and light, soils, vegetation, bacterial and animal life. .

All processes in the geographic envelope occur under the influence of solar energy and, to a lesser extent, internal terrestrial energy sources. A change in solar activity affects all processes of the geographic envelope. So, for example, during the period of increased solar activity, magnetic storms increase, the rate of plant growth, reproduction and migration of insects changes, and the health of people, especially children and the elderly, deteriorates. The connection between the rhythms of solar activity and living organisms was shown by the Russian biophysicist Alexander Leonidovich Chizhevsky back in the 1920s and 1930s. 20th century

The geographic envelope is sometimes called the natural environment or simply nature, referring mainly to nature within the geographic envelope.

All components of the geographic shell are connected into a single whole through the circulation of matter and energy, due to which the exchange of substances between the shells is carried out. The circulation of matter and energy is the most important mechanism of the natural processes of the geographical envelope. There are various cycles of matter and energy: air cycles in the atmosphere, the earth's crust, water cycles, etc. For the geographic envelope, the water cycle is of great importance, which is carried out due to the movement of air masses. Water is one of the most amazing substances in nature, characterized by great mobility. The ability to change from a liquid to a solid or gaseous state with slight changes in temperature allows water to accelerate various natural processes. There can be no life without water. Water, being in the circulation, enters into close interactions with other components, connects them with each other and is an important factor in the formation of the geographic envelope.

A huge role in the life of the geographical shell belongs to the biological cycle. In green plants, as is known, organic substances are formed from carbon dioxide and water in the light, which serve as food for animals. After death, animals and plants are decomposed by bacteria and fungi to minerals, which are then reabsorbed by green plants. The same elements repeatedly form the organic substances of living organisms and repeatedly again pass into the mineral state.

The leading role in all cycles belongs to the air cycle in the troposphere, which includes the entire system of winds and vertical air movement. The movement of air in the troposphere draws the hydrosphere into the global circulation, forming the world water cycle. The intensity of other cycles also depends on it. The most active cycles occur in the equatorial and subequatorial belts. And in the polar regions, on the contrary, they proceed especially slowly. All circles are interconnected.

Each subsequent cycle is different from the previous ones. It does not form a vicious circle. Plants, for example, take nutrients from the soil, and when they die, they give them much more, since the organic mass of plants is created mainly due to atmospheric carbon dioxide, and not due to substances coming from the soil. Thanks to the cycles, the development of all components of nature and the geographical envelope as a whole takes place.

What makes our planet unique? Life! It is difficult to imagine our planet without plants and animals. In a wide variety of forms, it permeates not only the water and air elements, but also the upper layers of the earth's crust. The emergence of the biosphere is a fundamentally important stage in the development of the geographic envelope and the entire Earth as a planet. The main role of living organisms is to ensure the development of all life processes, which are based on solar energy and the biological cycle of substances and energy. Life processes consist of three main stages: the creation of primary products as a result of photosynthesis of organic matter; transformation of primary (plant) products into secondary (animal); destruction of primary and secondary biological products by bacteria, fungi. Without these processes, life is impossible. Living organisms include: plants, animals, bacteria and fungi. Each group (kingdom) of living organisms plays a certain role in the development of nature.

Life on our planet originated 3 billion years ago. All organisms have evolved over billions of years, settled, changed in the process of development and, in turn, influenced the nature of the Earth - their habitat.

Under the influence of living organisms, there was more oxygen in the air and the content of carbon dioxide decreased. Green plants are the main source of atmospheric oxygen. Another was the composition of the oceans. Rocks of organic origin appeared in the lithosphere. Deposits of coal and oil, most limestone deposits are the result of the activity of living organisms. The result of the activity of living organisms is also the formation of soils, thanks to the fertility of which plant life is possible. Thus, living organisms are a powerful factor in the transformation and development of the geographic envelope. The brilliant Russian scientist V. I. Vernadsky considered living organisms to be the most powerful force on the earth's surface in terms of its final results, transforming nature.

2. Natural complexes of land and ocean

The geographical envelope, being integral, is heterogeneous at different latitudes, on land and in the ocean. Due to the uneven supply of solar heat to the earth's surface, the geographic envelope is very diverse. Near the equator, for example, where there is a lot of heat and moisture, nature is distinguished by the richness of living organisms, faster natural processes, in the polar regions, on the contrary, slower processes and poverty of life. At the same latitudes, nature can also be different. It depends on the terrain and distance from the ocean. Therefore, the geographic envelope can be divided into sections, territories, or natural-territorial complexes of different sizes (abbreviated as natural complexes, or PCs). The formation of any natural complex took a long time. On land, it was carried out under the influence of the interaction of the components of nature: rocks, climate, air masses, water, plants, animals, soils. All components in the natural complex, as well as in the geographical shell, are intertwined with each other and form an integral natural complex, it also exchanges substances and energy. A natural complex is a section of the earth's surface, which is distinguished by the features of natural components that are in complex interaction. Each natural complex has more or less clearly defined boundaries, has a natural unity, manifested in its external appearance (for example, a forest, a swamp, a mountain range, a lake, etc.).

The natural complexes of the ocean, in contrast to the land, consist of the following components: water with gases dissolved in it, plants and animals, rocks and bottom topography. Large natural complexes are distinguished in the World Ocean - individual oceans, smaller ones - seas, bays, straits, etc. In addition, natural complexes of surface water layers, various water layers and the ocean floor are distinguished in the ocean.

Natural complexes come in different sizes. They differ in terms of education. Very large natural complexes are continents and oceans. Their formation is due to the structure of the earth's crust. On the continents and oceans, smaller complexes are distinguished - parts of the continents and oceans. Depending on the amount of solar heat, that is, on the geographic latitude, there are natural complexes of equatorial forests, tropical deserts, taiga, etc. Examples of small ones are, for example, a ravine, a lake, a river valley, a sea bay. And the largest natural complex of the Earth is the geographical envelope.

All natural complexes experience a huge influence of man. Many of them have already been greatly changed by centuries of human activity. Man has created new natural complexes: fields, gardens, cities, parks, etc. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic (from the Greek "anthropos" - man).

3. Natural zoning

The natural complexes of the Earth are very diverse. These are hot and icy deserts, evergreen forests, endless steppes, bizarre mountains, etc. This diversity is the unique beauty of our planet. You already know how the natural complexes "mainland" and "ocean" were formed. But the nature of each continent, like each ocean, is not the same. In their territories there are various natural zones.

A natural zone is a large natural complex with a common temperature and moisture conditions, soils, vegetation and wildlife. The formation of zones is due to climate, on land - the ratio of heat and moisture. So, if there is a lot of heat and moisture, that is, high temperatures and a lot of precipitation, a zone of equatorial forests is formed. If the temperatures are high, and there is little precipitation, then a zone of deserts of the tropical belt is formed.

Natural areas of land outwardly differ from each other in the nature of vegetation. Of all the components of nature, the vegetation of the zones most clearly expresses all the most important features of their nature, the relationship between the components. If there are changes in individual components, then outwardly this affects primarily the change in vegetation. The names of the natural zones of the land were received according to the nature of the vegetation, for example, zones of deserts, equatorial forests, etc.

There are also natural zones (natural belts) in the World Ocean. They differ in water masses, organic world, etc. The natural zones of the ocean do not have clear external differences, with the exception of the ice cover, and are named according to their geographical location, like climatic zones.

In the placement of natural zones on the earth's surface, scientists have found a clear pattern, which can be clearly seen on the map of natural zones. To understand this regularity, let us trace the change of natural zones on the map from north to south along 20°E. e. In the subarctic zone, where temperatures are low, there is a zone of tundra and forest-tundra, which gives way to taiga to the south. There is enough heat and moisture for the growth of coniferous trees. In the southern half of the temperate zone, the amount of heat and precipitation increases significantly, which contributes to the formation of a zone of mixed and broad-leaved forests. Somewhat to the east, the amount of precipitation decreases, so the steppe zone is located here. On the Mediterranean coast in Europe and Africa, the Mediterranean climate dominates with dry summers. It favors the formation of a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs. Then we get into the tropical zone. Here, in the expanses scorched by the sun, it is hot, the vegetation is sparse and stunted, in some places it is completely absent. This is a tropical desert zone. To the south, it is replaced by savannas - tropical forest-steppes, where there is already a wet season of the year and a lot of heat. But the amount of rainfall is not enough for the growth of the forest. In the equatorial climatic zone there is a lot of heat and moisture, therefore a zone of humid equatorial forests with very rich vegetation is formed. In South Africa, zones, like climatic zones, are repeated.

In Antarctica, there is a zone of the Antarctic desert, characterized by exceptional severity: very low temperatures and strong winds.

So, you, apparently, were convinced that the alternation of natural zones on the plains is explained by a change in climatic conditions - geographical latitude. However, scientists have long noted that natural conditions change not only when moving from north to south, but also from west to east. To confirm this idea, let us follow the map of the change of zones in Eurasia from west to east along the 45th parallel - in the temperate zone.

On the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, where sea air masses coming from the ocean dominate, there is a zone of broad-leaved forests, beech, oak, linden, etc. grow. When moving east, the forest zone is replaced by a zone of forest-steppes and steppes. The reason is the decrease in rainfall. Even farther to the east, precipitation becomes less and the steppes turn into deserts and semi-deserts, which further to the east are again replaced by steppes, and near the Pacific Ocean - by a zone of mixed forests. These coniferous-deciduous forests amaze with their richness and diversity of plant and animal species.

What explains the alternation of zones at the same latitude? Yes, all the same reasons - a change in the ratio of heat and moisture, which is determined by the proximity or remoteness of the direction of the prevailing winds. There are changes at the same latitudes and in the ocean. They depend on the interaction of the ocean with land, the movement of air masses, currents.

The location of natural zones is closely related to climatic zones. Like climatic zones, they naturally replace each other from the equator to the poles due to a decrease in solar heat entering the Earth's surface and uneven moistening. Such a change in natural zones - large natural complexes is called latitudinal zonality. Zoning is manifested in all natural complexes, regardless of their size, as well as in all components of the geographical envelope. Zoning is the main geographical pattern.

The change of natural zones, as you know, occurs not only on the plains, but also in the mountains - from the foot to their peaks. With altitude, temperature and pressure decrease, up to a certain height, the amount of precipitation increases, and lighting conditions change. In connection with the change in climatic conditions, there is also a change in natural zones. The zones replacing one another, as it were, encircle mountains at different heights, which is why they are called high-altitude belts. The change of altitudinal belts in the mountains occurs much faster than the change of zones on the plains. It is enough to climb 1 km to be convinced of this.

The first (lower) altitudinal belt of mountains always corresponds to the natural zone in which the mountain is located. So, if the mountain is located in the taiga zone, then when climbing to its top you will find the following altitudinal belts: taiga, mountain tundra, eternal snow. If you have to climb into the Andes near the equator, then you will start your journey from the belt (zone) of equatorial forests. The pattern is as follows: the higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the more altitudinal zones and the more diverse they are. In contrast to zonality on the plains, the alternation of natural zones in the mountains is called altitudinal zonality or altitudinal zonality.

The law of geographical zonality also manifests itself in mountainous regions. Some of them we have already considered. Also, the change of day and night, seasonal changes depend on the geographical latitude. If the mountain is near the pole, then there is a polar day and a polar night, a long winter and a short cold summer. In the mountains at the equator, day is always equal to night, there are no seasonal changes.

4. Earth exploration by man. Countries of the world

Most scientists believe that the ancient homeland of man is Africa and Southwestern Eurasia. Gradually, people settled on all continents of the globe, with the exception of Antarctica. It is assumed that at first they mastered the territories of Eurasia and Africa, convenient for life, and then other continents. On the site of the Bering Strait, there was land, which about 30 thousand years ago connected the northeastern part of Eurasia and North America. Through this land "bridge" ancient hunters penetrated into North and then into South America, up to the islands of Tierra del Fuego. Humans entered Australia from Southeast Asia.

Findings of fossil remains of people helped to draw conclusions about the ways of human settlement.

Ancient tribes moved from one place to another in search of better living conditions. The settlement of new lands accelerated the development of animal husbandry and agriculture. The population also gradually increased. If about 15 thousand years ago there were about 3 million people on Earth, then at present the population has reached 6 billion people. Most people live on the plains, where it is convenient to cultivate arable land, build factories and factories, and place settlements.

There are four areas of high population density on the globe - South and East Asia, Western Europe and the eastern part of North America. This can be explained by several reasons: favorable natural conditions, a well-developed economy, and the age of settlement. In South and East Asia, in a favorable climate, the population has long been engaged in agriculture on irrigated lands, which makes it possible to collect several crops a year and feed a large population.

In Western Europe and in the east of North America, industry is well developed, there are many factories and plants, and the urban population predominates. On the Atlantic coast of North America, the population settled here from the countries of Europe.

The nature of the globe is the environment of life and activity of the population. Being engaged in farming, a person influences nature, changes it. At the same time, different types of economic activity affect natural complexes differently.

Agriculture changes the natural complexes especially strongly. Significant areas are required for growing crops and raising domestic animals. As a result of plowing, the area under natural vegetation has decreased. The soil has partially lost its fertility. Artificial irrigation helps to get high yields, but in arid areas, excessive watering leads to soil salinization and reduced yields. Domestic animals also change the vegetation cover and soil: they trample vegetation, compact the soil. In arid climates, pastures can turn into desert areas.

Under the influence of human economic activity, forest complexes experience great changes. As a result of uncontrolled logging, the area under forests around the globe is shrinking. In the tropical and equatorial zones, forests are still being burned out, making room for fields and pastures.

The rapid growth of industry has a detrimental effect on nature, polluting the air, water and soil. Gaseous substances enter the atmosphere, while solid and liquid substances enter the soil and water. During the development of minerals, especially in an open pit, a lot of waste and dust arise on the surface, deep large quarries are formed. Their area is constantly growing, while soils and natural vegetation are also destroyed.

The growth of cities increases the need for new land areas for houses, construction of enterprises, roads. Nature is also changing around large cities, where a large number of residents rest. Environmental pollution adversely affects human health.

Thus, in a significant part of the globe, the economic activity of people has changed natural complexes to one degree or another.

The economic activity of the population of the continents is reflected on complex maps. According to their conventional signs, you can determine:

a) places of extraction of minerals;

b) features of land use in agriculture;

c) areas for cultivation of cultivated plants and breeding of domestic animals;

d) settlements, some enterprises, power plants. Depicted on the map and natural objects, protected areas.

People living in the same territory, speaking the same language and having a common culture, form a historically established stable group - an ethnos (from the Greek ethnos - people), which can be represented by a tribe, nationality or nation. The great ethnic groups of the past created ancient civilizations and states.

Currently, there are more than 200 states. The countries of the world are distinguished by many features. One of them is the size of the territory they occupy. There are countries that occupy the whole mainland (Australia) or half of it (Canada). But there are very small countries, such as the Vatican. Its area 1 is just a few blocks of Rome. Such states are called "dwarf". The countries of the world also differ significantly in terms of population. The number of inhabitants of some of them exceeds hundreds of millions of people (China, India), in others - 1-2 million, and in the smallest - several thousand people, for example, in San Marino.

Countries are also distinguished by geographic location. Most of them are located on the continents. There are countries located on large islands (for example, Great Britain) and on archipelagos (Japan, Philippines), as well as on small islands (Jamaica, Malta). Some countries have access to the sea, others are hundreds and thousands of kilometers away from it.

Many countries differ in the religious composition of the population. The most widespread in the world is the Christian religion (Eurasia, North America, Australia). In terms of the number of believers, it is inferior to the Muslim religion (the countries of the northern half of Africa, Southwest and South Asia). In East Asia, Buddhism is widespread, and in India, many profess the Hindu religion.

Countries also differ in the composition of the population, in the presence of monuments created by nature, as well as by man.

All countries of the world are also heterogeneous in terms of the features of economic development. Some of them are more developed economically, others are less.

As a result of the rapid growth of the population and the same rapid growth in the demand for natural resources throughout the world, man's influence on nature has increased. Economic activity often leads to adverse changes in nature and to the deterioration of people's living conditions. Never before in the history of mankind has the state of nature deteriorated so rapidly on the globe.

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The geographic envelope is not tripled in the same way everywhere; it has a "mosaic" structure and consists of separate natural complexes (landscapes). A natural complex is a part of the earth's surface with relatively homogeneous natural conditions: climate, topography, soils, waters, flora and fauna.
Each natural complex consists of components between which there are close, historically established relationships, while a change in one of the components sooner or later leads to a change in others.

At the same latitudes, nature can also be different. It depends on the terrain and distance from the ocean. Therefore, the geographic envelope can be divided into sections, territories, or natural-territorial complexes of different sizes (abbreviated as natural complexes, or PCs). The formation of any natural complex took a long time. On land, it was carried out under the influence of the interaction of the components of nature: rocks, climate, air masses, water, plants, animals, soils. All components in the natural complex, as well as in the geographical shell, are intertwined with each other and form an integral natural complex, it also exchanges substances and energy. A natural complex is a section of the earth's surface, which is distinguished by the features of natural components that are in complex interaction. Each natural complex has more or less clearly defined boundaries, has a natural unity, manifested in its external appearance (for example, a forest, a swamp, a mountain range, a lake, etc.).

Natural complexes experience a huge influence of man. Many of them have already been greatly changed by centuries of human activity. Man has created new natural complexes: fields, gardens, cities, parks, etc. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic (from the Greek "anthropos" - man - approx..

Forest. Photo: Axel

On land, a huge variety of natural complexes has been identified. To be convinced of this, it is enough to travel along the meridian from one geographical pole to another. Here are presented such dissimilar natural complexes as polar deserts, steppes of temperate latitudes, tropical forests. It can be seen that in the direction from the poles to the equator in the change of natural complexes there is a pattern called latitudinal zonality, or latitudinal zonality.

The diversity of natural complexes within natural zones is associated primarily with the influence of relief. In the mountains, there is a regular change of natural complexes with height - their altitudinal zonality. Its main reason is the change in temperature and precipitation depending on the height, the altitudinal zonality of the climate. The higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the larger and more diverse the set of altitudinal zones, the more complex the natural altitudinal zonality. However, the daily and annual rhythm of changes occurring in natural complexes due to the change of day and night and the change of seasons is the same in all altitudinal zones: it is the same as in the latitudinal zone at the foot of the mountains.

Each natural complex, regardless of its size, is a single whole. Therefore, when one of its components changes, all the others must change, and consequently, the whole complex. These changes may occur at different speeds, on different scales, but they are inevitable. Since the geographic shell is one, changes caused by one reason or another in one of its places, over time, affect the entire shell as a whole.

Lake. Photo: Nate Eagleson

Natural changes in the geographical envelope have always occurred. Without this it is impossible to imagine its development. But with the growth of the Earth's population and the development of society, the natural course of processes occurring in natural complexes is increasingly disturbed, becomes different and more often causes undesirable consequences. People cannot not change the geographical shell. Nature is the only source of their existence, and the more carefully, more carefully one should treat the use of its wealth and resources. Proper use of natural resources requires a good knowledge of the relationship and interdependence of all components of the natural complex, a deep understanding of their unity. Without appropriate knowledge, it is impossible to restore and improve natural conditions.

The concept of the natural complex

The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical envelope of our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographical shell is subdivided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographical landscapes).

A natural complex is a territory that is homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a homogeneous soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis (a combination of microorganisms and characteristic animals). In the natural complex, the interaction and metabolism between its constituent components are also of the same type. The interaction of the components and ultimately leads to the formation of specific natural complexes.

The level of interaction of components in the composition of the natural complex is determined primarily by the amount and rhythms of solar energy (solar radiation). Knowing the quantitative expression of the energy potential of the natural complex and its rhythm, modern geographers can determine the annual productivity of its natural resources and the optimal timing of their renewal. This makes it possible to objectively predict the use of natural resources of natural territorial complexes (NTC) in the interests of human economic activity.

At present, most of the Earth's natural complexes have been altered to some extent by man, or even re-created by him on a natural basis. For example, desert oases, reservoirs, crop plantations. Such natural complexes are called anthropogenic. According to their purpose, anthropogenic complexes can be industrial, agricultural, urban, etc. According to the degree of change by human economic activity - in comparison with the initial natural state, they are divided into slightly changed, changed and strongly changed.

Natural complexes can be of different sizes - different ranks, as scientists say. The largest natural complex is the geographic envelope of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents, physiographic countries are distinguished - natural complexes of the third level. Such, for example, as the East European Plain, the Ural Mountains, the Amazonian Lowland, the Sahara Desert and others. Well-known natural zones can serve as examples of natural complexes: tundra, taiga, forests of the temperate zone, steppes, deserts, etc. The smallest natural complexes (localities, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, separate hills, their slopes; or low-lying river valley and its separate sections: channel, floodplain, terraces above the floodplain. Interestingly, the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even in natural complexes of significant size, the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical and geographical processes is preserved. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland differs markedly from the Andes adjacent to the west, the Karakum (deserts of the temperate zone) an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse with the Sahara (deserts of the tropical zone), etc.

Thus, the entire geographical envelope of our planet consists of a complex mosaic of natural complexes of various ranks. Natural complexes formed on land are now called natural-territorial (NTC); formed in the ocean and another body of water (lake, river) - natural aquatic (PAC); natural-anthropogenic landscapes (NAL) are created by human economic activity on a natural basis.

The geographical envelope is the largest natural complex

The geographic shell is a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, which includes in a vertical section the upper part of the earth's crust (lithosphere), the lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere of our planet. What unites, at first glance, heterogeneous components of the natural environment into a single material system? It is within the geographic shell that a continuous exchange of matter and energy takes place, a complex interaction between the indicated component shells of the Earth.

The boundaries of the geographic shell are still not clearly defined. For its upper limit, scientists usually take the ozone screen in the atmosphere, beyond which life on our planet does not go. The lower boundary is most often drawn in the lithosphere at depths of no more than 1000 m. This is the upper part of the earth's crust, which is formed under the strong joint influence of the atmosphere, hydrosphere and living organisms. The entire water column of the World Ocean is inhabited, therefore, if we talk about the lower boundary of the geographic shell in the ocean, then it should be drawn along the ocean floor. In general, the geographic envelope of our planet has a total thickness of about 30 km.

As you can see, the geographic envelope in terms of volume and geographically coincides with the distribution of living organisms on Earth. However, there is still no single point of view regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographic envelope. Some scientists believe that the concepts of "geographical envelope" and "biosphere" are very close, even identical, and these terms are synonymous. Other researchers consider the biosphere only as a certain stage in the development of the geographical envelope. In this case, three stages are distinguished in the history of the development of the geographical envelope: pre-biogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (modern). The biosphere, according to this point of view, corresponds to the biogenic stage of the development of our planet. According to the third, the terms "geographical envelope" and "biosphere" are not identical, as they reflect a different qualitative essence. The concept of "biosphere" focuses on the active and decisive role of living matter in the development of the geographic envelope.

Which point of view should be preferred? It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished, first of all, by a large variety of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through common (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To know the patterns of development of this unified system is one of the most important tasks of modern geographical science.

Thus, the integrity of the geographical envelope is the most important regularity, on the knowledge of which the theory and practice of modern environmental management is based. Accounting for this regularity makes it possible to foresee possible changes in the nature of the Earth (a change in one of the components of the geographic envelope will necessarily cause a change in others); to give a geographical forecast of the possible results of human impact on nature; to carry out a geographical examination of various projects related to the economic use of certain territories.

Another characteristic pattern is also inherent in the geographical shell - the rhythm of development, i.e. recurrence in time of certain phenomena. In the nature of the Earth, rhythms of different durations have been identified - daily and annual, intra-secular and super-secular rhythms. The daily rhythm, as you know, is due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis. The daily rhythm is manifested in changes in temperature, pressure and humidity, cloudiness, wind strength; in the phenomena of ebbs and flows in the seas and oceans, the circulation of breezes, the processes of photosynthesis in plants, the daily biorhythms of animals and humans.

The annual rhythm is the result of the Earth's movement in orbit around the Sun. This is the change of seasons, changes in the intensity of soil formation and destruction of rocks, seasonal features in the development of vegetation and human economic activity. Interestingly, different landscapes of the planet have different daily and annual rhythms. Thus, the annual rhythm is best expressed in temperate latitudes and very weakly in the equatorial zone.

Of great practical interest is the study of longer rhythms: 11-12 years, 22-23 years, 80-90 years, 1850 years and longer, but, unfortunately, they are still less studied than daily and annual rhythms.

Natural zones of the globe, their brief description

The great Russian scientist V.V. Dokuchaev at the end of the last century substantiated the planetary law of geographic zoning - a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation. Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes are subject to the law of geographical zonality; zonal climate, land and ocean surface waters, soil cover, flora and fauna.

The largest zonal subdivisions of the geographic envelope are geographic belts. They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with the climatic zones. Geographical zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in general features of atmospheric circulation. On land, the following geographical zones are distinguished:

Equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres; - subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere; - subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere. Belts similar in name were also found in the World Ocean. The zonality (zonality) in the ocean is reflected in the change from the equator to the poles of the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, and others), as well as in the change in the composition of flora and fauna.

Within geographic zones, according to the ratio of heat and moisture, natural zones are distinguished. The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation prevailing in them. For example, in the subarctic zone, these are the tundra and forest-tundra zones; in temperate - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), forest-steppe and steppe zones, semi-deserts and deserts.

1. With a brief description of the natural zones of the globe at the entrance exam, it is recommended to consider the main natural zones of the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, temperate, subarctic and arctic zones of the northern hemisphere in the direction from the equator to the North Pole: evergreen forest zone (giley), savannah zone and light forests, a zone of tropical deserts, a zone of hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs (Mediterranean), a zone of temperate deserts, a zone of broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved (mixed) forests, a taiga zone, a tundra zone, an ice zone (a zone of arctic deserts).

When characterizing natural areas, it is necessary to adhere to the following plan.

1. The name of the natural area.

2. Features of its geographical position.

3. The main features of the climate.

4. Dominant soils.

5. Vegetation.

6. Animal world.

7. The nature of the use of the natural resources of the zone by man.

The applicant can collect the actual material for answering the indicated questions of the plan using the thematic maps of the "Teacher's Atlas", which is mandatory in the list of manuals and maps for the entrance exam in geography at KSU. This is not only not forbidden, but also required by the "General Instructions" for standard programs for entrance exams in geography to Russian universities.

However, the characteristics of natural areas should not be "template". It should be borne in mind that due to the heterogeneity of the relief and the earth's surface, the proximity and remoteness from the ocean (and, consequently, the heterogeneity of moisture), the natural zones of various regions of the continents do not always have a latitudinal strike. Sometimes they have an almost meridional direction, for example, on the Atlantic coast of North America, the Pacific coast of Eurasia, and other places. The natural zones stretching latitudinally across the entire continent are also heterogeneous. Usually they are subdivided into three segments corresponding to the central inland and two near-oceanic sectors. Latitudinal, or horizontal, zonality is best expressed on large plains, such as East European or West Siberian.

In the mountainous regions of the Earth, latitudinal zonality gives way to the altitudinal zonality of landscapes by a regular change in natural components and natural complexes with an ascent to the mountains from their foothills to their peaks. It is due to climate change with height: C for every 100 m of ascent and an increase in the amount ° decrease in temperature by 0.6 precipitation to a certain height (up to 2-3 km). The change of belts in the mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. However, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitudinal belts depends on the height of the mountains and the characteristics of their geographical location. The higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the richer their range (set) of altitudinal belts. The range of altitudinal belts in the mountains is also determined by the location of the mountain system relative to the ocean. In the mountains located near the ocean, a set of forest belts predominates; in the intracontinental (arid) sectors of the continents, treeless altitudinal belts are characteristic.

A natural complex is a part of an ecosystem with established relationships between its various components, limited by natural natural boundaries: watersheds, a common for a given territory, the first regionally widespread stratum of low-permeable rocks from the surface (aquiclude) and the surface layer of the atmosphere. Natural complexes confined to large waterways are subdivided into smaller ones, related to tributaries of various orders. Accordingly, natural complexes of the first, second, third, etc. are distinguished. orders. Under undisturbed conditions, two neighboring natural complexes can be almost completely identical, however, in the event of man-made impacts, any changes in ecosystem components will affect primarily within the natural complex where the source of disturbance is located. In the conditions of urban agglomerations, natural complexes are the basic elements that form the natural component of the natural-technogenic geosystem. The choice of the order of the natural complex, considered in each specific case, depends primarily on the scale of the work. In particular, for Moscow, when carrying out small-scale work (1:50,000 and smaller), it is advisable to single out natural complexes confined to first-order tributaries of the river. Moscow (Setun, Yauza, Skhodnya, etc.) More detailed studies require consideration of smaller orders as "basic" natural complexes. For works carried out on a scale of 1:10000, it is optimal to consider natural complexes confined to tributaries of the second, third and (in some cases) fourth orders.

Territories of the natural complex - areas of the earth's surface, delineated by urban boundaries, within which green spaces have been preserved in relatively undisturbed conditions or partially restored. In Moscow, the territories of the natural complex include: urban and suburban forests and forest parks, parks, green areas for various purposes, water surfaces and river valleys.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of “natural complex” and “territories of the natural complex”: the natural complex is a natural science concept, a single element of the ecosystem, while the territory of the natural complex is an urban concept that determines the purpose and status of individual territories within the city of Moscow.

The doctrine of the natural-territorial complex, geographical landscape

Alexander Humboldt pointed out that “nature is unity in the multitude, the combination of the diverse through form and mixing, there is the concept of natural things and natural forces as the concept of a living whole.”

A.N. Krasnov in 1895 formed the idea of "geographical combinations of phenomena" or "geographical complexes", which should be dealt with by private geography.

The generally recognized founders of domestic landscape science are V.V. Dokuchaev and L.S. Berg.

Landscape science began to develop especially rapidly in the 1960s in connection with the demands of practice, the development of agriculture and forestry, and land inventory. academicians S.V. Kalesnik, V.B. Sochava, I.P. Gerasimov, as well as physico-geographers and landscape scientists N.A. Solntsev, A.G. Isachenko, D.L. Ardmand, and others.

In the works of K.G. Ramana, E.G. Kolomyets, V.N. Solntsev developed the concept of polystructural landscape space.

The most important areas of modern landscape science include anthropogenic, in which a person and the results of his economic activity are considered not only as an external factor that disturbs the landscape, but as an equal component of the NTC or natural-anthropogenic landscape.

On the theoretical basis of landscape science, new interdisciplinary areas are being formed that have a significant integration value for all geography (ecological geography, historical geography of landscapes, etc.)

Natural-territorial complex. TPK Groups

Natural-territorial complex (natural geosystem, geographical complex, natural landscape), a regular spatial combination of natural components that form integral systems of different levels (from the geographical shell to the facies); one of the basic concepts of physical geography.

There is an exchange of substances and energy between separate natural territorial complexes and their components.

Groups of natural-territorial complexes:

1) global;

2) regional;

3) local.

The global NTC includes the geographic envelope (some geographers include continents, oceans, and physiographic belts).

To the regional - physical-geographical countries, regions and other azonal formations, as well as zonal - physical-geographical belts, zones and subzones.

Local NTCs, as a rule, are confined to meso- and microforms of relief (ravines, gullies, river valleys, etc.) or their elements (slopes, peaks, etc.).

Systematics of natural-territorial complexes

1 option:

a) physical and geographical zoning.

b) physical-geographical country.

c) physical-geographical region.

d) physical-geographical region.

The result of work on physical-geographical zoning is a map of the USSR on a scale of 1:8,000,000, and then a landscape map on a scale of 1:4,000,000.

A physiographic country is understood as a part of the mainland that was formed on the basis of a large tectonic structure (shield, plate, platform, folded area) and a common tectonic regime in the Neogene-Quaternary time, characterized by a certain unity of relief (plains, plate plateaus, shield elevations, mountains and highlands), microclimate and its structure of horizontal zonality and altitudinal zonality. Examples: Russian plain, Ural mountain country, Sahara, Fennoscandia. On maps of the physical-geographical zoning of the continents, 65-75, sometimes even more, natural complexes are usually distinguished.

Physical-geographical region - a part of a physical-geographical country, isolated mainly during the Neogene-Quaternary time under the influence of tectonic movements, marine transgressions, continental glaciations, with the same type of relief, climate and a peculiar manifestation of horizontal zonality and altitudinal zonality. Examples: Meshcherskaya lowland, Central Russian upland.

Option 2:

Typological classification. Definition of PTK by similarity.

a) Classes of natural complexes (mountain and plain).

b) Types (by zonal criterion)

c) Genera and species (according to the nature of the vegetation and some other features).

Comparing the physical-geographical zoning and the typological classification of the PTK, it can be seen that in the system of physical-geographical zoning, the higher the rank of the PTK, the more unique it is, while in the case of a typological classification, on the contrary, the higher the rank, the less pronounced its individuality.

Indicators and, in particular, the third, can be the basis for the development of stakeholder cooperation (see above). The results of many years of research carried out on the territory of protected natural complexes of the Meshcherskaya lowland contain a description of methods for assessing and ranking regional indicators of technophility9 for various pollutants, selection and organization...

Bonitet, the state of the tree and other layers, crown density of the tree layer, projective cover of the herbaceous cover, etc. Note that the main purpose of assessing the impact of the oil and gas complex on the natural environment is to determine its variability in space and time, taking into account the differentiated impact of primary and secondary factors. During the analysis of the state of natural ...

To build up to the establishment of an ecological focus on natural complexes by way of establishing such standards of recreational impact on them, as if they did not overdo it between them. A significant number of publications are assigned to the standards of recreational interest in natural complexes. But the oskіlki massovyh materialiv bagatorіchnyh posterezhen is still not rich, then more normatives ґ ...

It is inherent both in individual geographical objects in small areas (for example, a lake, a forest, a river floodplain, etc.), and in the entire geographical shell, which consists of many geographical complexes of different scales. A change in some natural complexes causes a change in others, which are interconnected with the first. For example, after draining a swamp, the groundwater level drops ...

The concept of the natural complex. The main object of study of modern physical geography is the geographical envelope of our planet as a complex material system. It is heterogeneous in both vertical and horizontal directions. In the horizontal, i.e. spatially, the geographical shell is subdivided into separate natural complexes (synonyms: natural-territorial complexes, geosystems, geographical landscapes).

The smallest natural complexes (localities, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, separate hills, their slopes; or low-lying river valley and its separate sections: channel, floodplain, terraces above the floodplain. Interestingly, the smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. However, even in natural complexes of significant size, the homogeneity of natural components and basic physical and geographical processes is preserved. Thus, the nature of Australia is not at all similar to the nature of North America, the Amazonian lowland differs markedly from the Andes adjacent to the west, the Karakum (deserts of the temperate zone) an experienced geographer-researcher will not confuse with the Sahara (deserts of the tropical zone), etc.

The geographical envelope is the largest natural complex

The geographic shell is a continuous and integral shell of the Earth, which includes in a vertical section the upper part of the earth's crust (lithosphere), the lower atmosphere, the entire hydrosphere and the entire biosphere of our planet. What unites, at first glance, heterogeneous components of the natural environment into a single material system? It is within the geographic shell that a continuous exchange of matter and energy takes place, a complex interaction between the indicated component shells of the Earth.

As you can see, the geographic envelope in terms of volume and geographically coincides with the distribution of living organisms on Earth. However, there is still no single point of view regarding the relationship between the biosphere and the geographic envelope. Some scientists believe that the concepts of "geographical envelope" and "biosphere" are very close, even identical, and these terms are synonymous. Other researchers consider the biosphere only as a certain stage in the development of the geographical envelope. In this case, three stages are distinguished in the history of the development of the geographical envelope: pre-biogenic, biogenic and anthropogenic (modern - site). The biosphere, according to this point of view, corresponds to the biogenic stage of the development of our planet. According to the third, the terms "geographical envelope" and "biosphere" are not identical, as they reflect a different qualitative essence. The concept of "biosphere" focuses on the active and decisive role of living matter in the development of the geographic envelope.

Which point of view should be preferred? It should be borne in mind that the geographic envelope is characterized by a number of specific features. It is distinguished primarily by a large variety of material composition and types of energy characteristic of all component shells - the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. Through common (global) cycles of matter and energy, they are united into an integral material system. To know the patterns of development of this unified system is one of the most important tasks of modern geographical science.

Natural areas of the globe

At the end of the century before last, the great Russian scientist V. Dokuchaev substantiated the general planetary law of geographical zonality - a regular change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation. Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes are subject to the law of geographical zonality; zonal climate, land and ocean surface waters, soil cover, flora and fauna.

- equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres;
- subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere;
- subantarctic and antarctic belts - in the southern hemisphere.

Belts similar in name were also found in the World Ocean.

The zonality (zonality) in the ocean is reflected in the change from the equator to the poles of the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, and others), as well as in the change in the composition of flora and fauna.

It should be borne in mind that due to the heterogeneity of the relief and the earth's surface, proximity and remoteness from the ocean (and, consequently, the heterogeneity of moisture - the site), the natural zones of various regions of the continents do not always have a latitudinal strike. Sometimes they have an almost meridional direction, for example, on the Atlantic coast of North America, the Pacific coast of Eurasia, and other places. The natural zones stretching latitudinally across the entire continent are also heterogeneous. Usually they are subdivided into three segments corresponding to the central inland and two near-oceanic sectors. Latitudinal, or horizontal, zonality is best expressed on large plains, such as East European or West Siberian.

In the mountainous regions of the Earth, latitudinal zonality gives way to the altitudinal zonality of landscapes by a regular change in natural components and natural complexes with an ascent to the mountains from their foothills to their peaks. It is due to climate change with height: a decrease in temperature by 0.6 ° C for every 100 m of ascent and an increase in precipitation up to a certain height (up to 2-3 km). The change of belts in the mountains occurs in the same sequence as on the plains when moving from the equator to the poles. However, in the mountains there is a special belt of subalpine and alpine meadows, which is not found on the plains. The number of altitudinal belts depends on the height of the mountains and the characteristics of their geographical location. The higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the richer their range (set) of altitudinal belts.

The range of altitudinal belts in the mountains is also determined by the location of the mountain system relative to the ocean. In the mountains located near the ocean, a set of forest belts predominates; in the intracontinental (arid) sectors of the continents, treeless altitudinal belts are characteristic.

natural complex- a territory homogeneous in origin, history of geological development and modern composition of specific natural components. It has a single geological foundation, the same type and amount of surface and groundwater, a homogeneous soil and vegetation cover and a single biocenosis.

Natural complexes can be of different sizes. The largest natural complex is the geographic envelope of the Earth. Continents and oceans are natural complexes of the next rank. Within the continents, physiographic countries are distinguished - natural complexes of the third level. The smallest natural complexes (localities, tracts, fauna) occupy limited territories. These are hilly ridges, separate hills, their slopes; or low-lying river valley and its separate sections: channel, floodplain, terraces above the floodplain. The smaller the natural complex, the more homogeneous its natural conditions. Natural Territorial Complex (NTC) – spatio-temporal system of natural components, which has a high level of organization, develops as a whole and obeys general geographical patterns.

PTCs have a certain stability, they tend to recover after being disturbed by external agents. PTK belong to different levels (ranks): planetary(geographical shell), regional(landscape zone, province, separate landscape), topological(area, tract, facies). PTK regional and topological levels - the structural parts of the geographic shell.

Among natural systems in the human environment, geographical systems or geosystems play a special role - this concept was introduced by A. G. Isachenko.

Geosystem- these are natural-geographical units of all possible categories, from the planetary geosystem (geographical shell) to the elementary geosystem (physical-geographical facies).

Geosystems are very different scales, so it is quite natural to divide them according to dimensions: length, area, volume, mass, time.

Three ranks of geosystems: 1) planetary geosystem - the highest natural unity; 2) the main geosystem, the most subdivision of the geographic envelope. 3) elementary geosystems, short-lived, rapidly transforming complexes, within which natural conditions are practically homogeneous. ON THE. Solntsev: "Landscape- this is a genetically homogeneous natural territorial complex that has the same geological foundation, one type of relief, the same climate and consists of a set of dynamically coupled and regularly repeated in space, the main and secondary tracts, characteristic only of this landscape.

2. Definition and interpretation of the term "landscape"

The term "landscape" comes from the German meaning "view", "landscape". In Russian geography, this term was established thanks to the works of L.S. Berg and G.F. Morozov as a synonym for the natural territorial complex. It is in this meaning that there are a number of definitions of the landscape, one of the most complete belongs to N.A. Solntsev: "Landscape- this is a genetically homogeneous natural territorial complex that has the same geological foundation, one type of relief, the same climate and consists of a set of dynamically coupled and regularly repeated in space, the main and secondary tracts, characteristic only of this landscape. This definition takes into account the main features of the landscape: a) it is a territory with genetic unity. b) within its boundaries, the geological structure, relief and climate are characterized by relative homogeneity. c) each landscape differs from the other in its structure, i.e. a set of smaller PTK, acting as its structural elements. The latter are linked genetically and dynamically and form a single natural territorial system.

The homogeneity of the landscape is ensured by its genesis, which reflects the homogeneity of zonal (climatic) and azonal (relief, geological deposits) factors. There are three interpretations of the term "landscape": regional, typological, general.

In accordance with regional landscape is interpreted as a specific individual NTC, as a unique complex that has a geographical name and an exact position on the map. This point of view was expressed by L.S. Berg, A.A. Grigoriev, S.V. Kalesnik, supported by N.A. Solntsev, A.G. Isachenko. The regional approach to the study of landscapes proved to be very fruitful. Thanks to him, the following sections of landscape science were developed: landscape morphology, landscape dynamics, landscape mapping techniques, landscape systematics, and applied landscape science.

By typological interpretation (L.S. Berg, N.A. Gvozdetsky, V.A. Dementiev), landscape is a type or type of natural territorial complex. A typological approach is necessary for medium- and small-scale mapping of the NTC of large regions. He accelerated the development of landscape classification.

General the interpretation of the term "landscape" is contained in the works of D.L. Armand and F.N. Milkov. In their understanding, landscape is synonymous with a natural territorial complex, a geographical complex. You can say: the landscape of the Russian Plain, the landscape of the Caucasus, the landscape of Polissya, the marsh landscape. This point of view is widespread in popular science geographical literature.

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