June 22, 168 B.C. The Romans defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna. The homeland of Philip and Alexander the Great has now become a Roman province.
Several Greeks from among the Macedonians on the battlefield were sent to Rome after the battle. Among them was the historian Polybius. He was placed under the protection of the Scipios, and then he became a close friend of Scipio Aemilian, accompanying him on campaigns.
In order to enable his Greek readers to understand how the Roman army functioned, Polybius took the trouble to describe the smallest details. This scrupulousness of description is absent in another work, which has become an important source of information for us - Caesar counted on the fact that many things are familiar and understandable to his readers. The description given below is based almost exclusively on the story of Polybius.

Army recruitment and organization
A cohort of a legion, consisting of 4,200 people - according to the description of Polybius.

This unit consisted of three maniples, each of which included two centuries. The maniple was the smallest independent unit of the legion. Each triarii maniple consisted of 60 veterans and 40 velite skirmishers assigned to them. Each maniple of principes and hastati consisted of 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites.
C - centurion, 3 - standard-bearer P - centurion assistant.

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected, who appeared before the stands. First he chose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The set was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who was to come forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also stepped forward and vowed to do the same as he ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the assembly for each legion, so that all were distributed to their squadrons.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and treasurer and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, which consisted of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in their prime became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). They numbered 600 people, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii. The number of people in other divisions could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion chosen by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them "hurricanes", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten detachments-maniples, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by a primipilus, a senior centurion.

So, before us appears a legion, consisting of 4,200 foot soldiers, divided into 30 maniples - 10 each for hastati, principes and triarii, respectively. The first two groups had the same structure - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites. The triarii had 60 heavy infantry and 40 velites. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent status, since the maniple was considered the smallest tactical unit. The centurions appointed the two best warriors as standard-bearers (signiferi). In the Etruscan-Roman army there were two centuries of buglers and trumpeters, at the rate of one centuria. In the description of Polybius, nothing is said about such a connection, but he constantly mentions buglers and trumpeters. It seems that now every maniple had both a bugler and a trumpeter.

If necessary, one maniple of hastati, one maniple of principles, and one maniple of triarii could act together; then they were called a cohort. Both Polybius and Livy begin to use this term in the last stages of the second Punic War, calling this word a tactical unit of legionnaires. In the II century. BC. the term has become often used to name allied formations - for example, a cohort from Cremona, a cohort of Mars, etc.

How did this legion of the 2nd century. with the legion of the Latin War (340-338 BC)?

The army of Polybius is divided into 30 maniples: 10 hastati, 10 principes and 10 triarii. The former roraria completely disappeared, as a result of which the legion was reduced from 5,000 people to 4,200. One thousand two hundred lightly armed Akcens and Levis, who were now called velites, were distributed among 30 maniples.

The triarii maniple still numbered 60 people. The maniples of principles and hastati were doubled, which well reflects the new aggressive nature of the legion - from now on it did not fight for its existence, but conquered the world.

Armor and weapons
Legionnaires were armed with a piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis, Spanish gladius). The two earliest examples of such a sword were found in Smihel, Slovenia, and they date back to about 175 BC. They have slightly tapering blades, 62 and 66 cm long. As the name implies, such swords first appeared in Spain and were possibly a variant of the Celtic sword with a pointed and elongated tip. They must have been adopted during the Second Punic War, since the swords from Smichel are certainly not the stabbing weapons that Polybius describes as being used in the Gallic War of 225-220. BC. However, these swords are quite suitable for the description of a weapon capable of cutting off a person’s head or letting out the insides - Livy wrote about him, talking about the second Macedonian war of 200-197. BC.

Polybius does not say anything about daggers, however, in the process of excavations at the site of Roman camps at the end of the 2nd century. BC. near Numantia, in Spain, several copies were found, clearly dating back to the Spanish prototypes. Hastati and principes also had two javelins each. At that time, there were two main types of pilum, which differed in the way the iron tip was attached to the wooden shaft. They could simply sit on it with the help of a tube located at the end, or they could have a flat tongue, which was fixed to the shaft with one or two rivets. The first type had a long history and was widespread, found in Celtic burials in northern Italy and in Spain. In fact, Roman specimens range in size from 0.15 to 1.2 m. The shortest was possibly the velite dart, "gasta velitaris". Polybius writes that he was bent by the blow, so he could not be picked up and thrown back.

All heavy infantrymen had a scutum - a large curved shield. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden plates glued together, which were covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. On several monuments of the times of the republic, such a shield is shown. As in earlier times, it has an oval shape with an oval umbone and a long vertical rib. A shield of this type was discovered at Qasr el-Harith in the Fayoum oasis, in Egypt. At first it was considered Celtic, but it is undoubtedly Roman.
1, 2 - view of the shield from the Fayum oasis in Egypt - front and three-quarters behind. Cairo Museum.
3 - reconstruction of a part of the shield, which shows its structure and how it was folded in half and the felt was stitched at the edge,
4 - section of the umbon.

This shield, which is 1.28 m high and 63.5 cm wide, is made of birch planks. Nine-ten such thin plates 6-10 cm wide were laid out longitudinally and laid on both sides with a layer of narrower plates laid perpendicular to the first. Then all three layers were glued together. This is how the wooden base of the shield was formed. At the edge, its thickness was slightly less than a centimeter, increasing towards the center to 1.2 cm. Such shields were covered with felt, which was folded in half at the edge and stitched through the tree. The handle of the shield was horizontal and held with a full grip. This type of handle is clearly visible on many Roman monuments. Polybius adds that such a shield had an iron umbon and iron upholstery along the top and bottom edges.

In Doncaster, the remains of a shield were found, the reconstruction of which turned out to be about 10 kg in weight. The Roman shield of that time was intended to protect the body of a legionnaire, they did not need to maneuver. During the offensive, the legionnaire held him on a straightened arm, leaning on his left shoulder. Having reached the enemy, he brought down on him, along with the shield, the weight of his entire body and tried to overturn him. Then he put the shield on the ground and, crouching down, fought over it. The four-foot height of the shield was most likely regulated, since during the siege of Numantia Scipio Aemilian severely punished a soldier whose shield was larger.
The armor of the principes and hastati consisted of a small square chest plate of about 20x20 cm, which was called a breastplate, and greaves for one leg. This last feature is also confirmed by Arrian in his Art of Tactics. He writes: "... in the Roman style, greaves on one leg in order to protect the one that is put forward in battle." I mean, of course, the left leg. The breastplate goes back to the square chest plate of the 4th century BC. BC. Not a single plate has survived to this day, although the remains of a round plate of the same type have been found in Numantia. Wealthier legionnaires had chain mail. The appearance of such chain mail, which was made according to the model of linen shells, can be seen on the victorious monument of Aemilius Paul, installed in Delphi. It was erected after the victory of the Romans over Macedonia in 168 BC. Such chain mail was very heavy and weighed about 15 kg. Evidence of this severity can be found in the story of the Battle of Trasimene - the soldiers who tried to swim then went to the bottom, drawn by the weight of their armor.

The hastati and principes had a bronze helmet adorned with three vertical feathers of black or crimson color, which were about 45 cm high. Polybius says that they were intended to make the warrior appear twice his real height.

The most common at that time was the Montefortino type helmet, which originated from the Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries. A wonderful example of such a helmet is in Germany, in the Karlsruhe Museum. It was found in Canosa di Puglia, the city to which many legionaries fled after the defeat at Cannae in 216. The helmet does indeed belong to this period, and it is very tempting to believe that it belonged to one of the Cannes legionaries.

This type of helmet had a hole in the pommel. The pommel was filled with lead, and a cotter pin was inserted into it, holding a horsehair comb. Under the back of the head was a double ring, to which two straps were attached. They crossed under the chin and fastened to the hooks on the cheek pads, holding the helmet in one position. Monuments confirm that at that time they continued to use the helmet of the Italo-Corinthian type, and the find in Herculaneum of the Samnite-Attic helmet of the 1st century. BC. indicates that this type was still widespread. Helmets were usually worn with a balaclava. On a Celtic copy of the Montefortino type, which is kept in Ljubljana, the remains of such a balaclava made of felt, the most common material for this purpose, are still visible.

The armament of the triarii was the same as that of the hastati and principes, with one exception: instead of pilums, they used long spears - gasta (hastae).

Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25-30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (ca. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick. Of the armor, the velites wore only a simple helmet, sometimes with some distinctive feature, for example, covered with a wolf skin. This was done so that the centurions could recognize the velites from a distance and see how well they fought.

Cavalry and allies
The 300 horsemen were divided into ten turmas, 30 in each. In each turma there were three decurions, who were chosen by the tribunes, and three closing ones (optiones). It can be assumed that these units of 10 people were rows, which means that the cavalry was built in a line of five or ten people deep - depending on the circumstances.

The turma was commanded by the first of the selected decurions. The riders were armed according to the Greek model, they had armor, a round shield (parma equestris) and a strong spear with a pointed inflow, which could continue to fight if the spear broke. The Roman horsemen on the monument in honor of the victory of Aemilius Paul, erected in Delphi (168 BC), wear chain mail, almost similar to those worn by foot soldiers. The only exception is a cut in the thighs, which allowed sitting on a horse. The characteristic shields of the Italian cavalry can be seen on many monuments.

The tribunes dismissed the legionnaires to their homes, ordering them to arm themselves in accordance with the part in which they were supposed to serve.

The allies also formed detachments of four to five thousand men, which were joined by 900 horsemen. One such detachment was assigned to each of the legions, so the word "legion" should be understood as a combat unit of about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen. Polybius does not describe the organization of the allied troops, but it most likely was similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies. In an ordinary army, consisting of two legions, the Romans fought in the center, and two detachments of allies (they were called alas, that is, wings - alae sociorum) - on the flanks. One detachment was called the right wing, and the other - the left. Each wing was commanded by three prefects appointed by the consul. A third of the best Allied cavalry and a fifth of their best foot soldiers were selected in order to form a special combat unit - extraordinaries (extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march.

At first, the soldiers did not receive pay, but since the long siege of Veii at the beginning of the 4th century. legionnaires began to pay. In the time of Polybius, a Roman infantryman received two obols a day, a centurion twice as much, and a horseman had six obols. The Roman infantryman received allowances in the form of 35 liters of grain per month, the horseman - 100 liters of wheat and 350 liters of barley. Of course, most of this food went to feed his horse and groom. A fixed payment for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse warriors. Deductions were also made for clothing and items of equipment requiring replacement.

The Allied infantry also received 35 liters of grain per person, while the horsemen received only 70 liters of wheat and 250 liters of barley. However, these products were free for them.

Training

Assembling at a place set by the consul, the new legions went through a rigorous "training program". Ninety percent of the soldiers had already served in the army, but they also needed retraining, and new recruits needed to go through basic training. During the empire, they were forced to "fight the pillar" using weighted weapons; no doubt something similar must have taken place in the period of the Republic. A good idea of ​​what the process of retraining experienced soldiers looked like can be obtained from the story of Polybius. Scipio arranged such retraining for his soldiers after he captured New Carthage (209).

On the first day, the soldiers had to run six kilometers in full gear. On the second day, they cleaned their armor and weapons, which were checked by their commanders. On the third day they rested, and the next day they practiced with weapons. For this, wooden swords covered with leather were used. To avoid accidents, the tip of the sword was equipped with a nozzle. The points of the darts used for exercises were also protected. On the fifth day, the soldiers again ran six kilometers in full gear, and on the sixth they again took care of their weapons, and so on.

On the march
Having completed the training, the army acted towards the enemy. The order of removal from the camp was strictly regulated. At the first signal of the trumpet, the tents of the consul and tribunes were rolled up. The soldiers then packed their own tents and equipment. On the second signal, they loaded the pack animals, and on the third, the column set out.

In addition to their own equipment, each soldier was required to carry a bunch of stakes for the stockade. Polybius says that it was not very difficult, because the long shields of the legionnaires hung on leather straps at the shoulder and the only objects in their hands were javelins. Two, three or even four stakes could be tied together and also hung on the shoulder.

Usually the column was led by extraordinaries. They were followed by the right wing of the allies, along with their convoy; then followed the first legion and its convoy, and then the second legion. He led not only his convoy, but also the pack animals of the left wing of the Allies, which formed the rear guard. The Consul and his bodyguards, mounted and on foot, specially selected from among the extraordinaries, probably rode at the head of the legions. The cavalry could form the rear guard of their unit or be placed on both sides of the wagon train in order to follow the animals. In the presence of danger from behind, the extraordinaries formed the rearguard. It should be borne in mind that 600 extraordinary riders moved in scattered formation and carried out reconnaissance - regardless of whether it was the vanguard or rearguard. Both legions, as well as both wings of the allies, changed places every other day - so that the right wing and the first legion were in front, then the left wing and the second legion. This allowed everyone in turn to enjoy the benefits of obtaining fresh water and fodder.

In the event that danger caught the legion in the open, the hastati, principes and triarii marched in three parallel columns. If an attack was expected from the right, then the hastati became the first from this side, followed by principes and triarii. This allowed, if necessary, to turn into a standard battle formation. The convoy stood to the left of each column. With the threat of an attack from the left, the hastati were built on the left side, and the convoy on the right. Such a system looks like a variant of the development of the Macedonian one. The turn into battle formation could be best done if the maniples marched not in columns, but in ranks - as the Macedonians did. In this case, the first rank was already ready to meet the enemy if necessary, and the ranks did not need to deploy the system. If the main formation of the centuria was in six ranks of ten people, then the soldiers could march six in a row. That's what they did during the empire. On the day the army could cover a distance of about 30 km, but if necessary, was able to move much further. Among those who went along with the vanguard in order to make sure that the way was open were the crossing specialists. Polybius mentions them, talking about how Scipio crossed the river. Ticinus in the winter of 218 BC

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected, who appeared before the stands. First he chose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The set was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who was to come forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also stepped forward and vowed to do the same as he ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the assembly for each legion, so that all were distributed to their squadrons.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and treasurer and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, which consisted of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in their prime became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). They numbered 600 people, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii. The number of people in other divisions could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion chosen by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them "hurricanes", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten detachments-maniples, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by a primipilus, a senior centurion.

It has become traditional. The army lost in flexibility, but in the absence of serious external enemies, this did not become a problem: the Roman Empire sought to defeat the enemy in one decisive battle. Therefore, during the fighting, she moved in a dense army column. This arrangement simplified the task of deploying troops to form up before battle.

The traditional basis of the Roman battle order was the legions, which consisted of ten cohorts, up to about 500 people each. Since the reign of Octavian Augustus, the acies duplex system has been used - two lines of five cohorts. The depth of the formation of the cohort was equal to four soldiers, and the legion - eight. Such a formation provided good stability and effectiveness of troops in battle. The old, three-line system (aies triplex) fell into disuse, since during the years of the empire, Rome did not have an enemy with a highly organized army against which it could be needed. The formation of the legion could be closed or open - this made it possible, depending on the situation, to occupy more or less space on the battlefield.

An important aspect of the construction of the legion was the protection of the flank - traditionally the weak point of any army at all times. To make flank bypass difficult for the enemy, it was possible to stretch the formation or hide behind natural obstacles - a river, a forest, a ravine. The best troops - both legions and auxiliary - the Roman generals put on the right flank. On this side, the warriors were not covered by shields, which means they became more vulnerable to enemy weapons. The defense of the flank, in addition to being practical, had a great moral effect: a soldier who knew that he was not in danger of being outflanked fought better.

The construction of the legion in the II century. AD

According to Roman law, only citizens of Rome could serve in the legion. Auxiliary units were recruited from among free people who wanted to obtain citizenship. In the eyes of the commander, they were of less value than the legionnaires, due to the difficulty of recruiting replacements, and therefore were used for cover, and were also the first to engage in battle with the enemy. Since they were lighter armed, their mobility was higher than that of the legionnaires. They could start a fight, and in the event of a threat of defeat, retreat under the cover of the legion and reorganize.

The Roman cavalry also belonged to the auxiliary troops, with the exception of the small (only 120 people) cavalrymen of the legion. They were recruited from a variety of peoples, so the construction of the cavalry could be different. The cavalry played the role of skirmishers of the battle, scouts, could be used as a strike unit. Moreover, all these roles were often assigned to the same unit. The most common type of Roman cavalry was the contarii, armed with a long lance and dressed in chain mail.

The Roman cavalry was well trained, but not numerous. This prevented her from being truly effective in battle. During I – In the 2nd century AD, the Romans constantly increased the number of cavalry units. In addition, new varieties of them appeared at this time. So, in the time of Augustus, horse archers appeared, and later, under the emperor Hadrian, cataphracts. The first detachments of cataphractaries were created on the basis of the experience of wars with the Sarmatians and Parthians and were shock units. It is difficult to say how effective they were, since there is little evidence of their participation in battles.

The general principles of preparing the army of the Roman Empire for battle could change. So, for example, if the enemy dispersed and avoided a general battle, then the Roman commander could send part of the legions and auxiliary troops to destroy enemy territory or capture fortified settlements. These actions could lead to the surrender of the enemy even before the big battle. In a similar way, even during the time of the Republic, Julius Caesar acted against the Gauls. More than 150 years later, Emperor Trajan chose a similar tactic when he captured and sacked the Dacian capital of Sarmizegetusa. The Romans, by the way, were one of the ancient peoples who made the process of robbery organized.

The structure of the Roman centurion

If the enemy did take the fight, then the Roman commander had another advantage: the temporary camps of the legions were an excellent defense, so the Roman commander himself chose when to start the battle. In addition, the camp made it possible to wear down the enemy. For example, the future emperor Tiberius, when conquering the region of Pannonia, seeing that the hordes of his opponents entered the battlefield at dawn, gave the order not to leave the camp. The Pannonians were forced to spend the day in the pouring rain. Then Tiberius attacked the weary barbarians and defeated them.

In 61 AD commander Suetonius Paulinus entered into a decisive battle with the troops of Boudicca, the leader of the rebellious Briton tribe Iceni. The legion and auxiliaries, some 10,000 in all, were cornered by superior enemy forces and forced into battle. To protect the flanks and rear, the Romans took up position between the wooded hills. The Britons were forced to launch a frontal attack. Having repelled the first onslaught, Suetonius Paulinus lined up the legionnaires with wedges and fell upon the Iceni. The correct tactics and the superiority of the Romans in armament brought victory to Rome. A noteworthy moment: usually the legions tried to save, but because of the small forces, it was they who bore the brunt of this battle. An uncharacteristic moment for Rome.

In 84 AD, fighting at the Graupia Mountains, Gnaeus Julius Agricola lined up his troops in such a way that the result was a well-layered defense. In the center was the auxiliary infantry, covered from the flanks by three thousand horsemen. The legions were located in front of the camp rampart. On the one hand, because of this, it was precisely the auxiliary troops that had to fight, "without the shedding of Roman blood". On the other hand, if they were defeated, then Agricola would have troops left to rely on in this case. Auxiliary troops fought in open formation in order to avoid a flank bypass. The commander even had a reserve: "Four cavalry detachments, reserved ... in case of possible surprises in the battle."

Battle with the Dacians (Trajan's Column)

Deep echeloning of troops over a wide stretch of terrain was used by Lucius Flavius ​​Arrian during the battles against the nomads in 135 AD. In front he placed detachments of Gauls and Germans, behind them - foot archers, then four legions. With them was the Emperor Hadrian, with cohorts of the Praetorian Guard and selected cavalry. Then followed four more legions and lightly armed troops with mounted archers. The formation provided the Romans with stability in battle and the timely arrival of reinforcements. Arrian, by the way, built the legions in a phalanx of two lines of five cohorts (eight people deep, as described earlier). Archers served as the ninth row of the formation. Auxiliary troops were stationed along the flanks on the hills. And the weak Roman cavalry, unable to resist the nomadic Alans, took cover behind the infantry.

What was weak in the army of Rome at that time was tactical maneuvering. It was used either by outstanding commanders, or when there was no other way out, for example, due to the numerical superiority of the enemy. At the same time, the interaction of units in battle has become more difficult due to the increase in the number of their varieties.

Sources and literature:

1. Arrian. Tactical art / Per. from Greek N.V. Nefedkina. M., 2004.
2. Arrian. Disposition against the Alans / Per. from Greek N.V. Nefedkina. M., 2004.
3. Vegetius Flavius ​​Renat. Brief summary of military affairs / Per. from lat. S. P. Kondratiev.- VDI, 1940, No. 1.
4. Tacitus Cornelius. Annals. Small works. History/Edition prepared by A. S. Bobovich, Ya. M. Borovsky, G. S. Knabe et al. M., 2003.
5. Flavius ​​Joseph. Jewish War / Per. from Greek Ya. L. Chertka. SPb., 1900.
6. Caesar Gaius Julius. Notes of Julius Caesar / Per. and comment. M. M. Pokrovsky; Gaius Sallust Crispus. Works / Per., article and comments. V. O. Gorenshtein. M., 2001.
7. Golyzhenkov I. A. Army of Imperial Rome. I – 2nd century AD M., 2000.
8. Le Boek J. The Roman army of the era of the early empire / Per. from fr. M., 2001.
9. Rubtsov S. M. Legions of Rome on the Lower Danube. M., 2003.
10. Varry J. The Wars of Antiquity from the Greco-Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome. Illustrated history / Per. from English. M., 2004.

June 22, 168 B.C. The Romans defeated the Macedonians at the Battle of Pydna. The homeland of Philip and Alexander the Great has now become a Roman province.

Several Greeks from among the Macedonians on the battlefield were sent to Rome after the battle. Among them was the historian Polybius. He was placed under the protection of the Scipios, and then he became a close friend of Scipio Aemilian, accompanying him on campaigns.

In order to enable his Greek readers to understand how the Roman army functioned, Polybius took the trouble to describe the smallest details. This scrupulousness of description is absent in another work, which has become an important source of information for us - Caesar counted on the fact that many things are familiar and understandable to his readers. The description given below is based almost exclusively on the story of Polybius.

A cohort of a legion, consisting of 4,200 people - according to the description of Polybius.

This unit consisted of three maniples, each of which included two centuries. The maniple was the smallest independent unit of the legion. Each triarii maniple consisted of 60 veterans and 40 velite skirmishers assigned to them. Each maniple of principes and hastati consisted of 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites.

C - centurion, 3 - standard-bearer P - centurion assistant.

Those who were selected for service in the foot army were divided into tribes. From each tribe, four people of approximately the same age and physique were selected, who appeared before the stands. First he chose the tribune of the first legion, then the second and third; the fourth legion got the rest. In the next group of four recruits, the first soldier of the tribune of the second legion was chosen, and the first legion took the last one. The procedure continued until 4,200 men were recruited for each legion. In the event of a dangerous situation, the number of soldiers could be increased to five thousand. It should be pointed out that in another place Polybius says that the legion consisted of four thousand foot soldiers and two hundred horsemen, and this number could increase to five thousand foot and three hundred horse legionnaires. It would be unfair to say that he contradicts himself - most likely these are approximate data.

The set was completed, and the newcomers took an oath. The tribunes chose one man who was to come forward and swear to obey their commanders and to the best of their ability to carry out their orders. Then everyone else also stepped forward and vowed to do the same as he ("Idem in me"). Then the tribunes indicated the place and date of the assembly for each legion, so that all were distributed to their squadrons.

While recruiting was taking place, the consuls sent orders to the allies, indicating the number of troops required from them, as well as the day and place of the meeting. Local magistrates recruited and swore them in - just as in Rome. Then they appointed a commander and treasurer and gave the order to march.

Upon arrival at the appointed place, the recruits were again divided into groups according to their wealth and age. In each legion, which consisted of four thousand two hundred people, the youngest and poorest became lightly armed warriors - velites. There were one thousand two hundred. Of the remaining three thousand, those that were younger formed the first line of heavy infantry - 1,200 hastati; those who were in their prime became principles, there were also 1,200 of them. The older ones formed the third line of battle order - the triarii (they were also called saws). They numbered 600 people, and no matter what size the legion was, there were always six hundred triarii. The number of people in other divisions could increase proportionally.

From each type of army (with the exception of the velites), the tribunes chose ten centurions, who, in turn, elected ten more people, who were also called centurions. The centurion chosen by the tribunes was the senior. The very first centurion of the legion (primus pilus) had the right to participate in the council of war along with the tribunes. Centurions were chosen based on their stamina and courage. Each centurion appointed himself an assistant (optio). Polybius calls them "hurricanes", equating them with the "closing line" of the Greek army.

The tribunes and centurions divided each type of army (hastati, principes and triarii) into ten detachments-maniples, which were numbered from one to ten. Velites were distributed equally among all maniples. The first maniple of the triarii was commanded by a primipilus, a senior centurion.

So, before us appears a legion, consisting of 4,200 foot soldiers, divided into 30 maniples - 10 each for hastati, principes and triarii, respectively. The first two groups had the same structure - 120 heavy infantry and 40 velites. The triarii had 60 heavy infantry and 40 velites. Each maniple consisted of two centuries, but they did not have an independent status, since the maniple was considered the smallest tactical unit. The centurions appointed the two best warriors as standard-bearers (signiferi). In the Etruscan-Roman army there were two centuries of buglers and trumpeters, at the rate of one centuria. In the description of Polybius, nothing is said about such a connection, but he constantly mentions buglers and trumpeters. It seems that now every maniple had both a bugler and a trumpeter.

If necessary, one maniple of hastati, one maniple of principles, and one maniple of triarii could act together; then they were called a cohort. Both Polybius and Livy begin to use this term in the last stages of the second Punic War, calling this word a tactical unit of legionnaires. In the II century. BC. the term has become often used to name allied formations - for example, a cohort from Cremona, a cohort of Mars, etc.

How did this legion of the 2nd century. with the legion of the Latin War (340-338 BC)?

The army of Polybius is divided into 30 maniples: 10 hastati, 10 principes and 10 triarii. The former roraria completely disappeared, as a result of which the legion was reduced from 5,000 people to 4,200. One thousand two hundred lightly armed Akcens and Levis, who were now called velites, were distributed among 30 maniples.

The triarii maniple still numbered 60 people. The maniples of principles and hastati were doubled, which well reflects the new aggressive nature of the legion - from now on it did not fight for its existence, but conquered the world.

Armor and weapons

Legionnaires were armed with a piercing-chopping sword (gladius hispaniensis, Spanish gladius). The two earliest examples of such a sword were found in Smihel, Slovenia, and they date back to about 175 BC. They have slightly tapering blades, 62 and 66 cm long. As the name implies, such swords first appeared in Spain and were possibly a variant of the Celtic sword with a pointed and elongated tip. They must have been adopted during the Second Punic War, since the swords from Smichel are certainly not the stabbing weapons that Polybius describes as being used in the Gallic War of 225-220. BC. However, these swords are quite suitable for the description of a weapon capable of cutting off a person’s head or letting out the insides - Livy wrote about him, talking about the second Macedonian war of 200-197. BC.

Polybius does not say anything about daggers, however, in the process of excavations at the site of Roman camps at the end of the 2nd century. BC. near Numantia, in Spain, several copies were found, clearly dating back to the Spanish prototypes. Hastati and principes also had two javelins each. At that time, there were two main types of pilum, which differed in the way the iron tip was attached to the wooden shaft. They could simply sit on it with the help of a tube located at the end, or they could have a flat tongue, which was fixed to the shaft with one or two rivets. The first type had a long history and was widespread, found in Celtic burials in northern Italy and in Spain. In fact, Roman specimens range in size from 0.15 to 1.2 m. The shortest was possibly the velite dart, "gasta velitaris". Polybius writes that he was bent by the blow, so he could not be picked up and thrown back.

All heavy infantrymen had a scutum - a large curved shield. According to Polybius, it was made from two wooden plates glued together, which were covered first with coarse cloth and then with calfskin. On several monuments of the times of the republic, such a shield is shown. As in earlier times, it has an oval shape with an oval umbone and a long vertical rib. A shield of this type was discovered at Qasr el-Harith in the Fayoum oasis, in Egypt. At first it was considered Celtic, but it is undoubtedly Roman.

• 1, 2 - view of the shield from the Fayum oasis in Egypt - front and three-quarters behind. Cairo Museum.
• 3 - reconstruction of a part of the shield, which shows its structure and how it was folded in half and the felt was stitched at the edge,
• 4 - section of the umbon.

This shield, which is 1.28 m high and 63.5 cm wide, is made of birch planks. Nine-ten such thin plates 6-10 cm wide were laid out longitudinally and laid on both sides with a layer of narrower plates laid perpendicular to the first. Then all three layers were glued together. This is how the wooden base of the shield was formed. At the edge, its thickness was slightly less than a centimeter, increasing towards the center to 1.2 cm. Such shields were covered with felt, which was folded in half at the edge and stitched through the tree. The handle of the shield was horizontal and held with a full grip. This type of handle is clearly visible on many Roman monuments. Polybius adds that such a shield had an iron umbon and iron upholstery along the top and bottom edges.

In Doncaster, the remains of a shield were found, the reconstruction of which turned out to be about 10 kg in weight. The Roman shield of that time was intended to protect the body of a legionnaire, they did not need to maneuver. During the offensive, the legionnaire held him on a straightened arm, leaning on his left shoulder. Having reached the enemy, he brought down on him, along with the shield, the weight of his entire body and tried to overturn him. Then he put the shield on the ground and, crouching down, fought over it. The four-foot height of the shield was most likely regulated, since during the siege of Numantia Scipio Aemilian severely punished a soldier whose shield was larger.

The armor of the principes and hastati consisted of a small square chest plate of about 20 × 20 cm, which was called a breastplate, and greaves on one leg. This last feature is also confirmed by Arrian in his Art of Tactics. He writes: "... in the Roman style, greaves on one leg in order to protect the one that is put forward in battle." I mean, of course, the left leg. The breastplate goes back to the square chest plate of the 4th century BC. BC. Not a single plate has survived to this day, although the remains of a round plate of the same type have been found in Numantia. Wealthier legionnaires had chain mail. The appearance of such chain mail, which was made according to the model of linen shells, can be seen on the victorious monument of Aemilius Paul, installed in Delphi. It was erected after the victory of the Romans over Macedonia in 168 BC. Such chain mail was very heavy and weighed about 15 kg. Evidence of this severity can be found in the story of the Battle of Trasimene - the soldiers who tried to swim then went to the bottom, drawn by the weight of their armor.

The hastati and principes had a bronze helmet adorned with three vertical feathers of black or crimson color, which were about 45 cm high. Polybius says that they were intended to make the warrior appear twice his real height.

The most common at that time was the Montefortino type helmet, which originated from the Celtic helmets of the 4th and 3rd centuries. A wonderful example of such a helmet is in Germany, in the Karlsruhe Museum. It was found in Canosa di Puglia, the city to which many legionaries fled after the defeat at Cannae in 216. The helmet does indeed belong to this period, and it is very tempting to believe that it belonged to one of the Cannes legionaries.

This type of helmet had a hole in the pommel. The pommel was filled with lead, and a cotter pin was inserted into it, holding a horsehair comb. Under the back of the head was a double ring, to which two straps were attached. They crossed under the chin and fastened to the hooks on the cheek pads, holding the helmet in one position. Monuments confirm that at that time they continued to use the helmet of the Italo-Corinthian type, and the find in Herculaneum of the Samnite-Attic helmet of the 1st century. BC. indicates that this type was still widespread. Helmets were usually worn with a balaclava. On a Celtic copy of the Montefortino type, which is kept in Ljubljana, the remains of such a balaclava made of felt, the most common material for this purpose, are still visible.

The armament of the triarii was the same as that of the hastati and principes, with one exception: instead of pilums, they used long spears - gasta (hastae).

Velites had a sword, darts and a round shield (parma, parma) about 90 cm in diameter. Darts, "gasta velitaris", were a smaller copy of the pilum; their iron part was 25-30 cm, and the wooden shaft was two cubits (ca. 90 cm) long and about a finger thick. Of the armor, the velites wore only a simple helmet, sometimes with some distinctive feature, for example, covered with a wolf skin. This was done so that the centurions could recognize the velites from a distance and see how well they fought.

Cavalry and allies

The 300 horsemen were divided into ten turmas, 30 in each. In each turma there were three decurions, who were chosen by the tribunes, and three closing ones (optiones). It can be assumed that these units of 10 people were rows, which means that the cavalry was built in a line of five or ten people deep - depending on the circumstances.

The turma was commanded by the first of the selected decurions. The riders were armed according to the Greek model, they had armor, a round shield (parma equestris) and a strong spear with a pointed inflow, which could continue to fight if the spear broke. The Roman horsemen on the monument in honor of the victory of Aemilius Paul, erected in Delphi (168 BC), wear chain mail, almost similar to those worn by foot soldiers. The only exception is a cut in the thighs, which allowed sitting on a horse. The characteristic shields of the Italian cavalry can be seen on many monuments.

The tribunes dismissed the legionnaires to their homes, ordering them to arm themselves in accordance with the part in which they were supposed to serve.

The allies also formed detachments of four to five thousand men, which were joined by 900 horsemen. One such detachment was assigned to each of the legions, so the word "legion" should be understood as a combat unit of about 10,000 foot soldiers and about 1,200 horsemen. Polybius does not describe the organization of the allied troops, but it most likely was similar to the Roman one, especially among the Latin allies. In an ordinary army, consisting of two legions, the Romans fought in the center, and two detachments of allies (they were called alas, that is, wings - alae sociorum) - on the flanks. One detachment was called the right wing, and the other - the left. Each wing was commanded by three prefects appointed by the consul. A third of the best Allied cavalry and a fifth of their best foot soldiers were selected in order to form a special combat unit - extraordinaries (extraordinarii). They were a striking force for special assignments and were supposed to cover the legion on the march.

At first, the soldiers did not receive pay, but since the long siege of Veii at the beginning of the 4th century. legionnaires began to pay. In the time of Polybius, a Roman infantryman received two obols a day, a centurion twice as much, and a horseman had six obols. The Roman infantryman received allowances in the form of 35 liters of grain per month, the horseman - 100 liters of wheat and 350 liters of barley. Of course, most of this food went to feed his horse and groom. A fixed payment for these products was deducted by the quaestor from the salary of both foot and horse warriors. Deductions were also made for clothing and items of equipment requiring replacement.

The Allied infantry also received 35 liters of grain per person, while the horsemen received only 70 liters of wheat and 250 liters of barley. However, these products were free for them.

Assembling at a place set by the consul, the new legions went through a rigorous "training program". Ninety percent of the soldiers had already served in the army, but they also needed retraining, and new recruits needed to go through basic training. During the empire, they were forced to "fight the pillar" using weighted weapons; no doubt something similar must have taken place in the period of the Republic. A good idea of ​​what the process of retraining experienced soldiers looked like can be obtained from the story of Polybius. Scipio arranged such retraining for his soldiers after he captured New Carthage (209).

On the first day, the soldiers had to run six kilometers in full gear. On the second day, they cleaned their armor and weapons, which were checked by their commanders. On the third day they rested, and the next day they practiced with weapons. For this, wooden swords covered with leather were used. To avoid accidents, the tip of the sword was equipped with a nozzle. The points of the darts used for exercises were also protected. On the fifth day, the soldiers again ran six kilometers in full gear, and on the sixth they again took care of their weapons, and so on.

On the march

Having completed the training, the army acted towards the enemy. The order of removal from the camp was strictly regulated. At the first signal of the trumpet, the tents of the consul and tribunes were rolled up. The soldiers then packed their own tents and equipment. On the second signal, they loaded the pack animals, and on the third, the column set out.

In addition to their own equipment, each soldier was required to carry a bunch of stakes for the stockade. Polybius says that it was not very difficult, because the long shields of the legionnaires hung on leather straps at the shoulder and the only objects in their hands were javelins. Two, three or even four stakes could be tied together and also hung on the shoulder.

Usually the column was led by extraordinaries. They were followed by the right wing of the allies, along with their convoy; then followed the first legion and its convoy, and then the second legion. He led not only his convoy, but also the pack animals of the left wing of the Allies, which formed the rear guard. The Consul and his bodyguards, mounted and on foot, specially selected from among the extraordinaries, probably rode at the head of the legions. The cavalry could form the rear guard of their unit or be placed on both sides of the wagon train in order to follow the animals. In the presence of danger from behind, the extraordinaries formed the rearguard. It should be borne in mind that 600 extraordinary riders moved in scattered formation and carried out reconnaissance - regardless of whether it was the vanguard or rearguard. Both legions, as well as both wings of the allies, changed places every other day - so that the right wing and the first legion were in front, then the left wing and the second legion. This allowed everyone in turn to enjoy the benefits of obtaining fresh water and fodder.

In the event that danger caught the legion in the open, the hastati, principes and triarii marched in three parallel columns. If an attack was expected from the right, then the hastati became the first from this side, followed by principes and triarii. This allowed, if necessary, to turn into a standard battle formation. The convoy stood to the left of each column. With the threat of an attack from the left, the hastati were built on the left side, and the convoy on the right. Such a system looks like a variant of the development of the Macedonian one. The turn into battle formation could be best done if the maniples marched not in columns, but in ranks - as the Macedonians did. In this case, the first rank was already ready to meet the enemy if necessary, and the ranks did not need to deploy the system. If the main formation of the centuria was in six ranks of ten people, then the soldiers could march six in a row. That's what they did during the empire. On the day the army could cover a distance of about 30 km, but if necessary, was able to move much further. Among those who went along with the vanguard in order to make sure that the way was open were the crossing specialists. Polybius mentions them, talking about how Scipio crossed the river. Ticinus in the winter of 218 BC