INTRODUCTION

We know very well from school textbooks when the largest state of Eurasia of the XIII - XIV centuries appeared on the political map of the world. - The Golden Horde, - within which the spaces of the future Russian Empire and the ethnic groups inhabiting them were united for the first time - from the Danube in the west to Altai in the east and from the White Sea in the north to the Caucasus and Khorezm in the south. We know about the predatory tributes and the struggle of the conquered peoples. But the very civilization of this state, which sparkled as the brightest phenomenon of Eurasia and found continuation in the post-Golden Horde Islamic states of Kazan, Crimea, Astrakhan, Siberia, the Nogai Horde, remained in the shadows, since the archeology of the Golden Horde was in its infancy.

Only the outstanding Russian historian, academician M.N. Tikhomirov, found the courage to declare the significance of the Golden Horde: “... after all, the Golden Horde is a phenomenon of a global order, if Asia and Europe are understood by this world. How, then, from the history of the peoples that were part of the Golden Horde, throw out a whole big stage?

In addition, an exclusively negative attitude towards the Mongol-Tatar yoke and everything connected with it prevailed in our country. So, the Horde dominion was stubbornly declared the reason for the cultural isolation of Russia, although the specific evidence of the sources is silent about this, and often even contains indications of a completely different kind. In particular, the well-known Mengu-Timurov's word to Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich (1266-1270) indicates that this khan provided Russia with a "window to Europe" with his formidable authority. Only the revival of public life in the second half of the 1950s and the subsequent shifts in the historical science of the USSR favorably affected the revival of interest in the history and archeology of the Golden Horde. It was at this time (more precisely, in 1958) that the Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR began long-term systematic studies of the capital of the Golden Horde, Saray-Berke (Tsar's settlement near Stalingrad). This became possible thanks to the civil position of the director of the Institute of Archeology, the largest Russian archaeologist B. A. Rybakov. During the years of intensive excavations of the Golden Horde cities under the guidance of A.P. Smirnov and his student G.A. Fedorov-Davydov, a whole scientific direction has developed - Golden Horde archeology.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages, whose possessions were in Europe and Asia. Its military power constantly kept all its neighbors in suspense and for a very long time was not disputed by anyone. The monarchs of even distant countries sought to establish friendly relations with her and maintain them with all their might. The most enterprising merchants traveled great distances to get to its capital, which was rightfully known as the largest trading base between East and West. Travelers and trade caravans carried true stories and incredible legends all over the world about the peoples who inhabited the Golden Horde, their peculiar customs and nomadic life, about the wealth and power of the khans who ruled here, countless herds of cattle and endless steppes, where one could not meet anyone for weeks. one man. True and fictional stories about the vast state of nomads continued to exist after his disappearance.

And today, interest in it has not weakened, and its history has long been studied in many countries. But until now, in the assessment of many political and everyday aspects of the life and history of the Golden Horde, there are very opposite opinions. And besides, to date, there are a number of misconceptions or established stereotypes associated with the Golden Horde in scientific works and educational literature, and simply in the most common perception of history. This applies to its territory and borders, the name of the state, the presence of cities, the development of culture, the relationship between the concepts of "Mongols" and "Tatars", some moments of political history, etc. Most of the widespread stamps about the Golden Horde originated in the last century, and their existence is connected solely with the neglect of the study of this largely peculiar state.

In the study of the Golden Horde in Soviet times, it was dominated by the judgment of it as an oppressor state that did not deserve the attention of Soviet historians. The editors showed particular caution and vigilance when publishing stories on the Golden Horde themes. Any positive fact in relation to the state of the Mongols seemed unthinkable and was questioned. It cannot be said that the Golden Horde has become a taboo topic in science, but it was clearly undesirable. The political situation also left an imprint on this, when in the 60s Mao Zedong attributed all the Mongol conquests of the 13th century. to the Chinese state, extending its western limits to the Danube, although China itself was conquered by Genghis Khan and his sons, and for many years was under the rule of the Mongols. But in spite of everything, the Golden Horde theme was and remains one of the traditional ones in historical science. Without knowledge of the history and ways of development of a huge, powerful, in many respects unusual and in the full sense of the word bloodthirsty state (only a few years of its existence were peaceful!) It is impossible to understand many aspects of the formation and growth of the countries of the Middle Ages, it is impossible to fully appreciate the course of political events in the XIII-- 15th century

The dispute about the Eurasian heritage of the Golden Horde - a power that was formed as a result of the collapse of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan, on the territory of medieval Kazakhstan, as well as Russia, the Crimea, the Volga region, the Caucasus, Western Siberia, Khorezm, not only did not lose its relevance, but also flared up with a new one. strength in our time. Evidence of this are the attempts of certain officials and scientific circles of Tatarstan to attribute the historical heritage of the Golden Horde exclusively to identification with the Kazan-Tatar ethnic group and its history, which pretty much smacks of myth-making, since the origin of the Kazan Tatars from the Volga Bulgars, a Turkic ethnic group whose statehood was crushed, is scientifically proven. Mongols.

This "historical version" with a claim to the Golden Horde heritage appeared before our very eyes, and we are talking here rather about constructing the past, based on the current political situation, i.e. about the phenomenon called "the invention of traditions". In this regard, the problem of the Golden Horde heritage in relation to other Turkic, and not only Turkic peoples of Central Asia and Eastern Europe is of considerable interest.

And the origins of this problem go back to the Mongol era, from which this story begins. For all the tragedy, the era of the Mongol conquests of the 13th century was not simple and unambiguous. This also applies to such a complex conglomerate as the empire of Genghis Khan and his successors, including the Golden Horde. Therefore, an absolutely negative attitude towards the Mongol conquest and everything connected with it, apparently, is not entirely legitimate. This opinion, in particular, was held by such a serious researcher of this era as V.V. Bartold, as well as L.I. Gumilyov. Created mainly as a result of bloody conquests, these empires later played a certain civilizing role. After all, the creation of an empire, with all the rejection of violence and bloodshed, is also an attempt, albeit far from perfect, of humanity towards integration. Examples of this are not one Iran Achaemenid kings. the power of Iskander Zul-Karnayn, the Turkic Khaganate, the Arab Caliphate, the Byzantine, French and British, Ottoman and Russian empires, but even what the Mongol expansion brought. The states created as a result of the campaigns of Genghis Khan and his successors, of which medieval Kazakhstan became a part, are a motley picture in all respects. Moreover, various observers noted the emergence of much greater political stability after the formation of these states in all of Eurasia from Eastern Europe to China, including in the expanses of Kazakhstan.

In addition, the absence of spatial barriers within these vast empires created an opportunity to bring the peoples of Eurasia closer together. The cultures of the Turkic, Slavic, Mongolian, Finno-Ugric, Iranian, Caucasian and other peoples of Eurasia were formed and developed for a long time, being in a single system of ties, which brought them closer, determining in many respects the similarity of their way of life, mentality and led to unification and united multinational states , which were the empires of the descendants of Genghis Khan, such as the Golden Horde.

Therefore, only a negative view of them as "wild hordes" would be historically unfair. The spectrum here is very diverse: the attitude to the realities of life in all their true chiaroscuro and the essence of the consequences should also be appropriate. We must understand the undeniable truth: in a calm study of the entire corpus of accumulated sources is the key to overcoming negative phenomena in the historiography of the Golden Horde.

FORMATION OF THE GOLDEN HORDE

History reference - GOLDEN HORDE (ULUS JUCHI) , a medieval state in Eurasia, created by the Turkic-Mongolian tribes (in the eastern sources, Ulus Jochi). It was founded in the early 40s of the XIII century by Khan Batu (1208-1255), the grandson of Genghis Khan, as a result of the conquests of the Mongols. The name of the state came from the magnificent tent that stood in its capital, sparkling in the sun.

The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm, Volga Bulgaria, the North Caucasus, Crimea, Desht-i-Kipchak (the Kipchak steppe from the Irtysh to the Danube). The extreme southeastern limit of the Golden Horde was South Kazakhstan (now the city of Taraz), and the extreme northeastern limit was the cities of Tyumen and Isker (near the modern city of Tobolsk) in Western Siberia. From north to south, the Horde extended from the middle reaches of the Kama River to the city of Derbent. All this gigantic territory was quite homogeneous in terms of landscape - it was mostly steppe. The population of the Horde represented a variety of nationalities and beliefs. The conquering Mongols did not make up the majority of the population. They dissolved in the mass of conquered peoples, mainly of Turkic origin, primarily the Kypchaks. The most important thing was that the cultural zone on the Lower Volga turned out to be so close to the steppe that settled and nomadic economy was easily combined here. The Polovtsy remained the main population of the cities and the steppe. Feudal law also acted in the steppe - all the land belonged to the feudal lord, to whom ordinary nomads obeyed. All medieval cities located in the lower reaches of the Volga and its channels were flooded with water over time, and the inhabitants had to leave them.

The capital of the Golden Horde is Saray-Batu (Old Barn) (Lower Volga, Akhtuba River, settlement near the village of Selitrennoy, Kharabalinsky District, Astrakhan Region, Russia). The city was founded by Batu Khan in 1254. Destroyed in 1395 by Tamerlane. The hill fort near the village of Selitrennoye, which remained from the first capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai-Batu ("city of Batu"), is striking in its size. Spread over several hillocks, it stretches along the left bank of the Akhtuba for more than 15 km.

Thirty years before the appearance of nomadic hordes under the walls of Russian cities, in 1206, a kurultai (congress) of the steppe aristocracy gathered on the banks of the Central Asian river Onon. As is often the case in history, the issue that he had to decide was clear to everyone in the most categorical and unequivocal way. And there was only one candidate - Temujin. All that was required was to carry out a formal legal act of approving the kagan (supreme ruler) of the new Mongolian state. In a long, cruel, insidious and sophisticated struggle, Temujin managed to unite the scattered and warring Mongol nomadic tribes into a single state. And in the eyes of the entire steppe, freed from exhausting bloody intertribal and tribal clashes, it was Temujin who was rightfully worthy of the title of supreme ruler. The most noble noyons (princes) of the steppe put him on a snow-white felt, raised him to the eternal blue sky and with a common word approved the title, unheard of in the steppes - Genghis Khan.

The first lord of a united Mongolia created a hitherto unprecedented ten thousandth personal guard; he divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens (ten thousand), thereby mixing tribes and clans and appointing his devoted servants as rulers over them. Steppe internecine strife, robberies of trade caravans, cattle thefts from neighbors and the sale of fellow tribesmen into slavery have ceased. All those living behind the felt walls of the yurts breathed a sigh of relief and began to habitually manage the cycle of their lives from the summer foothill pasture to the winter valley, sheltered from the winds.

But not even five years had passed since the day of the kurultai, who declared Temujin Genghis Khan, as Mongolian mothers saw their sons from the thresholds of the yurts, calling on the eternal blue sky to save their lives. Now Mongol blood flowed for the glory of the kagan not at the native shores of Onon and Kerulen, but for many days on the way from them to the south and west.

Before his death in August 1227, Genghis Khan managed to lay the territorial foundation for a new huge empire, which was made up not only by the peoples who lived in the immediate vicinity of Mongolia, but also by China, and Central Asia, and the steppes west of the Irtysh. The death of the newly appeared pretender to the possession of the whole world did not change the policy of his heirs. They tried with all their might to fulfill the will of the founder of the dynasty - to extend their power wherever the hooves of the Mongolian horses would go. As a result, in the second half of the XIII century. vast expanses from the Pacific coast to the Danube were under the rule of the Chingizids. Naturally, the political and economic unity of all parts of such a giant was out of the question, although for some period they tried to maintain it from the Karakorum, the capital of Mongolia founded by Genghis Khan.

But already in the 60s of the XIII century. the empire broke up into separate parts (uluses). Its capital was moved from Karakorum to Khanbalik (present-day Beijing), and the ruling dynasty itself, in the Chinese manner, became known as Yuan. In the steppes to the north of Lake Balkhash and the Aral Sea from the Irtysh to Yaik (Urals), the ulus of the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi was spread. His heirs constantly made attempts to expand their father's possessions, but they did not achieve much success, apparently due to a lack of strength.

The situation changed dramatically in 1235, when it was decided at the kurultai to provide powerful support to the sons of Jochi, Orda-Ichen and Batu, in the conquest of Eastern Europe. Their troops were reinforced by detachments of several more Mongol princes and the best commander of Genghis Khan Subedei, who defeated the Russian-Polovtsian forces on the Kalka River in 1223. The second son of Jochi Batu, who was called Batu in Russian chronicles, led the entire campaign. From the autumn of 1236, this huge army devastated and bled the Volga Bulgaria, Russia, the Polovtsian nomads, Taurida, Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and in the spring of 1242 reached the Adriatic coast, which caused panic at the courts of the Pope and even the French king. However, here the Mongols suddenly stopped and began to slowly retreat to the east.

By the end of 1242, all their troops settled down for the winter in the Black Sea and Caspian steppes, known to Eastern chroniclers under the name Desht-i-Kypchak. It was this territory that became the core of the future state, known to us as the Golden Horde.

The countdown of its political history can be started from the very beginning of 1243, when the Ipatiev Chronicle reported that Batu “came back from Ougor” (Hungary) and when Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian rulers to arrive at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign.

In territorial terms, the Golden Horde is usually associated with the steppe expanses, entirely inhabited by nomads, and somewhere in the middle of the endless steppes is the capital of the state - the city of Sarai. This view is only partly true and for a certain time. If we evaluate the total area, then the Golden Horde was undoubtedly the largest state of the Middle Ages. Arab and Persian historians of the XIV-XV centuries. in total they reported on its size in figures that struck the imagination of contemporaries. One of them noted that the length of the state extends for 8, and the width for 6 months of travel. Another somewhat reduced the size: up to 6 months of travel in length and 4 in width. The third relied on specific geographical landmarks and reported that this country extends "from the Sea of ​​Constantinople to the Irtysh River, 800 farsakhs in length, and in width from Babelebvab (Derbent) to the city of Bolgar, that is, approximately 600 farsakhs." Although these figures are impressive, they give only the most general idea, covering just the zone of the Euro-Asian steppes and confirming the prevailing stereotype.

Detailing the boundaries of the Golden Horde is associated with a clear lack of information in written sources, and therefore the necessary data have to be collected literally bit by bit, also involving archeological materials.

But first, two important points need to be made. First of all, the territory of the state did not remain stable, changing throughout the entire period of its existence; it then decreased, then increased again. Secondly, the specificity of the Golden Horde borders was that all the surrounding peoples tried to settle as far as possible from the Mongols' habitats because of the understandable concern for their own safety. As a result, "empty places" appeared along the perimeter of the Golden Horde nomad camps, or, using the modern term, neutral zones.

In terms of landscape, they usually represented transitional forest-steppe regions. As a rule, they were used alternately by one or the other side for commercial purposes. For example, if in the summer the Golden Horde grazed cattle here, in the winter the Russians were engaged in hunting.

True, it should be noted that such neutral zones are especially characteristic only of the 13th century. - the period of the greatest military aggressiveness of the Mongols. In the XIV century. they are gradually beginning to be settled by the settled peoples surrounding the Golden Horde.

The total territory of the state in the XIII century. outlined by the following boundary lines. The eastern limits of the Golden Horde included the regions of Siberia and Ibir with the border rivers Irtysh and Chulym, which separated the possessions of the Jochids from the metropolis. Outlying areas here were the Baraba and Kulunda steppes. The northern border in the expanses of Siberia was located in the middle reaches of the Ob River. Sources do not report on the specific reference points of this line, and one can only assume that it coincided with a natural vegetation zone that allowed cattle to graze. The southern border of the state began in the foothills of Altai and passed north of Lake Balkhash, then stretched westward through the middle course of the Syr Darya, south of the Aral Sea, to the ulus of Khorezm. This area of ​​ancient agriculture was the southern ulus of the Golden Horde with the center in the city of Urgench. Khiva, located somewhat south of Urgench, no longer belonged to the possessions of the Golden Horde. The Ustyurt plateau and the Mangyshlak peninsula adjoining Khorezm from the north-west were also the nomadic zone of the Golden Horde. On the western coast of the Caspian Sea, Derbent was a frontier town belonging to the Jochids, which the eastern annals called the Iron Gates. From here, the border stretched along the northern foothills - the Caucasus Range to the Taman Peninsula, which was completely part of the Golden Horde.

During the XIII century. the Caucasian border was one of the most turbulent, since the local peoples (Circassians, Alans, Lezgins) were not yet completely subordinate to the Mongols and offered stubborn resistance to the conquerors. The Tauride Peninsula also formed part of the Golden Horde from the beginning of its existence. It was after being included in the territory of this state that it received a new name - Crimea, after the name of the main city of this ulus. However, the Mongols themselves occupied in the XIII-XIV centuries. only the northern, steppe, part of the peninsula. At that time, its coast and mountainous regions represented a whole series of small feudal estates semi-dependent on the Mongols. The most important and famous among them were the Italian colony cities of Kafa (Feodosia), Soldaya (Sudak), Cembalo (Balaklava). In the mountains of the southwest there was a small principality of Theodoro, the capital of which was the well-fortified city of Mangup.

Relations with the Mongols of Italians and local feudal lords were maintained thanks to brisk trade. But this did not in the least prevent the Saray khans from attacking their trade partners from time to time and treating them as their own tributaries. To the west of the Black Sea, the border of the state stretched along the Danube, without crossing it, to the Hungarian fortress of Turnu Severin, which closed the exit from the Lower Danube Lowland. “The northern limits of the state in this region were limited by the spurs of the Carpathians and included the steppe spaces of the Prut-Dniester interfluve.

It was here that the border of the Golden Horde with the Russian principalities began. It passed approximately along the border of the steppe and forest-steppe. Between the Dniester and the Dnieper, the border stretched in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe modern Vinnitsa and Cherkasy regions. In the Dnieper basin, the possessions of the Russian princes ended somewhere between Kyiv and Kanev. From here, the border line went to the area of ​​​​modern Kharkov, Kursk, and then went to the Ryazan limits along the left bank of the Don. To the east of the Ryazan Principality, from the Moksha River to the Volga, a forest stretched, inhabited by Mordovian tribes.

The Mongols had little interest in the territories covered with dense forests, but despite this, the entire Mordovian population was completely under the control of the Golden Horde and constituted one of its northern uluses. This is clearly evidenced by the sources of the XIV century. In the Volga basin during the XIII century. the border ran north of the Sura River, and in the next century it gradually shifted to the mouth of the Sura and even south of it. The vast area of ​​modern Chuvashia in the XIII century. completely under the control of the Mongols. On the left bank of the Volga, the Golden Horde borderland stretched north of the Kama. Here were the former possessions of Volga Bulgaria, which turned into an integral part of the Golden Horde without any hint of autonomy. The Bashkirs who lived in the middle and southern Urals also formed part of the state of the Mongols. They owned all the lands in this area south of the Belaya River.

GOVERNMENT OF THE GOLDEN HORDE

Having achieved their goals in conquering the countries of Eastern Europe, the Genghisides, led by Batu Khan, began organizing the governing bodies of the conquered countries. “Being in an absolute minority,” points out L.N. Gumilev, - the Golden Horde Mongols did not have the opportunity to create a despotic regime. Therefore, the Horde led a confederation of local ethnic groups held within the state by the threat of attack. In the subordinate countries, the Mongols established their own administration, which controlled the activities of local rulers and the collection of tribute by them. The head of this administration was called "Daruga" and at his disposal was an armed detachment of "Baskaks".

It is quite natural that the Mongols could not create a single ethno-noosphere of the so-called "Tatar people", because this people did not exist.

The Kypchak kingdom, or the Golden Horde, as Russian historians call it, although it was a confederation of mainly Turkic ethnic groups, but by this time, i.e. by the time of the Mongol conquest, they were already developing independently with their established ethno-noospheres.

The Arab traveler Ibn-Batuta, who visited Sarai-Berke in 1333 during the reign of Uzbek Khan, wrote: . Different peoples live in it, such as: the Mongols are the (real) inhabitants of the country and its rulers: some of them are Muslims: Ases (Bulgars - R.B.), who are Muslims, Kipchaks, Circassians (Turks-Circassians - R. B.), Russians and Byzantines who are Christians. Each nation lives separately in its own area: their bazaars are also there.

The main population of the Golden Horde were Kipchaks, Bulgars and Russians. Before considering the state structure of the Golden Horde, you need to find out the following essential point: what was the name of this state during its existence. This question arises because in no modern chronicle of the Golden Horde there is such a name for it. The well-known monograph by B. D. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky also does not give an answer to it. Three aspects of the problem can be distinguished: how the Mongols themselves called their state, how the surrounding neighbors called it, and what name was established for it after the collapse. In all the Mongolian states that arose in the 13th century, ruling dynasties descended from Genghis Khan established themselves. The head of each of them considered the territory allocated to him or conquered not as a state, but as a family possession. The Kypchak steppes were given to the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi, who became the founder of the numerous Jochid family that ruled here. In full accordance with this, each of the khans who ascended the Sarai throne called their state simply “ulus”, that is, the people given to inheritance, possession. The label of Khan Tokhtamysh has been preserved, in which he calls his state the Great Ulus. Such a magnificent epithet, emphasizing the power of the state, was also used by other khans, especially in diplomatic correspondence. As for the name of the Jochid state by representatives of European and Asian powers, there was complete discord. In the Arabic chronicles, it was most often called the name of the khan who ruled at a certain moment, with the appropriate ethnic refinement: “Berke, the great king of the Tatars”, “Tokta, the king of the Tatars”. In other cases, a geographic specification was added to the name of the khan: “Uzbek, ruler of the northern countries”, “king of Tokta, owner of Saray and the Kipchak lands”, “king of Desht-i-Kypchak Tokta”. Sometimes Arab and Persian chroniclers called the Golden Horde the ulus of Jochi, the ulus of Batu, the ulus of Berke, the ulus of Uzbek. Often these names were used not only directly during the reign of one or another khan, but even after their death (“King Uzbek, ruler of the Berke countries”). The European travelers P. Carpini and G. Rubruk, who traveled the entire Golden Horde, use the old terms “country of Komans” (i.e., Polovtsy), “Komania” to designate it, or they give a too generalized name - “the power of the Tatars”. In a letter from Pope Benedict XII, the state of the Jochids is called Northern Tataria. In Russian chronicles, the new southern neighbor was first designated with the help of an ethnic term. The princes go to "Tatars to Batyev" and return "from the Tatars."

And only in the last decade of the XIII century. the new and only name "Horde" appears and is firmly established, which lasted until the complete collapse of the Jochid state.

As for the now familiar name "Golden Horde", it began to be used at a time when there was no trace left of the state founded by Khan Batu. For the first time this phrase appeared in the "Kazan chronicler", written in the second half of the 16th century, in the form "Golden Horde" and "Great Golden Horde". Its origin is associated with the khan's headquarters, or rather, with the khan's ceremonial yurt, richly decorated with gold and expensive materials. Here is how a 14th-century traveler describes it: “Uzbek sits in a tent, called a golden tent, decorated and outlandish. It consists of wooden rods covered with gold leaves. In the middle of it is a wooden throne, overlaid with silver gilded sheets, its legs are made of silver, and the top is studded with precious stones.

There is no doubt that the term "Golden Horde" existed in Russia in colloquial speech as early as the 14th century, but it never appears in the annals of that period. Russian chroniclers proceeded from the emotional load of the word “golden”, which was used at that time as a synonym for everything good, bright and joyful, which could not be said about an oppressor state, and even inhabited by “nasty ones”.

That is why the name "Golden Horde" appears only after all the horrors of Mongol rule have been erased by time.

From the first year of its existence, the Golden Horde was not a sovereign state, and the khan who led it was also not considered an independent ruler. This was due to the fact that the possessions of the Jochids, like other Mongol princes, legally constituted a single empire with a central government in the rakorum. The kagan who was here, according to one of the articles of the yasa (law) of Genghis Khan, had the right to a certain part of the income from all the territories conquered by the Mongols. Moreover, he had possessions in these areas that belonged to him personally. The creation of such a system of close interweaving and interpenetration was associated with an attempt to prevent the inevitable disintegration of a huge empire into separate independent parts. Only the central Karakoram government was authorized to decide the most important economic and political issues. The strength of the central government, which, due to the remoteness of its stay, rested, perhaps, only on the authority of Genghis Khan, was still so great that the khans of Batu and Berke continued to adhere to the "path of sincerity, humility, friendship and unanimity" in relation to Karakorum.

But in the 60s of the XIII century. around the Karakorum throne, an internecine struggle broke out between Khubilai and Arig-Buga. The victorious Khubilai transferred the capital from Karakorum to the territory of conquered China in Khanbalik (present-day Beijing). Mengu-Timur, who ruled at that time in the Golden Horde, supported Arig-Buga in the struggle for supreme power, hastened to take advantage of the opportunity that presented itself and did not recognize Khubilai's right to be the supreme ruler of the entire empire, since he left the capital of its founder and abandoned the indigenous yurt to the mercy of fate all Genghisides - Mongolia.

From that moment on, the Golden Horde gained complete independence in resolving all issues of a foreign and domestic nature, and the so carefully guarded unity of the empire founded by Genghis Khan suddenly exploded, and it fell to pieces.

However, by the time of the acquisition of full political sovereignty in the Golden Horde, of course, there already existed its own intrastate structure, moreover, it was sufficiently established and developed. There is nothing surprising in the fact that it basically copied the system introduced in Mongolia by Genghis Khan.

The basis of this system was the army decimal calculation of the entire population of the country. In accordance with the division of the army, the entire state was divided into right and left wings.

In the ulus of Jochi, the right wing constituted the possessions of Khan Batu, stretching from the Danube to the Irtysh. The left wing was under the rule of his elder brother, Khan of the Horde. It occupied lands in the south of modern Kazakhstan along the Syr Darya and to the east of it.

According to the ancient Mongolian tradition, the right wing was called Ak-Orda (White Horde), and the left - Kok-Orda (Blue). It follows from the foregoing that the concepts of "Golden Horde" and "ulus of Jochi" in territorial and state-legal relations are not synonymous.

The ulus of Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings, which made up the independent possessions of two khans - Batu and the Horde. However, the khans of Kok-Orda throughout its history maintained a certain (largely purely formal) political dependence in relation to the khans of the Golden Horde (Ak-Orda).

In turn, the territory under the rule of Batu was also divided into right and left wings. In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, the wings corresponded to the largest administrative units of the state.

But by the end of the thirteenth century they turned from administrative into purely military concepts and were preserved only in relation to military formations.

In the administrative structure of the state, the wings were replaced by a more convenient division into four main territorial units, headed by ulusbeks. These four uluses were the largest administrative divisions. They were called Sarai, Desht-i-Kypchak, Crimea, Khorezm.

In the most general form, the administrative system of the Golden Horde was described as early as the 13th century. G. Rubruk, who traveled the entire state from west to east. According to his observation, the Mongols “divided among themselves Scythia, which stretches from the Danube until sunrise; and every ruler knows, according to whether he has more or less people under his authority, the boundaries of his pastures, and also where he must pasture his flocks in winter, summer, spring and autumn. It is in winter that they descend south to warmer countries, in summer they rise north to colder ones.

This sketch of the traveler contains the basis of the administrative-territorial division of the Golden Horde, defined by the concept of "ulus system".

Its essence was the right of nomadic feudal lords to receive from the khan himself or another large steppe aristocrat a certain inheritance - an ulus. For this, the owner of the ulus was obliged to put up, if necessary, a certain number of fully armed soldiers (depending on the size of the ulus), as well as to perform various tax and economic duties.

This system was an exact copy of the structure of the Mongolian army: the entire state - the Great Ulus - was divided according to the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, ten's manager) - into destinies of certain size, and from each of them, in case of war, ten, one hundred , a thousand or ten thousand armed warriors. At the same time, uluses were not hereditary possessions that could be passed from father to son. Moreover, the khan could take away the ulus completely or replace it with another.

In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, there were apparently no more than 15 large uluses, and rivers most often served as the borders between them. This shows a certain primitiveness of the administrative division of the state, rooted in the old nomadic traditions.

Further development of statehood, the emergence of cities, the introduction of Islam, a closer acquaintance with the Arab and Persian traditions of government led to various complications in the possessions of the Jochids with the simultaneous death of Central Asian customs dating back to the time of Genghis Khan.

Instead of dividing the territory into two wings, as already mentioned, four uluses appeared, headed by ulusbeks. One of the uluses was the personal domain of the khan. He occupied the steppes of the left bank of the Volga from its mouth to the Kama.

Each of these four uluses was divided into a certain number of "regions", which were the uluses of the feudal lords of the next rank.

In total, in the Golden Horde, the number of such "regions" in the XIV century. was about 70 in number of temniks. Simultaneously with the establishment of administrative-territorial division, the formation of the state administration apparatus took place.

The period of the reign of the khans Batu and Berke can rightfully be called organizational in the history of the Golden Horde. Batu laid down the basic foundations of the state, which were preserved under all subsequent khans.

The feudal estates of the aristocracy were formalized, the apparatus of officials appeared, the capital was founded, the yamskaya connection was organized between all uluses, taxes and duties were approved and distributed.

The reign of Batu and Berke is characterized by the absolute power of the khans, whose authority was associated in the minds of their subjects with the amount of wealth they stole. Sources unanimously note that the khans at that time had "amazing power over everyone." Khan, who stood at the top of the pyramid of power, for most of the year was in a roaming headquarters surrounded by his wives and a huge number of courtiers. He spent only a short winter period in the capital. The moving khan's horde-headquarters, as it were, emphasized that the main power of the state continued to be based on a nomadic beginning. Naturally, it was quite difficult for the Khan, who was in constant motion, to manage the affairs of the state himself. This is also emphasized by the sources, which directly report that the supreme ruler “pays attention only to the essence of the matter, without entering into the details of the circumstances, and is content with what is reported to him, but does not seek details regarding the collection and spending.”

The entire Horde army was commanded by a warlord - beklyaribek. Sometimes his influence exceeded the power of the khan, which often led to bloody civil strife. From time to time, the power of the Beklyaribeks, for example, Nogai, Mamai, Edigei, increased so much that they themselves appointed khans.

With the strengthening of statehood in the Golden Horde, the administrative apparatus grew, its rulers took as a model the administration of the state of Khorezmshahs conquered by the Mongols. According to this model, a vizier appeared under the khan, a kind of head of government, who was responsible for all spheres of the non-military life of the state. The vizier and the divan (state council) headed by him controlled finances, taxes, and trade.

The khan himself was in charge of foreign policy with his closest advisers, as well as the beklyaribek.

The Golden Horde has long been the most powerful state in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. In addition to the expanses of Kazakhstan, among its possessions were Russia, Khorezm, Crimea, the North Caucasus, Western Siberia.

European kings and pans of Rome, Byzantine emperors and Turkish sultans of the Ottoman Empire tried to maintain friendly relations with the Golden Horde court. Evidence of this are letters of letters of the Golden Horde khans Tokhtamysh to the Polish king Jogaila. Ulug-Muhammad to the Turkish Sultan Murad II, preserved to our time.

Interestingly, the main external enemies of the Golden Eagle were not neighboring alien powers, but the same former uluses of the once united Mongol Empire - the state of the Khulaguid Mongols in Iran and the state of the Chagataid Mongols in Central Asia.

Periodically, the Golden Horde "darkness" invaded Poland, Lithuania, the Balkans. The purpose of these campaigns was not to conquer, but to rob neighbors.

A vast territory, a large population, a strong central government, a large combat-ready army, skillful use of trade caravan routes, extortion of tribute from conquered peoples, all this created the power of the Horde empire. It grew stronger and stronger in the first half of the XIV century. survived the peak of its power.

In conclusion, it can be added that in the Golden Horde, kurultai, so characteristic of Mongolia, were not practiced at all, at which all representatives of the Genghisides family resolved the most important state issues.

The changes that have taken place in the administrative and state structure have brought to naught the role of this traditional nomadic institution. Having a government in the stationary capital, consisting of representatives of the ruling family and the largest feudal lords, the khan no longer needed kurultais. He could discuss the most important state issues, gathering, as needed, the highest military and civilian officials of the state. As for such an important prerogative as the approval of the heir, now it has become the exclusive competence of the khan. However, palace conspiracies and all-powerful temporary workers played a much larger role in the shifts on the throne.

An important measure to strengthen the Golden Horde was its conversion to Islam.

Even Genghis Khan bequeathed to be tolerant towards representatives of different faiths. His descendants tried to fulfill this covenant. So, in the lands subject to the Golden Horde, the clergy of all religions were given preferential treatment.

The Russian Orthodox Church and the Armenian-Gregorian Church, for example, were exempted from paying tribute and received special labels that protected church property from the arbitrariness of the Horde. In Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, churches of various confessions were opened. In 1261, an Orthodox diocese arose there.

But the Horde themselves, for the most part, remained pagan shamanists. But there were among the ruling Horde elite, including Genghisides, adherents of Christ, Muhammad and Buddha.

But at the beginning of the XIV century. the situation in the Golden Horde has changed. The most far-sighted representatives of the ruling circles felt that it was no longer possible to regulate the life of a huge empire according to the old traditions.

The administration of the country became too difficult. It was necessary to attract literate and educated people, experts in economics and finance. The most suitable for this were Muslims, officials from Central Asia, East Turkestan and settled areas of southern Kazakhstan. In addition, the trade of the Golden Horde was in the hands of Muslim merchants. Yes, and intensive relations with Iran and Egypt required the involvement of people who know Farsi and Arabic. In addition, a religion common to the whole empire would help to unite the subjects of a co-religious sovereign.

In 1313, having reigned on the throne of the Golden Horde, the young Uzbek Khan, with the fanaticism of a newly converted Muslim and with the ardor of youth, fueled by the slanders and preaching of his Muslim environment, proclaimed Islam the dominant religion and exterminated his noble relatives who tried to resist such a blatant violation of the old Mongolian customs. In 1314, Uzbek Khan informed the Mamluk sultan of Egypt, An-Nasir, about this in a personal letter written in Turkic.

The era of Uzbek Khan was marked by a cultural upsurge and extensive urban construction. By the middle of the XIV century. in the Golden Horde there were more than 100 cities. Many of them were founded by the Horde. These include the capitals of the Golden Horde - Sarai and the new Sarai in the Lower Volga region, Saraichik and Western Kazakhstan, where the khans were buried.

Under Uzbek and Dzhanibek, the cities of the Golden Horde flourished. Palaces, mosques, loaf-sheds, rich quarters of the nobility and merchants, and more and more populous settlements of artisans, built by the labor of hundreds of thousands of slaves, turned them into the center of economic and cultural life. Barn and New Barn were the largest cities in the world.

Thus, the Golden Horde did not remain unchanged, borrowing a lot from the Muslim East: crafts, architecture, a bathhouse, tiles, ornamental decor, painted dishes, Persian verses, Arabic geometry and astrolabes, customs and tastes more sophisticated than those of ordinary nomads.

Having extensive ties with Anatolia. Syria and Egypt, the Horde replenished the army of the Mamluk sultans with Turkic and Caucasian slaves, “and the Horde culture acquired a certain Muslim-Mediterranean imprint,” according to Orientalist C. Bosworth.

The prosperity of the empire declined after the death of Dzhanibek due to the civil strife of the specific rulers who fought for the throne of the shed. The throne changed hands. Outlying possessions began to fall away from the state.

“Khan Dzhanibek,” writes L.N. Gumilyov, “was a wise and strong-willed ruler, but no one can defeat the pattern of ethnogenesis. The massacre perpetrated by his father Uzbek, and the introduction of Turkmen customs of succession to the throne instead of the yasa, turned the Dzhuchiev ulus into a chimera. The Horde became a bizarre combination of the Volga cities, numerous “fragments” of the Polovtsy, Alans, Circassians, Karaites - in the west and the ancestors of the Kazakhs, Siberian Tatars, Bashkirs, Kama Bulgarians and Chuvashs - in the east of the possessions. These ethnic groups were different in culture, religion (because the obligatory nature of Islam was relative, and its propaganda was inconsistent), economics and political aspirations. The term "Tatars" turned from an ethnonym into a polytonym, and in the 15th century. lost this meaning. Only the will of the khan kept this conglomerate from falling apart, but, as it turned out, not for long.” The direct descendants of Batu held power in the Golden Horde until 1359, when it broke up into several parts, some of which began to be controlled by representatives of other clans.

As long as strong-willed and energetic khans ruled in Saray, the Horde seemed to be a powerful state. The first shock occurred in 1312, when the population of the Volga region - Muslim, merchant and anti-nomadic - nominated the prince Uzbek, who immediately executed 70 princes of the Chingizids and all the noyons who refused to betray the faith of their fathers. The second shock was the murder of Khan Dzhanibek by his eldest son Berdibek, and two years later, in 1359, a twenty-year civil strife began - the “great jam”. In addition to this, in 1346 a plague raged in the Volga region and in other lands of the Golden Horde. During the years of the "great turmoil" calm left the Horde.

For the 60-70s. 14th century account for the most dramatic pages in the history of the Golden Horde. Conspiracies, murders of khans, strengthening of the power of the temniks, who, rising along with their proteges to the khan's throne, perish at the hands of the next contenders for power, pass by a quick kaleidoscope in front of astonished contemporaries.

The most successful temporary worker turned out to be Temnik Mamai, who for a long time installed khans in the Golden Horde (more precisely, in its western part) at his own discretion. Mamai was not a Chingizid, but he married the daughter of Khan Berdebek. Having no right to the throne, he ruled on behalf of dummy khans. Having subjugated the Great Bulgars, the North Caucasus, Astrakhan, the mighty temnik by the mid-70s of the XIV century. became the most powerful Tatar ruler. Although in 1375 Arabshah captured Sarai-Berke and the Bulgars retreated from Mamai, and Astrakhan passed to Cherkesbek, he still remained the ruler of a vast territory from the lower reaches of the Volga to the Crimea.

“In the same years (1379), - writes L.N. Gumilyov, - a conflict broke out between the Russian church and Mamai. In Nizhny Novgorod, on the initiative of Dionysius of Suzdal (bishop), the ambassadors of Mamai were killed. A war arose, which went on with varying success, ending with the Battle of Kulikovo and the return of Chingizid Tokhtamysh to the Horde. Two coalitions took part in this war, which was imposed by the church: the chimeric power of Mamaia, Genoa and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, i.e. The West, and the bloc of Moscow with the White Horde - a traditional alliance, the beginning of which was laid by Alexander Nevsky. Tver evaded participation in the war, and the position of the Ryazan prince Oleg is unclear. In any case, it was independent of Moscow, because in 1382, like the princes of Suzdal, he fought on the side of Tokhtamysh against Dmitry ”... In 1381, a year after the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh took and destroyed Moscow.

The "Great Jam" in the Golden Horde ended with the coming to power in 1380. Khan Tokhtamysh, which was associated with the support of his rise by the great emir of Samarkand Aksak Timur.

But it was precisely with the reign of Tokhtamysh that the events that turned out to be fatal for the Golden Horde are connected. Three campaigns of the ruler of Samarkand, the founder of the world empire from Asia Minor to the borders of China, Timur crushed the Jochi ulus, cities were destroyed, caravan routes moved south to Timur's possessions.

Timur consistently smashed the lands of those peoples who came out on the side of Tokhtamysh. The Kypchak kingdom (Golden Horde) lay in ruins, the cities were depopulated, the troops were defeated and dispersed.

One of the ardent opponents of Tokhtamysh was the Emir of the White Horde from the Mangyt tribe Edigei (Idegei, Idiku), who took part in Timur's wars against the Golden Horde. Having connected his fate with Khan Timur-Kutluk, who took the throne of the Golden Horde with his help, Edigei continued the war with Tokhtamysh. In 1399, at the head of the Golden Horde army, on the Vorskla River, he defeated the united troops of the Lithuanian prince Vitovt and Tokhtamysh, who had fled to Lithuania.

After the death of Timur-Kutluk in 1399, Yedigei actually became the head of the Golden Horde. For the last time in the history of the Golden Horde, he managed to unite under his rule all the former uluses of Jochi.

Edigei, like Mamai, ruled on behalf of dummy khans. In 1406 he killed Tokhtamysh, who was trying to settle in Western Siberia. In an effort to restore the ulus of Jochi within its former borders, Edigey repeated the path of Batu. In 1407 he organized a campaign against the Volga Bulgaria and defeated it. In 1408, Yedigei attacked Russia, ravaged a number of Russian cities, laid siege to Moscow, but could not take it.

Yedigey ended his eventful life, having lost power in the Horde, at the hands of one of the sons of Tokhtamysh in 1419.

“The instability of political power and economic life, frequent devastating campaigns against the Bulgaro-Kazan lands of the Golden Horde khans and Russian princes, as well as that broke out in the Volga regions in 1428-1430. A plague epidemic accompanied by a severe drought, - writes A.Kh. Khalikov, - did not lead to consolidation, but rather to the dispersal of the population. People in whole villages then leave for safer northern and eastern regions. There is also a hypothesis of a socio-ecological crisis in the steppes of the Golden Horde in the second half of the 14th - 15th centuries. - that is, the crisis of both nature and society.

The Golden Horde was no longer able to recover from these shocks, and over the course of the 15th century the Horde gradually split and split into the Nogai Horde (beginning of the 15th century), Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (1459), Siberian (end of the 15th century). century), the Great Horde and other khanates.

At the beginning of the XV century. The White Horde broke up into a number of possessions, the largest of which were the Nogai Horde and the Uzbek Khanate. The Nogai Horde occupied the steppes between the Volga and the Urals. “The ethnic composition of the population of the Nogai and Uzbek khanates was almost homogeneous. It included parts of the same local Turkic-speaking tribes and assimilated newcomer Mongolian tribes. On the territory of these khanates lived Kangly, Kungrats, Kengeres, Karluks, Naimans, Mangyts, Uysuns, Argyns, Alchins, Kitai, Kipchaks, etc. These tribes were very close in terms of their economy and culture. Their main occupation was nomadic cattle breeding. Both khanates were dominated by patriarchal-feudal relations. “But there were more Mangyt Mongols in the Nogai Horde than in the Uzbek Khanate.” Some of her clans sometimes crossed to the right bank of the Volga, and in the northeast they reached the Tobol.

The Uzbek Khanate occupied the steppes of modern Kazakhstan to the east of the Nogai Horde. Its territory stretched from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and the Aral Sea to the north to Yaik and Tobol and to the northeast to the Irtysh.

“The Golden Horde,” writes L.N. Gumilyov, “was a chimera, while the White Horde became the core of the formation of a new independent ethnic group - the Kazakhs.”

The nomadic population of the Kypchak kingdom did not succumb to the influence of the ethnonoosphere of either the Russians or the Bulgars, leaving for the Trans-Volga region, formed its own ethnic group with its own ethnonoosphere. Even when part of their tribes pulled the people of the Uzbek Khanate to Central Asia for a settled life, they held out in the steppes, leaving the ethnonym Uzbeks to the departed, they proudly called themselves - Cossack (Kazakh ), i.e. a free man, preferring the fresh wind of the steppes to the suffocating life of cities and villages.

Historically, this gigantic semi-state, semi-nomadic did not last long. The fall of the Golden Horde, accelerated by the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) and the brutal campaign of Tamerlane in 1395, was as quick as its birth. And finally collapsed in 1502, unable to withstand a collision with the Crimean Khanate.

CONCLUSION

On the expanses of the then civilized and semi-civilized world of Eurasia, a world empire arose with borders surpassing the Roman world, which brought East and West closer together.

The heyday of the Golden Horde coincided with the crisis in Western Europe at the turn of the 13th - 14th centuries. As the author writes: "The rise and fall of the Golden Horde from the point of view of socio-natural history, the unit of measurement of which is a century ... The rise occurred almost during the reign of one ruler - Uzbek (1312 - 1342)".

The Horde order favored trade as much as possible, the life and life of a person were more protected than that of a resident of Western Europe. In the worldview, ideological sphere, the main thing that distinguishes the Horde from Europe is religious tolerance, which goes back to the attitudes of Genghis Khan.

It is no less remarkable that the formation and flourishing of the Eurasian empire coincided in time with the period of the formation and flourishing of the Inquisition in Western Europe. It is far from accidental that in Russia the struggle against heretics began almost immediately after the so-called liberation from the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

The supreme rulers of the Horde created the most favored nation regime for the Russian Orthodox Church. So, as early as 1261, the Sarai diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church was founded. Half of all Russian monasteries arose under the Tatar-Mongolian rule.

In the era of the Golden Horde, a unique urban civilization was created. All the peoples who lived in the expanses of Eastern Europe, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Northern Aral Sea participated in its formation. The main cities of the Golden Horde had wide streets, water supply in ceramic pipes and sewerage. Residents of cities took drinking water from fountains. In all cities and villages there were baths. The Horde cities, in contrast not only to European, but also to the eastern ones, did not have walls - and hence, western city freedoms and privileges. The cities of the Golden Horde successfully developed in the system of functioning of the transport highway, which was grandiose in length - the Great Silk Road (at least until the fall of the Yuan (Mongolian) dynasty in China).

The state took upon itself the obligation to protect the lives of its citizens, to administer justice, to organize social, cultural and economic life. Other people lived in "other" cities - with different ideas about life. The population of the three main cities - two Sarayev and Solkhat - was estimated at about 75 - 150 thousand people each, and the remaining 110 cities (identified archaeologically) - within a million. And that's not counting the 39 Italian colonial cities of Genoa and Venice.

The heyday of the Horde state was marked by the highest level and quality of life in Europe at that time.

The positive consequences of the Golden Horde domination for Russia, hushed up by a number of Russian and Soviet historians, include the fact that the tension of the spiritual atmosphere of society led to the creation of high artistic examples in all areas of religious art (icon painting, church music, religious literature). The work of the icon painter Andrei Rublev can be considered the personification of these achievements. The feeling of national humiliation was replaced in the people by a noble feeling of devotion to the national ideal. The religious and national upsurge of that era in Russia became a powerful factor in national self-consciousness and culture, which was objectively facilitated to a large extent by the religious tolerance of the Horde elite. According to Russian historians, supporters of the theory of Eurasianism (P.N. Savitsky, G.V. Vernadsky, L.N. Gumilyov), Russians were saved from physical extermination and cultural assimilation of the West only due to inclusion in the Mongolian ulus. By the way, studies of recent years have shown that the population of Russia doubled during the yoke.

According to Savitsky, the Horde is a neutral cultural environment that accepted "all kinds of gods" and was different from Catholic Europe. Russia began to pay tribute to the Sarai khans, for which it had a merchant fleet on the Volga, a religious residence in Sarai, and the release of the Russian Orthodox Church from all types of taxes. For its part, Russia had in the face of the metropolis, which was the Golden Horde for it, spiritual and military support in numerous wars with its northwestern neighbors, such as the Kingdom of Sweden and the German Teutonic Order, Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Kingdom of Hungary, Galicia Russia, Volyn, Chernigov and other principalities that were outside the protection of the Golden Horde, the victim of Catholic Europe, which declared a crusade against Russia and the Horde.

Thus, the choice of Prince Alexander Nevsky, the winner of the Swedes and the Teutons, was apparently made on the basis of, of course, the dubious theory of the "lesser evil" in favor of symbiosis with the Golden Horde. And this choice was approved by the people and consecrated by the Russian Orthodox Church, and the canonization of Alexander Nevsky as a saint is a clear confirmation of this.

The Golden Horde influence on the Russian language was noticeable, which is reflected in the modern Russian language, where a fifth or sixth part of the vocabulary is of Turkic origin.

It was the Golden Horde state system that became the prototype of the Russian imperial statehood, part of which later, in the 18th-20th centuries. became for more than two and a half centuries and Kazakhstan. This was manifested in the establishment of an authoritarian tradition of government, in a rigidly centralized social system, discipline in military affairs and religious tolerance. Although, of course, there were deviations from these principles in certain periods of Russian history. In addition, medieval Kazakhstan, Russia, Crimea, the Caucasus, Western Siberia, Khorezm and other lands subject to the Horde were involved in the higher-level financial system of the Golden Horde empire. The conquerors created an effective, centuries-old yamskaya system of communications and a network of postal organizations in a significant part of Eurasia, including on the territory of Kazakhstan and Russia.

The legacy of the Golden Horde was the custom (although not always throughout the history of Russia) not to assimilate new lands conquered or included without bloodshed in the Russian Empire, not to change the life, religion and language of the subject peoples.

On the territory of Kazakhstan, after the collapse of the Golden Horde, first Kok-Orda and Ak-Orda were formed, and then the Uzbek ulus, the immediate predecessor of the Kazakh Khanate, where the legacy of the empire of Genghis Khan manifested itself in the socio-political structure of the Kazakh society, the upper class of which were the descendants of Genghis Khan in the male line - Genghisides, and the Yasa of Genghis Khan - a set of Mongolian laws of the 13th century, may have become part of the "Zhety-Zhargy" - a monument of the law of the Kazakhs of the 17th century.

The origins of the institution of Chingizids lead to the 13th century in the Great Mongol ulus, created by Genghis Khan and repeating the situation of the birth of a new power elite of its predecessor, the Turkic Kaganate of the 6th century, when a ruling class appeared, no longer associated with any one tribe.

In the Great Steppe, in the empire of Genghis Khan and the states of his heirs, a stable tradition of succession to supreme power prevailed for many centuries to come. At the very top were those groups of military nobility who were genealogically connected with the Golden Family.

Genghisides were a supra-tribal grouping of the highest aristocracy, which regulated the system of power relations within the states - the heirs of the Mongol Empire.

One of the new ethno-political communities was the Kazakhs, whose birth as a people is inextricably linked with the era of the collapse of the steppe empire, the final chord of whose existence was the fall of the Golden Horde. Having retained many principles of the political and ideological organization of the empire, the Kazakh society developed, however, under the influence of other impulses generated by the changed conditions of the geopolitical environment, which will be discussed below.

The history of this decisive stage, when the Kazakh, Nogai, Crimean Tatar and, to a certain extent, other Turkic ethnic groups of the Volga region, Central Asia and the Caucasus, as well as their states, were formed from the mass of fragmented Kipchak tribes, this history cannot be known, understood and evaluated without knowledge of the structure and the core of power, which was the class of Chingizids, not only in the Kazakh Khanate, but also in other successor states of the Golden Horde.

In an effort to organize their own needs and interests, by the force of historical necessity, Genghisides - the steppe elite of those times, became a powerful factor in the consolidation of the fragmented nomadic world, accompanied by the division and redistribution of the Golden Horde heritage, which determined the political and ethnic fate of the post-Horde space for centuries.

As in the Kazakh Khanate, so in other successor states of the Golden Horde, the descendants of Genghis Khan had the right to the throne. In the Crimean Khanate, Chingizids ruled for all the centuries of its existence. Girey, the same picture can be observed in the Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian (on the Tobol) khanates, as well as in Khiva. The Nogais, Karakalpaks, Bashkirs and Kyrgyz did not have their Chingizids and invited, for example, the Kazakh Chingizids to reign. The ethnic or, in modern terms, "national" face of the Genghisides did not play a significant role. Such was the strength of tradition in the vast expanses of Eurasia, which were once part of the vast Mongol empire.

The Kazakh Khanate was a typical nomadic state in which the traditions of the Mongol Empire continued to live. The state of the Kazakhs was considered as the property of the entire reigning family and was divided into many large and small possessions.

Management was in the hands of the Genghisides, for whom the term "sultan" is used. Sultans - Genghisides constituted the highest class of the social hierarchy - ak-suyek (white bone); only the sultan could be proclaimed khan.

The traditional decimal military-organizational principle of the division of the armed forces of nomads, which originated among the Sunnu and Huns, was widespread among the ancient Turks and in the uluses of the Naiman and Kireites of the KhP and the beginning of the 13th centuries, which flourished in the military organization of Genghis Khan and his first heirs, is repeatedly recorded and in the military structure of the Kazakhs during the periods of their military consolidation and strengthening of the central power in the Kazakh society, although it seemed to be of an episodic nature.

The Mongol conquests and their consequences represent the last pages of the Kazakh Middle Ages. Although the Mongols brought their own social structure to the Kazakh steppes, already at the turn of the 13th-14th centuries. they accepted Islam and then mixed up, intermarried with the Kipchaks, and they all became exactly Kipchaks, - as the Arab chronicler Al-Omari writes. And the Turkic tribes of the Kypchaks were the main population of the Eurasian steppes from the Irtysh to the Dniester and Danube, including in the expanses of Kazakhstan.

These two centuries of the Golden Horde played a particularly prominent role in the history of Kazakhstan. Kazakh late medieval statehood undoubtedly developed on its own basis and was the fruit of the revived traditions of the ancient Turkic statehood, which had a huge impact on the creation of the empire of Genghis Khan and his heirs, and the Golden Horde or the Ulus of Jochi is a clear confirmation of this.

Being part of the Golden Horde, the peoples subject to this empire did not stop in their development. The paths of this development were radically changed, which eventually led Russia, for example, to the acceptance of the baton of hegemony in the Eurasian state from the Golden Horde, when by the end of the 15th century, Russia, represented by the Muscovite state, became the decisive force in the great competition of the “heir kingdoms” of the Golden Horde, to which, along with the above-mentioned Turkic states, among which the Crimean yurt was the most formidable rival of Moscow, the Kazakh Khanate also belonged.

In the XVI century. although there was a steady increase in the power of the Moscow sovereigns, who by force of arms swallowed up such fragments of the Golden Horde as the Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian (on the Tobol) khanates, the Muscovite state experienced a strong onslaught from the Crimean Khanate, but which was then powerful Ottoman Empire. The Crimean-Tatar hordes reached the outskirts of Moscow and even captured Alexandrovskaya Sloboda - the residence of the winner of Kazan, Astrakhan and the Siberian Khanate on the Tobol - the first Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. This struggle for hegemony in the Eurasian heritage of the Golden Horde dragged on until the end of the 17th century, when the Muscovite state stopped paying tribute, though irregular, of the so-called "commemoration" to the Crimean Khanate. And this happened during the reign of Tsar Peter I, who transformed the Muscovite state into the Russian Empire.

Having become a part of the historical past, this rivalry left a memory of itself in the form of numerous Russian princely families of Turkic origin, the origins of the formation of which date back both to the time of the Golden Horde and to a later era, when, after its collapse during the XV-XVII centuries. in the post-Horde space, a new balance of political forces was emerging in the struggle for the legacy of the Ulus Jochi in the form of two main “poles” of this struggle - the Russian state, which evolved over three centuries from the Grand Duchy of Moscow to the Russian Empire, and the Crimean yurt (whose power was largely due to the support and allied relations with the Ottoman Empire), to which, one way or another, the Nogai Horde, Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian (on the Tobol) and Kazakh Khanates gravitated.

One of the forms of gravity was the so-called departures of Turkic aristocrats, respectively, to Moscow or Crimean possessions. The Moscow sovereigns provided the cities for food to immigrants from the East and demanded the performance of military service. Under the Turkic nobles, their squads were left, unborn emigrants from the steppe were allowed to settle in their destinies. At various times, the Tatars were assigned Kashira and Serpukhov, Zvenigorod and Yuryev-Polsky; Romanov was allocated to people from the Nogai Horde, and people from the khanates ruled by the Jochids, which include the Kazakh Khanate, were given gorodets-Meshchersky or Kasimov with adjacent lands. Long-term subordination to the Golden Horde developed in Russia a strong reverence for the Jochids, a dynasty that ruled in the Horde and most of the hereditary khanates. The nobility of the Turkic migrants allowed them to claim the highest places in the structure of the Russian state, to be considered "the honor of the boyars is higher." In the "Discharges" (paintings of the governors on the shelves), "serving tsars" and "princes" are always mentioned after the Russian sovereign and his sons and before (or along with) the highest representatives of the Moscow nobility.

The influence of the serving Turkic nobility on the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated. Natives of her environment even became "sovereigns of all Russia", both nominal and real. The first case includes the so-called “renunciation” of the Russian throne by Ivan the Terrible in favor of the baptized Tatar prince Chingizid Simeon Bekbulatovich, who for a short period of time became the nominal ruler of Muscovy without real power. But there were also true rulers. Such as the descendant of the Horde Chet-Murza, the Russian Tsar Boris Godunov - “Tatar, infidel, son-in-law of Malyuta,” as A.S. wrote about him. Pushkin. And Tsar Ivan the Terrible was Genghisides by his mother, the baptized Tatar Elena Glinskaya, and this circumstance was used by him in the conquest of Kazan, in the struggle for the Kazan throne.

The regiments of serving Tatars played a decisive role in the victory of the Moscow sovereign Ivan III over Novgorod, Moscow's last rival in the struggle for supremacy over Russia. There were many baptized Tatars in the immediate circle of Ivan the Terrible, who zealously served the Russian throne. It is assumed that these included influential favorites of Grozny and prominent political figures of that era, father and son - Alexei and Fyodor Basmanov. the above-mentioned head of the oprichnina and the “right hand” of Tsar Malyuta Skuratov, the “shoulder master”, one of the most sinister characters in Russian history. Important services to the Russian monarchy were rendered by the descendants of the Nogai biys - the princes Urusovs and Yusupovs. Prince Peter Urusov, the son of Murza Ismail, led the conspiracy and killed the impostor Tsar False Dmitry II, and Prince Felix Yusupov participated in the murder of the favorite of Tsar Nicholas II and his wife, Grigory Rasputin. The Kazakh sultan Oraz-Muhammed received Kasimov and his district from Boris Godunov for service to the Russian throne and fully shared the fate of Russia in the "troubled time" of its history, having fallen at the hands of False Dmitry II. A well-known character in Russian history is the conqueror of Siberia Yermak, who is considered to be a Nogai Cossack in the Russian service.

The policy of the Russian Empire towards the nomadic peoples and the states-heirs of the Golden Horde, until they became subjects of the Russian crown, in particular the Bashkirs, Nogais, Kazakhs, Crimean Tatars, in many respects bore the stamp of fear, in any case, until the beginning of the 19th century, from the time of the Golden Horde domination before the possible unification of these peoples. The final point in this centuries-old competition in favor of the Russian state was set at the end of the 18th century, when the last Turkic states - the heirs of the Golden Horde - the Nogai Horde, the Kazakh and Crimean Khanates became part of the Russian Empire. Only the Khiva Khanate remained outside the Russian control on the territory of the Khorezm oasis. But in the second half of the 19th century, Khiva was conquered by Russian troops and the Khiva Khanate became a vassal principality within Russia. History has made another turn in a spiral - everything has returned to normal. The Eurasian power was reborn, albeit in a different guise.

RESULTS

1. The state of the Golden Horde, which existed in the 13th-16th centuries in most of the territory of today's Russia and a number of CIS countries, left a rich cultural and historical heritage that had a significant impact on the formation and fate of many indigenous peoples of Eurasia. This is one of the cornerstones of the history of our Fatherland.

3. Despite the fact that most of the cultural and historical heritage of the Golden Horde has been lost forever, today the population, in repositories and funds, there are still many evidences of that era that are still inaccessible to researchers. In addition to existing institutions, their collection, recording and study could be facilitated by museums specialized in national or Turkic subjects, archives, libraries, second-hand bookshops, etc. It should be noted that in Moscow, in the capital of a multinational state, in the largest world scientific center, where more million of the population belongs to the Turkic group of peoples, the absence of such cultural objects leads to the loss of the most valuable books, documents, paintings, art products from private and public collections. In addition, the shortage of competent specialists leads to a systematic underestimation of the unique objects of ancient Turkic culture, which, without a doubt, harms the cultural heritage of both our countries and all of humanity.

Bibliography:

1. History of Little Russia. D.N. Batysh-Kamensky, Kyiv, 1993, Chas Publishing House.

2. Golden Horde: myths and reality. V.L. Egorov, Moscow, 1990, Knowledge Publishing House.

3. The Golden Horde and its fall - B.D. Grekov, A.Yu. Yakubovsky, Moscow, 1950, Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

4. Ancient Russia and the great steppe. L.N. Gumilyov, Moscow, 1992.

5. The Golden Horde and its Eurasian successors. A.Sh. Kadyrbaev, A., Kazakhstan – Spectrum, pp. 91-100.

The highest point of the military power of the Golden Horde was the time of Uzbek Khan (1312-1342). His power was equally authoritative in all the lands of his vast possessions. According to Ibn-Arabshah, an Arab historian of the 15th century, caravans from Khorezm passed on carts quite calmly, “without fear and apprehension”, to the very Crimea for 3 months. There was no need to carry either fodder for the horses or food for the people accompanying the caravan. Moreover, the caravans did not take guides with them, since in the steppes and agricultural regions there was a dense nomadic and agricultural population, from which everything you needed could be obtained for a fee.

After the death of Uzbek Khan, the situation in the Ulus of Jochi began to gradually change. Firm order began to be undermined by dynastic strife, which took on the character of complex feudal unrest.

The last year of firm power and peace in the Golden Horde should be considered 1356, when Janibek Khan (1342-1357) captured Azerbaijan and its capital Tabriz. Janibek Khan handed over to his son Berdibek the governorship in Azerbaijan, and he himself went home to his capital. On the way, he fell ill and, before reaching, he died. Most sources - Muslim and Russian - believe that he was killed on the initiative of his son Berdibek.

The patriarchal, or Nikonovskaya, chronicle under 6865 (1357) tells: “The same summer, the jam in the Horde didn’t stop, but even more raised ... Berdibek sat on him on the kingdom, and killed his brothers 12; godly prince, and our teacher and well-wisher Tovlubiy, we instruct our father to kill and beat our brother .. ".

Berdibek's candidacy, as can be seen from the circumstances of his accession to the throne, was not supported by all the emirs close to the court. The main feudal forces were set in motion with some exceptional speed. Civil strife began in the Golden Horde, and with it the disintegration quite recently, it seemed, of such a strong state. Dissatisfaction with Berdibek among the military nobility of the Golden Horde was very great, and he was killed by Kulna, one of the contenders for the khan's throne. Written sources say that Berdibek reigned for only three years, although this is contradicted by numismatic data. It is customary to consider the reign of Berdibek from 1357 to 1359.

In 762 h. (1361) Kulna was killed by Navruz, also his brother. For twenty years - from 1360 to 1380, that is, the year Tokhtamysh came to power in the Golden Horde, more than 25 khans fought among themselves. The names of these khans are known to us from Muslim sources and Russian chronicles, but mainly from coins. It is quite characteristic that the Russian chronicles reflect with greater completeness than the Muslim chronicles the events of this twenty years in the Golden Horde.

In 1361 Nauruz was killed. according to the author of the Nikon chronicle, “The same summer [in 6868 = 1360-1361], a certain Zayaitsky king Khidyr came from the East to the kingdom of the Volozhsk army, and there was flattery in the princes of the Ordinsky Volozhsky kingdom; and began to secretly refer to Khidyrem, the king of Zayaitsky, slyly to his Volozhsky king Naurus. As a result of these secret negotiations, Nauruz was handed over to Kidir, who killed him and his wife, Khansha Taidula, and with them those Golden Horde "princes" who were loyal to Nauruz.

The Time of Troubles in the Horde turned out to be very beneficial for Russia. The rival khans themselves began to need the support of the Russian and Lithuanian princes, as a result of which different groups appeared among the Tatar applicants, seeking links either with Moscow, or with the Suzdal princes, or with Lithuania.

Khyzr, apparently, sought to create a firm order in the horde, energetically intervened in the affairs of Russia, sent three ambassadors there and summoned the Grand Duke of Moscow Dimitri Ivanovich, who later received the nickname Donskoy. At the same time, other Russian princes also visited the Horde - Grand Duke Andrei Konstantinovich of Suzdal from Vladimir, his brother from Nizhny Novgorod, as well as Prince Konstantin of Rostov and Prince Mikhail Yaroslavsky. Khyzr (Kidyr), however, failed to stop the turmoil and create the necessary order in the state, since he, along with his youngest son, fell victim to a conspiracy organized by Temir-Khozei, i.e. Timur-Khodja, the eldest son of Khyzr. Timur-Khodja reigned for only 5 weeks.

Having rebelled against the khan's power, Mamai declared Avdula (Abdallah) from the descendants of Uzbek Khan as khan and, acting on his behalf, launched a decisive offensive against Timur-Khoja. According to the chronicler, at this time "there was war and confusion in the Horde." Timur-Khodja, hiding from Mamai, ran across the Volga and was killed.

The master of the situation in the Horde was Mamai, who, not being a Genghisid, could not accept the title of khan and was satisfied with the actual power, and for decoration he got himself a dummy khan in the person of the aforementioned Avdul (Abdallah). According to the Nikon chronicle, this happened in 1362. The urban centers of the Volga region, especially Sarai Berke, only for a short time belonged to Abdallah and the patron of the Temnik Mamai. Mamai had to fight for a long time in the Golden Horde for the unity of power.

At one time, Mamai and Abdallah had a strong rival in the person of Kildibek, whom the chronicle mentions. Judging by the chronicle and monetary data, Kildibek was killed in 1362. The Rogozhsky chronicler tells the following about the circumstances of the death of the latter: ".

The aforementioned Murat captured the capital of the Golden Horde - Sarai. Entire regions began to fall away from the Golden Horde state. “Bulat Temir, prince of the Horde, took the Bulgarians, and caught all the cities on the Volz and uluses and took away the entire Volozhsky path.” The retreat of the Bolgars, together with the seizure of the Volga trade and military route into the hands of Bulat-Temir (Pulad Temir), of course, dealt a heavy blow to the unity of the Golden Horde. Following this, another prince of the Horde "Togay, ilk from Bezdezh, that ubo Naruchad took the whole country and stayed there about himself." Under the naruchad land, one must understand the area that lay on the Moksha River and was inhabited by the Mordvins.

The chronicler vividly describes the dual power that took place, judging by the coins, from 762 (= 1360-1361) to 764 (= 1362-1363) AH. inclusive. “There were two kings in the Volga kingdom at that time: Avdula was the king of the Mamaev Horde, his prince Mamai made a tsar in his Horde, and another king Amurat with the Saransk princes. And so those two kings and those two Hordes, small world having, among themselves in enmity and warfare. "Berke's barn clearly passed from hand to hand.

Murida in 764 AH. he was killed by the chief emir Ilyas, the son of Mogul-Buki mentioned in the Russian chronicle. The Saran throne was then seized by Aziz Khan, the son of Timur-Khoja, the grandson of the Horde-Sheikh. He also reigned as a rival of Abdallah for three years, from 766 to 768 AH. (= 1364-1367).

Mamai and his dummy khan, Abdallah, had rivals all the time. After the death of Aziz Khan (Aziz Khan was also killed), in the Golden Horde, except for Abdallah, he minted coins during 767-768. X. (= 1365-1367) Janibek II.

Mamai with his dummy khan Abdallah in the late 60s of the XIV century. took over. The Nikon chronicle under 6878 (1370) notes that "Prince Mamai Ordynsky planted another king Mamat Saltan in his Horde." He minted his coins in the Horde, Khadzhi Tarkhan (Astrakhan), New Madjar and New Crimea. We do not find a single coin minted in N. Saray or Gulistan. The latter circumstance definitely indicates that Mamai, despite his successes, was unable to completely seize the capital of the state, Sarai Berke, to the end of his power.

It has already been noted above that in Russia they vigilantly followed the “disturbance (distemper) in the Golden Horde. The most far-sighted princes were well aware that there was a weakening of Tatar power, which must be used in order to, if not complete liberation, then alleviate the hardships of the Tatar yoke. Carefully reading the annals, the researcher's eye, through the thick of all sorts of minor feudal troubles and clashes, can see a healthy process of unification, which, under the pressure of the iron logic of the struggle against the Tatar oppression and under the leadership of the energetic Moscow prince Dimitri Ivanovich, accelerated every year. Dimitri Ivanovich, later nicknamed Donskoy, ascended the Moscow throne in 1362, having only 11 years.

In the hands of Murid (Amurat), the rival of Mamai and Abdallah, were the lands and cities along the Volga, especially on its left bank, hence both capitals - Sarai Berke and Sarai Batu, as well as the steppes to the east of the Volga. Under Khan Murid, Northern Khorezm with the city of Urgench completely broke away from the Golden Horde and, under the rule of the local Sufi dynasty from the Kungrat tribe, led an independent policy and minted its own coin. If we take into account that the Bolgars and Naruchaty (a region on the Moksha River) also became virtually independent, and besides, the rival of Mamai and Murid Kildibek minted his coins in New Saray in 762-763. X. (= 1360-1362), it will become clear that the khan, who was sitting in Sarai, could not have special authority in Moscow.

That is why Dimitri Ivanovich, using the support of Mamai, lays claim to the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. For his part, in order to weaken Demetrius, Abdallah's rival Murid (Amurat) confirms the rights to the Vladimir principality of Dimitri Konstantinovich of Suzdal. The forces of the two Dimitriev were unequal, and the young Muscovite prince not only managed to force Dimitri Konstantinovich to hand over Vladimir to him, but also persuaded him to abandon the protection of Murid, and together with him temporarily recognize the suzerainty of Mamai. In the form of compensation, Dimitri Ivanovich handed over Nizhny Novgorod to the Suzdal prince, which they together captured from Prince Boris Konstantinovich.

Mamai temporarily subjugated the Bulgarians, also temporarily captured Hadji Tarkhan (Astrakhan) and held the North Caucasus in his hands; however, Mamai never subjugated the main part of the Golden Horde - the agricultural strip of the Volga region and its rich cities.

In the period from 773g. X. (= 1371-1372) and until Tokhtamysh appeared on the historical scene, the turmoil not only did not stop, but even more intensified. The Russian chronicle under 6881 (1373) briefly, but very expressively, notes the following: “The same summer in the Horde, it was noticeable, and the princes of Orda-skia beat the former between themselves, and the Tatars countless fall; so the wrath of God will come upon them because of their iniquity.”

Monetary materials give three rival khans for the first half of the 70s:
1) Tulunbek-khanum, a khansha who minted coins in New Saray under 773 kh. (= 1371-1372);
2) Ilban, Khan, who beat coins in Saraichik, in the lower reaches of the Ural (Yaik) River in 775 AH. (= 1373-1374);
3) Ala-Khoja, who also minted coins in Saraichik in 775 AH. (= 1373-1374).

Stopping on the events in the Golden Horde in 776 kh. (= 1374-1375), Ibn-Khaldun writes: “There were also several other Mongol emirs who shared in the management of possessions in the vicinity of Sarai; they did not agree with each other and ruled their possessions independently: this is how Hadji-Cherkess took possession of the environs of Astrakhan, Urus Khan took possession of his destinies; Aibek Khan in the same way ... Hadji-Cherkes, the owner of the Astrakhan inheritances, went to Mamai, defeated him and took Saray from him"

In the second half of the 70s, shortly before the appearance of Tokhtamysh in the Volga region, Arabshah was also active, whose coins were minted in New Saray in 775 and 779. x., i.e., from 1373 to 1378. The Nikon chronicle: “The same summer (1377, - A. Ya.), a certain prince, named Arashna, fled from the Blue Horde beyond the Volga, to the Mamaev Horde of the Volga, and beta Tsarevich Arapsha is superbly aligned, and the warrior is great and courageous and strong, but with his bodily age he is weakly small, courage, great and defeat many and desire to go to Novgorod Nizhny Novgorod.

At his own risk and fear, without any contact with other rival khans, including Mamai (a dummy khan at that time - Mohammed-Bulak), Arabshah in 1377 set off on a campaign against Russian lands, towards Nizhny Novgorod, defeated Russian troops and knitted the city.

Apparently, Arabshah played a role in the Golden Horde for only one more year, since coins with his name, minted in New Saray, are found under 779 AH. (= 1377-1378). Arabshah's rival in the Volga region was another khan, also of Ak-Orda origin and also belonging to the Sheyban branch of the Jochid dynasty. The name of this khan, judging by the coins, is Kagan-bek, and according to the unknown Persian author of the 15th century mentioned above. — Kaan-bek. Several coins of 777 AH have come down to us from him, beaten in New Sarai, which he apparently owned for a very short time, hardly the whole of that year.

Summing up what was done in the 70s in the Golden Horde, we can briefly say the following. No matter how much Mamai tried to subjugate the entire Golden Horde, he failed. He never mastered the Volga region, and only for a very short time was the master of Astrakhan and the Bolgars. In the main, the rich Volga region remained with the rival khans, for the most part from the Ak-Orda branch of the Jochid dynasty. These khans did not stay on the throne for more than three years, they were at enmity with each other - and yet they were strong enough not to give the Volga region to Mamai.

Mamai began to prepare for a campaign against Russia not in terms of a simple predatory raid, as Arabshah did in 1377, but with the aim of decisively weakening and re-subjugating Russia. Mamai's campaign against Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow in 1378 should be considered as an attempt as a test of such an offensive. It is known that he managed to take and rob Nizhny Novgorod, but his troops were not allowed to enter Moscow. Dimitri Ivanovich drove the army of the Horde Prince Bigich sent by Mamai across the Oka River. On the river Vozha there was a clash between the Russians and the Tatars. This time the Russians won a complete victory.

In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place, Russia won - but it was a Pyrrhic victory.

Ever since the beginning of the XIV century. Ulus Jochi broke up into two states - Kok-Orda and Ak-Orda, of which the latter was in vassal dependence on the former. After the separation of Ak-Orda, the term Golden Horde is applied mainly to the lands of Kok-Orda.
Mubarek-Khoja (720-745) began to mint his own coin, i.e., we can say that he proclaimed his independence from the Golden Horde. Mubarek was expelled by Uzbek-khan, Uzbek-khan sent his son Tinibek to Sygnak as a khan in order to unite the White and Golden Horde in one khan's family. Tinibek was the White Horde Khan for a short time - shortly after the death of Uzbek Khan, he was killed by his brother Janibek, who saw him as his main rival - a pretender to the Khan's throne in the Golden Horde. Janibek Khan, after the death of Mubarek-Khoja and the murder of Tinibek, intervened in the affairs of the succession of the Ak-Orda throne and planted Chimtai (745-762), the son of Erzen.

After Chimtai, the throne in Ak-Orda passed to Urus Khan, who ruled from 763 to 782 AH, i.e. from 1361 to 1380. He declared himself a Sovereign Sovereign, but also invited the Uzbek nomadic nobility to intervene at the kuriltai in the affairs of the Golden Horde. Tui-khodzha oglan strongly opposed, for this lack of sympathy and disobedience Tui-khodzha oglan was executed. He had a son, Tokhtamysh, who in 1376 fled to Samarkand, to Tamerlane. In the mid-70s, Urus Khan already owned Haji Tarkhan (Astrakhan), from where he expelled the Khoja Cherkes mentioned above. After some time, he moved up the Volga and reached Sarai, which passed first into the hands of Aibek, the rival of Khoja Cherkes, and then Karikhan, the son of Aibek. In 776 h. (= 1374-1375) Urus Khan took Saray from Kirikhan and soon began to beat his coins there, which is evident from the coinage that has come down to us with his name in Sarai with the date 779 AH. (= 1377-1378).

In 776 h. (= 12 VI 1374 - 2 VI 1375) Tokhtamysh, with the support of Tamerlane, went against the son of Urus Khan. The son was killed, but Tokhtamysh was defeated. Tamerlane gave more troops, Tokhtamysh was defeated again. Urus-Khan demanded that Tamerlane hand over the rebel Tokhtamysh to him, threatening war otherwise. In the spring of 778, x. (= 1376-1377) Timur again went on a campaign against Urus Khan with a large army, but did not have a decisive clash with Urus Khan, since the latter died during the campaign. The eldest son of Urus-Khan Toktakiy sat on the Ak-Horde throne, but soon he died. The throne passed into the hands of Timur Melik Oglan. Timur again transferred command to Tokhtamysh, and again the latter was defeated. Timur at the end of 778 kh. (= 21 V 1376 - 8 V ​​1377) sent Tokhtamysh for the fourth time to get the throne of Saganak. This time Tokhtamysh turned out to be the winner and proclaimed himself the Khan of the White Horde. Winter 778 AH. Tokhtamysh spent time in Ak-Orda, putting affairs of government in order, establishing good relations with the most powerful and authoritative representatives of the military-feudal nobility and gathering a large and good army. In the spring of 779 h. (= 1377-1378) he had already entered the Volga region, where, apparently, he quickly took possession of Saray Berke and other cities located on the left bank of the Volga.

Let's go back to Mom. Almost immediately upon returning home, he began to gather as many soldiers as possible on the territory subject to him for a new campaign against Russia. However, he did not get the opportunity to achieve revenge. Tokhtamysh opposed him. Mamai was defeated, fled and was later killed in the Cafe.

Only Khorezm did not enter the newly unified Golden Horde state, which, as is known, actually passed into the hands of Timur.

From the very first days of his reign as the All-Horde Khan Tokhtamysh, “that same autumn, send your ambassadors to the Grand Duke Dmitry Ivanovich to Moscow, as well as to all the princes of Russia, telling them your coming to the Volga kingdom, and how reign and how your opponent and their defeat the enemy Mamai, and he himself went, sit on the kingdom of Volozhsk. According to the chronicle, "the whole land of Russkaa was by no means the governors and servants and all the hosts, and about this there was a great fear in the whole land of Russtey." Dimitry Donskoy "let your Kilicheians Tolbuga and Mokshia go to the Horde to the new Tsar Tokhtamysh of Volozhsk for gifts and a commemoration." In 1382 Tokhtamysh took and plundered Moscow. The struggle with the Muscovites greatly exhausted his army, and he, having taken a large tribute from the Tver prince, turned south and went to his Horde.

In the winter of 787 X. (12 II 1385-1 II 1386) Tokhtamysh took and ruined Tabriz - he went to spoil Tamerlane. Tokhtamysh undertook two campaigns against Timur, which did not end in battle.

Timur began his campaign against Tokhtamysh in the winter of 1390/91. On April 18, 1391, the battle took place. The battle was bloody, it was tense, with varying success in separate areas, but ended in the complete defeat of Tokhtamysh.

Tokhtamysh gathered strength, began the second campaign, and on April 15, 1395, one of the largest battles of that time began, which decided the fate of not only Tokhtamysh. but also the Golden Horde, in any case, its great power position. Tokhtamysh was defeated and fled. Directing Kairichak-oglan to the left bank, Timur then went to the Golden Horde city of Ukek (Uvek) and plundered it and its environs. Timur went to the western uluses of the Golden Horde towards the Dnieper (Uzi). Coming to the Uzi River, that is, to the Dnieper, Timur robbed and devastated the lands that were under the control of Bek-Yaryk-oglan, Emir Aktau and Timur-oglan. Turning to the river Tanu (Don), Timur unexpectedly moved north to the Russian cities and volosts. According to the Nikon chronicle, Timur invaded the Ryazan land with a huge army and captured the city of Yelets “and Prince Yelets floodplain, and captive people, and other huts. Grand Duke Vasily Dmitrievich, having learned about all this, gathered numerous regiments, marched towards the city of Kolomna and occupied the crossings across the Oka. Timur did not dare to clash with the Russians and, having robbed the Ryazan land, went south. With a lot of booty, Timur went to the Lower Volga region, to the city of Balchimkin. He moved through the lower reaches of the Don and on the way decided to capture the city of Azak (Azov). The latter was almost completely robbed. From Azov, Timur went to the Kuban. Having passed through Dagestan, Timur took Sarai Berke Astrakhan, gave the cities to the soldiers for complete plunder. The devastated capital of the Golden Horde was set on fire and. apparently burned down for the most part.

A careful consideration of the facts gives the right to say that Timur set himself the task of undermining the economic significance of the richest regions of the Golden Horde - the Crimea, the North Caucasus and the Lower Volga region. Timur sought to undermine the caravan trade between Europe and China through the lands of the Golden Horde. After the defeat of Tokhtamysh, markets and handicraft production began to decline sharply throughout this vast and recently still rich region.

Even S. Solovyov wrote: “After the defeat of Tamerlane, the Golden Horde was not dangerous to the Moscow prince for a long time; in the course of 12 years, the chronicler mentions three times only about the border skirmishes of the predatory Tatar detachments with the Ryazans: moreover, success for the most part remained on the side of the latter.

Timur-Kutlug, instigated by Idike-(Edigei), took advantage of the defeat of Tokhtamysh in 1395 and pursued an energetic policy, counting on the seizure of the khan's power in the Golden Horde. In 1398, “a certain king, named Temir-Kutluy, and the battle was great for him and slashing evil. And the king Temir Kutlui defeated the king Tokhtamysh and the banishment, and he himself sat in the kingdom of the Volga Bolln of the Horde, and Tokhtamysh the king fled to the Lithuanian countries. Vitovt tried to return the throne of the Horde to Tokhtamysh, but was defeated at Vorskla by Edigei.

With the coming to power of Timur-Kutlug (actually Edigei), the Golden Horde again strengthened for a short time, but this was only the last flash of the dying fire.

In 1400, according to the chronicle, “Tsar Temir Kutluy died in the Horde and Shadibek sat on him in the kingdom of Bolysh of the Volozhsk Horde.” Shadibek spent his whole life in pleasures and pleasures. Emir Edigei became the full master in the Golden Horde. He interfered in all affairs, he established order himself, and “out of liberty, people fell into constraint.” Shadibek did not like this situation, and he wanted to free himself from the despotic temporary worker. Edigey won in the ensuing struggle.

The place of Shadibek in the Golden Horde, according to the Nikon chronicle, was taken by Bulat-Saltan. In Eastern sources, he is known under the name of Pulad Khan. Yedigei did his best to raise the power and prestige of the Golden Horde, resorting to all means tested by the Tatars for this. Bulat-Saltan (Pulad Khan) demanded that the Russian princes, as before, travel to the Horde, receive labels for reigning from the hands of the khans, bring gifts, and resolve disputes with each other at the Golden Horde throne, like a supreme judge , etc. So, in the first year of the reign of Bulat-Saltan (Pulad Khan), that is, in 1407, a lawsuit took place on the issue of the great reign of Tver from Ivan Mikhailovich of Tver with Yuri Vsevolodovich of Tver, resolved by the khan in favor of the first.

Yedigey kindled Vasily Dimitrievich's enmity towards Vitovt, pushed him into a military clash, promised help “from the side of the Tatar army. Edigey got his way. Vaeliy Dimitrievich went on a campaign to Lithuania and took advantage of the Tatar detachment sent to help him. A stubborn struggle began between the two princes - Lithuanian and Moscow. As a result, both sides shed a lot of blood, lost many people, devastated cities and villages.

In December 1409, a large Tatar army led by Edigei attacked the Russian land. Edigei besieged Moscow, but to Edigei "at that time, from the Horde, Tsar Bulat-Saltan sent a quick message to him. Genghisid, who wanted to kill Bulat-Saltan and seize the Khan's throne. Edigei had to lift the siege of Moscow and, having received a ransom of 3,000 rubles, returned to the Volga with his troops.

Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily Dimitrievich began to prepare for a rebuff. According to information received by Yedigey, “Tokhtamyshev children” found shelter in Moscow. Vasily Dimitrievich clearly sought to use these Golden Horde princes against Edigei and Pulad Khan. Moreover, the Grand Duke of Moscow ceased to render any signs of attention to the Golden Horde envoys. This time things were going well for him. The “jam” in the Horde intensified, the sons of Tokhtamysh, led by Jalal-ad-din (Zeleni-Saltan), moved from Moscow to Lithuania, to Vitovt, for help.

In 1410, Pulad Khan (Bulat-Saltan) died, and Timur Khan, the son of Timur Kutlug Khan, who opposed Edigey, ascended the throne of the Golden Horde. Yedigei fled to Khorezm, where he arrived at the beginning of 814. (= 25 IV 1411-12 IV 1412). Here, the troops of Timur Khan besieged it for six months. At this time, news came that Jalal-ad-din, taking advantage of the absence of Timur Khan, seized power in the Golden Horde. Timur Khan was killed. Edigey defeated the army of Jalal-ad-din, but he was driven out of Khorezm two years later.

In 1412, according to the chronicle, “our evil enemy, the king of Zeleni Saltan Takhtamyshevich died, was shot in the war by his brother Kirim-Berdeyai. Kerim-Berdei failed to firmly seize power in the Golden Horde, as he had a rival in the person of his brother Kepek Khan.

Edigei went to Kyiv in 1416, and was killed in 1419 by one of the sons of Tokhtamysh - Kadir-Berdi, who, after the death of Kerim-Berdi, fought all the time with Edigei.

Troubles in the Golden Horde took on an increasingly chaotic character, when it is even difficult to establish which of the rival khans should be recognized as a truly leading figure. In fact, the Golden Horde ceased to be a single state with a central authority to which all Tatar uluses would be subordinate. To a certain extent, one could say that the Golden Horde in the former sense no longer existed, only Tatars, Tatar uluses, headed by khans from the house of Batu or Sheiban, that is, from the Golden Horde or the White Horde, remained. Edigei was the last of the Golden Horde rulers who not only aspired, but at one time actually carried out the former great power of Tatar power in Eastern Europe.

During these years of unrest and political anarchy, almost chaos, the Golden Horde was increasingly losing its positions in settled, agricultural areas. Khorezm under Ulugbek, as we saw above, left the hands of the Golden Horde khans for the second time, and this time forever. the Volga cities after their defeat by Timur in 1395 did not recover at all.

Moscow diplomats knew how to make an alliance with one of the rival khans and, with the help of such an ally, to weaken a more dangerous neighbor. After the death of Dimitry Donskoy, all his successors - Vasily I, Vasily the Dark, Ivan III - one better, the other worse, but all invariably led the course for complete liberation from Tatar dependence.

Even before the death of Edigei, in 1416, the fourth son of Tokhtamysh Khan, Jabbar-Berdi, seized power in the Golden Horde. Jabbar-Berdi fought vigorously and fell in battle in 1417.

After the death of Edigey, we see several rival khans in the Horde. Among them, first of all, Ulug-Muhammed should be noted. One of his early rivals was Davlet-Berdi, whose name also often appears in sources in the 1520s.

In 1423, Borak Khan defeated the troops of Ulug-Mohammed and, having seized his possessions, declared himself Khan. Lug-Muhammed fled to Lithuania, where he sought refuge and help from Vitovt. Ulug-Mukhammed appeared at the court of Vitovt at the end of 1424. Even before fleeing to Lithuania, Ulug-Mukhammed fled from the steppe to the north, towards Ryazan, another defeated Tatar Khan, the son of Tokhtamysh, the aforementioned Kepek Khan. Borak Khan defeated another Khan - the aforementioned Davlet-Berdi, who, together with his horde, migrated to the Crimea. This movement, as we saw below, was subsequently of great importance, since his relative Haji Giray in 1449 was the official founder of the Crimean Khanate.

Ulug-Muhammed, after serving time with Vitovt, managed to gather strength again and, apparently, not without the help of the Grand Duke, who was friendly to him, regained his position in the steppe. In any case, he managed to win back Sarai from Borak Khan. Borak Khan himself was killed in 1428 or 1429, either in battle or as a result of a conspiracy.

Vitovt died in 1430. Ulug-Muhammed in 1433 joined the grouping of Sigmund. Svidrigailo began to support a new contender for a leadership role in Desht-i-Kashchak. Said Akhmed, also the son of Tokhtamysh Khan, turned out to be this applicant. Vasily the Dark, who was well aware of the affairs of the Horde, quickly recognized Saiid Akhmed in order to weaken Ulug-Mohammed, who was hostile to him. Instead of the revived central khanate power, political chaos again set in, in which several rivals acted simultaneously - Ulug-Muhammed, Saiid Ahmed and the new pretender Kichik-Muhammed, son of Temir Khan.

Ulug-Muhammed (in the transcription of Russian chronicles Makhmet, Ulu-Makhmet) had to leave Desht-i-Kypchak and go to the upper Volga, where he captured the city of Belev in 1437. However, he failed to keep the city, since the Russian troops, gathered by Vasily the Dark, defeated the Tatars near Belev in 1438. Ulug-Mohammed lived near the Muscovite state and caused great trouble to Moscow during these years. So, in 1439, he set fire to the suburbs of Moscow, standing at the walls of the latter for ten days. A few years later we see him near Nizhny Novgorod. In the spring of 1445 he sent two of his sons against Vasily the Dark - Yusuf, whom the Russian chronicle calls Yakub-bom, and Makhmutek. On July 7, 1445, a battle took place at the Efimiev Monastery; Vasily the Dark was not only defeated, but also captured. However, he was not in captivity for long: Ulug-Muhammed let him go home for a huge ransom already on October 1 of the same year.

One way or another, but already in the first half of the XV century. we see the falling away from the Golden Horde of the two richest and most cultural regions - the Crimea and the Bolgars. The foundation of the Crimean and Kazan khanates meant that the Golden Horde turned almost entirely into a nomadic state. She now had, and even then only temporarily, the heavily affected Volga region from Kuibyshev to Astrakhan. In fact, it was the only agricultural and urban base of the Golden Horde.

The collapse of the Golden Horde was expressed not only in the indicated separation of the most cultural regions and the formation of independent kingdoms from them, but in the appearance of special Tatar vassal principalities on the territory of Russia and Russian lands subject to Lithuania: we mean the principality of Kasimov, vassal to Moscow, and the small principality of Jagoldai, located in the Kursk region, vassal to Lithuania and formed around 1438

The master of the situation in the 40s of the XV century. Said Ahmed was in the steppe. With his western neighbors, with Lithuania and Poland, he was on bad terms, and made systematic raids on them. Such are the campaigns of Saiid Ahmed against Podolia and Lvov in 1442, against Lithuania in 1444, and again against Podolia in 1447. An especially strong blow was dealt to Lithuania in 1449, when Saiid Ahmed helped the rebellious Lithuanian prince Mikhalushka - the grandson of Keistut - take Kyiv. Lithuania at that time was united with Poland and had, since 1447, sovereign Casimir IV in common with it.

Casimir IV was clearly looking for Saiida Ahmed in the Horde, if not a rival for the khan's title in Desht-i-Kypchak, then at least an enemy who could always be dangerous to him. He found such a person in the Crimea in the person of Haji Giray, who already holds de facto power there, but has not yet officially proclaimed himself an independent Crimean Khan. Not without the support of Casimir, this proclamation took place in 1449.

In the 1950s, we observe Saiid Ahmed's raids not only on Lithuania, but also on Moscow. The campaign of this Khan in 1451 against Moscow is known, which caused great ruin to the immediate environs of the city. During one of his campaigns against Lithuania, namely in 1455, Saiid Ahmed fought with the Kyiv prince Semyon Olelkovich. In this battle, he was defeated and even taken prisoner. Only in 1457 did he manage to escape from captivity. In 1459, we see Saiid Akhmed already at the head of the Tatar army against the Russians on the Oka, but this campaign did not bring any benefit to the Tatars, like the next campaign, in 1460, against Ryazan.

In 1462, Vasily the Dark died and Ivan III ascended the throne of Moscow, pursuing a smart and very energetic policy towards the Tatars of the Great or Great Horde, as they were mostly called in the 15th century. Russian sources of the Tatar Horde in Desht-i-Kypchak.

After an unsuccessful campaign against Russia in 1465, Saiid Ahmed leaves the historical stage, giving way to a new pretender to the khan's throne in the Great Horde - Ahmed, the son of Kichik-Muhammed, the most energetic among the khans who competed in Desht-i-Kypchak in the 15th century. . However, no matter how energetic Khan Ahmed was, his entire policy, as we will see below, was completely futile, because the balance of power between Russia and the Great Horde was clearly in favor of Moscow.

In 1476, the chronicler reports that Ahmed Khan attacked the Crimea and subjugated it, driving Mengli Giray away. In connection with these failures of Mengli Giray in the Crimea, it is necessary to place the embassy of Khan Ahmed in 1476 to Ivan III. In Moscow, the khan's ambassador named Bochuk appeared, along with him - merchants with many goods, mainly horses. The ambassador demanded the personal visit of Ivan III to the khan's headquarters, which in itself sounded like a long-forgotten relic and could not but offend the honor of the Russian sovereign. Ivan III, of course, refused to go and sent Bestuzhev in his place as ambassador. The return of Mengli Giray to power in the Crimea as a vassal of Turkey apparently took place in 1478. By the force of things, the Crimean Khan had to ally with Moscow against the Great or Great Horde of Khan Ahmed and against Casimir IV. Ivan III was well aware of the state of affairs in the south and, taking into account the further course of events, conducted relevant negotiations through his ambassador Ivan Zvenets with Mengli Giray, who occupied the khan's throne in the Crimea for the second time. In parallel, there were negotiations on an alliance with the other side. Ahmed Khan and Casimir IV were clearly preparing a joint attack on Muscovite Russia.

A huge coalition gathered against Moscow, which included Casimir IV, Ahmed Khan, the Livonian Order and the German cities of the Baltic states. Needless to say, how great was the danger hanging over the young Russian state. The Livonian Order and the German cities, although they distracted part of the Russian forces, were repulsed with great loss for themselves, especially the master near Pskov. Casimir IV had complications in Lithuania itself, as well as real threats from Mengli Giray, who kept Podolia at bay with the raids of his troops. These complications tied the hands of Casimir IV so much that he was unable to start active operations together with Ahmed Khan, when the latter set out on his famous campaign against Moscow in 1480.

It is well known that there was no battle on the tributary of the Oka Ugra, on both banks of which the opponents stood. Researchers have repeatedly raised the question of how to explain this fact. It seems to us that at the moment the picture is quite clear. Ivan III was waiting for the most favorable moment, wanting to receive information about the actions of Mengli Giray and the successful defense of Russian cities in the north. Ahmed Khan was waiting for help from Casimir IV.

After Ahmed Khan, who in 1481 was killed on the banks of the Donets in a battle with Aibek, the Horde more and more disintegrated into separate parts, and among the fighting khans, no one had the ability to create a strong state.

INTRODUCTION

We know perfectly well from school textbooks when political

map of the world appeared the largest state of Eurasia XIII - XIV centuries. -

Golden Horde - within the framework of which the spaces were united for the first time

the future Russian Empire and the ethnic groups that inhabit them - from the Danube in the west to

Altai in the east and from the White Sea in the north to the Caucasus and Khorezm in the south.

We know about the predatory tributes and the struggle of the conquered peoples. But herself

civilization of this state, sparkling as the brightest phenomenon of Eurasia and

found continuation in the post-Golden Horde Islamic states of Kazan,

Crimea, Astrakhan, Siberia, the Nogai Horde, remained in the shadows, since

archeology of the Golden Horde was in its infancy.

Only the outstanding Russian historian Academician M.N. Tikhomirov found in

the courage to declare the significance of the Golden Horde: “... after all, the Golden Horde -

a phenomenon of the global order, if by this world we mean Asia and Europe.

How, from the history of the peoples that were part of the Golden Horde,

throw out a whole big stage?

In addition, we have an extremely negative attitude towards

Mongol-Tatar yoke and everything connected with it. Yes, Horde

dominion was stubbornly declared the cause of the cultural isolation of Russia, although

specific sources of evidence about this are silent, and often even

a word to Prince Yaroslav Yaroslavich (1266-1270) indicates that

revival of public life in the second half of the 1950s and

the subsequent shifts in the historical science of the USSR had a favorable effect on

revival of interest in the history and archeology of the Golden Horde. It was at this time

(more precisely, in 1958) The Institute of Archeology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR began long-term

systematic studies of the capital of the Golden Horde, Saray-Berke (Tsarevsky

settlements near Stalingrad). This was made possible thanks to the civil

position of director of the Institute of Archeology, the largest Russian scientist-

archaeologist B. A. Rybakov. Over the years of intensive excavations of the Golden Horde

cities under the leadership of A.P. Smirnov and his student G.A. Fedorov-

Davydov, a whole scientific direction has developed - Golden Horde archeology.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of the Middle Ages,

whose possessions were in Europe and Asia. Its military power is constantly

kept all the neighbors in suspense and for a very long time no one

disputed. The monarchs of even remote countries sought to tie up with her

friendly relations and maintain them with all our might. Most

enterprising merchants traveled great distances to get into it

the capital, which was rightfully known as the largest trade base between the East and

West. Travelers and trade caravans carried around the world,

true stories and incredible legends about the peoples who inhabited the Golden

Horde, their peculiar customs and nomadic life, about the wealth and power of those who ruled

here khans, countless herds of cattle and endless steppes, where one could

not meet a single person for weeks. True and fictional stories

about a huge state of nomads continued to exist after

his disappearance.

And today, interest in him has not weakened, and his history has long been studied.

in many countries. But until now, in the assessment of many political and everyday

aspects of the life and history of the Golden Horde, there are the most opposite

opinions. And besides, it still exists in scientific works and

educational literature, and simply in the most common perception of history

a number of misconceptions or established stereotypes associated with the Golden

Horde. This refers to its territory and borders, the name of the state,

the presence of cities, the development of culture, the relationship between the concepts of "Mongols" and

"Tatars", some moments of political history, etc. Most of

widespread stamps about the Golden Horde arose in the past

century, and their existence is associated solely with the neglect of the study

this largely peculiar state.

The study of the Golden Horde in Soviet times was dominated by the judgment of

her as an oppressor state that does not deserve the attention of the Soviet

historians. The editors were especially careful and vigilant when

publication of stories on the Golden Horde themes. Any positive fact

attitude towards the state of the Mongols seemed unthinkable and was questioned.

It cannot be said that the Golden Horde has become a taboo topic in science, but

she was clearly undesirable. The political

conjuncture, when in the 60s Mao Zedong attributed all the Mongolian

13th century conquests the Chinese state, spreading its Western

limits to the Danube, although China itself was conquered by Genghis Khan and his sons,

and for many years was under the rule of the Mongols. But no matter what,

the Golden Horde theme was and remains one of the traditional in

historical science. Without knowledge of the history and ways of developing a huge, powerful,

in many ways unusual and in the full sense of the word a bloodthirsty state (only

several years of its existence were peaceful!) one cannot understand many aspects

the formation and growth of the countries of the Middle Ages, it is impossible to fully assess the course

political events in the XIII-XV centuries.

The dispute about the Eurasian heritage of the Golden Horde - a power that was formed in

as a result of the collapse of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan, in the territory

medieval Kazakhstan, as well as Russia, Crimea, the Volga region, the Caucasus, Western

Siberia, Khorezm, not only has not lost its topicality, but also flared up with a new

strength in our time. Evidence of this are the attempts of certain

officials and scientific circles of Tatarstan to attribute the historical heritage

Golden Horde exclusively to identification with the Kazan-Tatar ethnic group and

its history, which pretty much smacks of myth-making, since it has been scientifically proven

the origin of the Kazan Tatars from the Volga Bulgars, a Turkic ethnic group whose

statehood was crushed by the Mongols.

This "historical version" with a claim to the Golden Horde heritage

appeared literally before our eyes, and we are talking here rather about

constructing the past, based on the current political situation,

those. about the phenomenon called "the invention of traditions". Concerning

of considerable interest is the problem of the Golden Horde heritage

attitude towards other Turkic, and not only the Turkic peoples of Central Asia

and Eastern Europe.

And the origins of this problem go back to the Mongol era, since which

and this story begins. With all the tragedy, the era of the Mongol conquests

XIII century was not simple and unambiguous. This also applies to the complex

conglomerate as the empire of Genghis Khan and his successors, including

Golden Horde. Therefore, an absolutely negative attitude towards the Mongolian

conquest and everything connected with it, apparently, is not entirely legitimate. This

opinion, in particular, was held by such a serious researcher of this

eras such as V.V. Bartold, as well as L.I. Gumilyov. Created mainly in

as a result of bloody conquests, these empires later played and

certain civilizing role. After all, the creation of an empire with all the rejection

violence, blood - these are also attempts, although far from perfect, of humanity to

integration. Examples of this are not one Iran Achaemenid kings. power of Iskander

Zul-Qarnaina, Turkic Khaganate, Arab Caliphate, Byzantine,

French and British, Ottoman and Russian empires, but even that

brought the Mongol expansion. Created as a result of the campaigns of Genghis Khan and his

successors of the state, of which medieval Kazakhstan became a part, are

a colorful picture in every respect. Moreover, different observers

noted the emergence of much greater political stability after

the formation of these states throughout Eurasia from Eastern Europe to China, in

including, in the vastness of Kazakhstan.

In addition, the absence of spatial partitions within these

vast empires created an opportunity to bring together the peoples of Eurasia. cultures

Turkic, Slavic, Mongolian, Finno-Ugric, Iranian, Caucasian and

other peoples of Eurasia for a long time formed and developed,

being in a single system of connections, which brought them closer, determining in many respects

the similarity of their way of life mentality and led to the unification and

united multinational states, which were the empires of the descendants

Genghis Khan, such as the Golden Horde.

Therefore, only a negative view of them as "wild hordes" would be

historically unfair. The spectrum here is very diverse: corresponding

there must also be an attitude to the realities of life in all their true chiaroscuro and

essence of the consequences. We must understand the undeniable truth: in a calm

the study of the entire corpus of accumulated sources is the key to overcoming

negative phenomena in the historiography of the Golden Horde.

FORMATION OF THE GOLDEN HORDE

Historical background - GOLDEN HORDE (ULUS JUCHI), medieval

state in Eurasia, created by the Turkic-Mongolian tribes (in the eastern

Ulus Jochi sources). Founded in the early 40s of the XIII century by Batu Khan

(1208-1255), grandson of Genghis Khan as a result of aggressive campaigns

Mongols. The name of the state came from standing in its capital

magnificent tent, sparkling in the sun.

The Golden Horde included Western Siberia, Northern Khorezm,

Volga Bulgaria, North Caucasus, Crimea, Desht-i-Kipchak (Kipchak steppe

from the Irtysh to the Danube). The extreme southeastern limit of the Golden Horde was the Southern

Kazakhstan (now the city of Taraz), and the extreme northeast - the cities of Tyumen and Isker

(near the modern city of Tobolsk) in Western Siberia. From North to South Horde

stretched from the middle reaches of the Kama River to the city of Derbent. All this gigantic

the territory was quite homogeneous in terms of landscape - mostly

it was the steppe. The population of the Horde represented a variety of nationalities and

beliefs. The conquering Mongols did not make up the majority of the population. They are

dissolved in the mass of conquered peoples, mainly Turkic

origin, first of all, of the Kypchaks. The most important thing was

that the cultural zone on the Lower Volga turned out to be so close to

steppes, that it was easy to combine sedentary and nomadic economy. Main

Polovtsy remained the population of cities and the steppe. Also acted in the steppe

feudal law - all land belonged to the feudal lord, to whom they obeyed

ordinary nomads. All medieval cities located in the lower reaches of the Volga

and its channels, were eventually flooded with water, and the inhabitants had to

leave.

The capital of the Golden Horde - Saray-Batu (Old Barn) (Lower Volga,

Akhtuba river, settlement near the village of Selitrennoy, Kharabalinsky district, Astrakhan

region, Russia). The city was founded by Batu Khan in 1254. Destroyed in 1395

year of Tamerlane. Settlement near the village of Selitrennoye, left over from the first capital

Golden Horde - Sarai-Batu ("city of Batu"), striking in its size.

Spread over several hillocks, it stretches along the left bank of the Akhtuba for more

than 15 km.

Thirty years before the appearance of nomadic hordes under the walls of the Russians

cities, in 1206 on the banks of the Central Asian river Onon gathered

kurultai (congress), the steppe aristocracy. As often happens in history,

the question that he had to solve had long been clear to everyone

Temujin. All that was required was a formal legal act of approval

kagan (supreme ruler) of the new Mongolian state. AT

long, cruel, insidious and sophisticated struggle, Temujin managed

unite the disparate and warring Mongol nomadic tribes into a single

state. And in the eyes of the entire steppe, freed from exhausting bloody

tribal and tribal clashes, it was Temujin who was rightfully worthy of the title

supreme ruler. The most noble noyons (princes) of the steppe put him on

snow-white felt, raised to the eternal blue sky and approved by a common word

a title unheard of in the steppes so far - Genghis Khan.

The first lord of a united Mongolia created a hitherto unprecedented ten thousandth

personal protection; divided the entire population into tens, hundreds, thousands and tumens

(ten thousand), thus mixing the tribes and clans and appointing rulers

over them his devoted servants. Steppe internecine strife, robberies stopped

trading caravans, stealing cattle from neighbors and selling tribesmen in

slavery. All those living behind the felt walls of the yurts breathed freely and began

habitually manage the cycle of his life from the summer foothill pasture to

winter valley sheltered from the winds.

But less than five years have passed since the day of the kurultai, which declared Temujin

Genghis Khan, how Mongolian mothers escorted their sons from the thresholds of yurts,

poured to the glory of the kagan not at the native shores of Onon and Kerulen, but for many

days of travel from them to the south and west.

Until his death in August 1227, Genghis Khan managed to lay

the territorial basis of a new huge empire, which was made up not only

peoples who lived in the immediate vicinity of Mongolia, but also China and

Central Asia, and steppes west of the Irtysh. Death of a new pretender

to the possession of the whole world did not change the policy of his heirs. They are all

by force sought to fulfill the will of the founder of the dynasty - to distribute

his power wherever the hooves of the Mongol horses go. As a result

in the second half of the thirteenth century. vast expanses from the Pacific coast to

The Danube came under the rule of the Chingizids. Naturally, about the political and

the economic unity of all parts of such a giant was out of the question,

although for some period they tried to support him from the foundation founded by Genghis Khan

the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum.

But already in the 60s of the XIII century. the empire broke up into separate parts

(uluses). Its capital was moved from Karakorum to Khanbalik (the current

Beijing), and the ruling dynasty itself in the Chinese manner became known as Yuan.

In the steppes north of Lake Balkhash and the Aral Sea from the Irtysh to Yaik (Urals)

the ulus of the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi was spread. His successors are constantly

made attempts to expand their father's possessions, but they were not very successful

not achieved, apparently due to lack of strength.

The situation changed dramatically in 1235, when it was decided at the kurultai

provide powerful support to the sons of Jochi Orda-Ichen and Batu in the conquest

Of Eastern Europe. Their troops were reinforced by detachments of several more

Mongol princes and the best commander of Genghis Khan Subedei, who won

victory over the Russian-Polovtsian forces on the Kalka River in 1223. He led the entire

campaign the second son of Jochi Batu, who was called Batu in Russian chronicles. With

autumn 1236 this huge army devastated and bled the Volga

Bulgaria, Russia, Polovtsian nomads, Taurida, Poland, Czech Republic, Hungary and

in the spring of 1242, she reached the Adriatic coast, which caused panic at

the courts of the pope and even the French king. However, here the Mongols

suddenly stopped and began to slowly retreat to the east.

By the end of 1242, all their troops settled down for the winter in

Black Sea and Caspian steppes, known from Eastern chroniclers

called Desht-i-Kypchak. It was this territory that became the core of the future.

state known to us as the Golden Horde.

The countdown of its political history can be started from the very beginning of 1243

when the Ipatiev Chronicle reported that Batu “came back to eat from

Ougor" (Hungary) and when the Grand Duke Yaroslav was the first of the Russian

rulers arrived at the headquarters of the Mongol Khan for a label to reign.

In territorial terms, the Golden Horde is usually associated with

steppe expanses, entirely populated by nomads, and somewhere in the middle

endless steppes is the capital of the state - the city of Saray. Such

representation is true only partly and for a certain time. If a

estimate the total area, then the Golden Horde was undoubtedly the largest

medieval state. Arab and Persian historians of the XIV-XV centuries.

in total reported on its size in figures that struck the imagination

contemporaries. One of them noted that the length of the state extends to

8, and the width for 6 months of travel. Another slightly reduced the size: up to 6

months of travel in length and 4 - in width. The third relied on specific

geographical landmarks and reported that this country extends "from the sea

Constantinople to the Irtysh River, 800 farsakhs in length, and in width from

Babelebvaba (Derbenta) to the city of Bolgar, that is, approximately 600

farsakhs". Although these figures are impressive, they give only the most general

representation, covering just the belt of the Euro-Asian steppes and

confirming the prevailing stereotype.

Detailing the boundaries of the Golden Horde is associated with a clear insufficiency

information in written sources and therefore the necessary data have to be

collect literally bit by bit, also attracting archeological materials.

But first, two important points need to be made. First of all,

the territory of the state did not remain stable, changing over

the entire period of its existence; she then dwindled, then again

increased. Secondly, the specificity of the Golden Horde borders was that

that all the surrounding peoples tried to settle as far as possible from the regions

the habitat of the Mongols because of the understandable concern for their own safety.

As a result, “empty places” appeared along the perimeter of the Golden Horde nomad camps,

or, to use the modern term, no man's land.

In landscape terms, they usually represented transitional

forest-steppe regions. As a rule, they were used alternately then one,

then the other side for commercial purposes. For example, if summer

the Golden Horde grazed cattle here, then in winter the Russians were engaged in hunting.

True, it should be noted that such neutral zones are especially

characteristic only of the thirteenth century. - the period of greatest military aggressiveness

Mongols. In the XIV century. they gradually begin to settle down around the Golden

Horde by settled peoples.

The total territory of the state in the XIII century. outlined as follows

border lines. The eastern limits of the Golden Horde included areas

Siberia and Ibir with the border rivers Irtysh and Chulyma, which separated the possessions

Jochids from the metropolis. Outlying areas here were Baraba and

Kulunda steppes. The northern border in the expanses of Siberia was in

the middle course of the Ob River. About specific reference points of this line sources

are not reported, and one can only assume that it coincided with the natural

vegetative zone, which allowed cattle to graze. Southern border of the state

began in the foothills of Altai and passed north of Lake Balkhash, then

stretched west through the middle reaches of the Syr Darya, south of the Aral Sea, to

ulus of Khorezm. This area of ​​ancient agriculture was the southern ulus of the Golden

Hordes with the center in the city of Urgench. Khiva, located somewhat south of Urgench

no longer belonged to the possessions of the Golden Horde. Adjoining Khorezm from the north

west of the Ustyurt plateau and the Mangyshlak peninsula were also a nomadic zone of the Golden

Hordes. On the western coast of the Caspian Sea, a border town,

belonged to the Jochids was Derbent, which the eastern chronicles called

Iron Gates. From here the border stretched along the northern foothills -

Caucasus Range to the Taman Peninsula, which was completely part of

Golden Horde.

During the XIII century. the Caucasian border was one of the most

restless, since the local peoples (Circassians, Alans, Lezgins) have not yet been

completely subordinated to the Mongols and provided the conquerors with stubborn

resistance. The Tauride Peninsula was also part of the Golden Horde with

the beginning of its existence. It was after the inclusion in the territory of this

state, he receives a new name - Crimea, by the name of the main

cities of this ulus. However, the Mongols themselves occupied in the XIII-XIV centuries. only

northern, steppe, part of the peninsula. Its coast and mountain regions

represented at that time a number of small semi-dependent on the Mongols

feudal estates. The most important and famous among them were

Italian colonial cities of Kafa (Feodosia), Soldaya (Sudak), Cembalo

(Balaclava). In the mountains of the southwest there was a small principality of Theodoro,

the capital of which was the well-fortified city of Mangup.

Relations with the Mongols of Italians and local feudal lords

supported by brisk trade. But that didn't bother me at all.

Sarai khans from time to time attack their trading partners and

treat them as their own tributaries. West of the Black Sea border

state stretched along the Danube, without crossing it, to the Hungarian

the Turnu Severin fortress, which closed the exit from the Lower Danube lowland.

“The northern limits of the state in this area were limited to the spurs of the Carpathians

and included the steppe spaces of the Prut-Dniester interfluve.

It was here that the border of the Golden Horde with the Russian principalities began.

It passed approximately along the border of the steppe and forest-steppe. between the Dniester and

The Dnieper border stretched in the area of ​​\u200b\u200bmodern Vinnitsa and Cherkasy

areas. In the Dnieper basin, the possessions of the Russian princes ended somewhere between

Kyiv and Kanev. From here the border line went to the area of ​​modern

Don. To the east of the Ryazan Principality, from the Moksha River to the Volga, a forest stretched

massif inhabited by Mordovian tribes.

The Mongols had little interest in areas covered with dense forests, but,

despite this, the entire Mordovian population was completely under

control of the Golden Horde and was one of its northern uluses. About this with

sources of the XIV century testify to all concreteness. In the Volga basin

throughout the thirteenth century. the border passed north of the Sura River, and in the next

century, it gradually shifted to the mouth of the Sura and even to the south of it. Extensive

area of ​​modern Chuvashia in the XIII century. was completely under the control

Mongols. On the left bank of the Volga, the Golden Horde borderland stretched

north of Kama. Here were the former possessions of Volga Bulgaria,

which has become an integral part of the Golden Horde without any hint of

autonomy. The Bashkirs who lived in the middle and southern Urals also made up

part of the state of the Mongols. They owned in this area all the lands to the south

from the Belaya River.

GOVERNMENT OF THE GOLDEN HORDE

Having achieved the intended goals in the conquest of the countries of Eastern Europe,

Genghisides, led by Batu Khan, began organizing organs

administration of the conquered countries. "Being in the absolute minority -

indicates L.N. Gumilyov, - the Golden Horde Mongols did not have the opportunity

create a despotic regime. Therefore, the Horde led a confederation of local

ethnic groups held within the state by the threat of attack. AT

subordinate countries, the Mongols established their own administration, which

controlled the activities of local rulers and the collection of tribute by them. Head of this

administration was called "daruga" and at his disposal was an armed

Basque squad.

It is quite natural that the Mongols could not create a single ethnonosphere

the so-called "Tatar people", because this people did not exist.

The Kypchak kingdom, or the Golden Horde, as the Russians call it

historians, although it was a confederation of mainly Turkic ethnic groups, but to this

time, i.e. by the time of the Mongol conquest, they were already

independent development with its established ethnonoospheres.

Arab traveler Ibn-Batuta, who visited Saray-Berke in 1333

during the reign of Uzbek Khan, wrote: “The city of Sarai (one) is one of the most beautiful

cities, reaching extraordinary size, on level ground, overcrowded

people, with beautiful bazaars, and wide streets. It is inhabited by different

peoples, somehow: the Mongols are the (real) inhabitants of the country and its rulers:

some of them are Muslims: Ases (Bulgars - R.B.), who are Muslims,

Kipchaks, Circassians (Turks-Cherkasy - R.B.), Russians and Byzantines, who

Christians. Each nation lives separately in its own area: there are also bazaars

The main population of the Golden Horde were Kipchaks, Bulgars and Russians.

Before considering the state structure of the Golden Horde, it is necessary

find out the following essential point: what was the name of this state in

times of its existence. This question arises because none of the

The modern Golden Horde of the chronicle does not find such a name for it.

The well-known monograph by B. D. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky also does not give him

response. Three sides of the problem can be distinguished: what was the name of their state

the Mongols themselves, as the surrounding neighbors called it, and what name

established itself after him after the collapse. In all Mongolian states,

emerged in the 13th century, the ruling dynasties established themselves, descending from

Genghis Khan. The head of each of them considered the allotted to him or conquered

territory not as a state, but as a tribal possession. Kypchak steppes

received the eldest son of Genghis Khan Jochi, who became the founder of the ruling

here is a large family of Jochid. In full accordance with this

each of the khans who ascended the Sarai throne called their state

simply "ulus", that is, the people given to inheritance, possession. Khan's label preserved

Tokhtamysh, in which he calls his state the Great Ulus. Such

a magnificent epithet, emphasizing the power of the state, was used by other khans,

especially in diplomatic correspondence. As for the name

states of the Jochid representatives of European and Asian powers, then

here there was complete chaos. In the Arabic chronicles, it was most often called

the name of the khan who ruled at a certain moment, with the corresponding ethnic

clarification: "Berke, the great king of the Tatars", "Tokta, the king of the Tatars." AT

in other cases, a geographical specification was added to the name of the khan: “Uzbek,

ruler of the northern countries", "king of Tokta, owner of Sarai and lands

Kipchak”, “King of Desht-i-Kypchak Tokta”. Sometimes Arabic and Persian

the chroniclers called the Golden Horde the Jochi ulus, the Batu ulus, the Berke ulus,

ulus of Uzbek. Often these names were used not only

directly during the reign of one or another khan, but even after their

death (“Tsar Uzbek, ruler of the countries of Berke”). Those who traveled all over the Golden Horde

European travelers P. Carpini and G. Rubruk use for her

designations old terms "country of Komans" (i.e. Polovtsy), "Komania" or

give a too generalized name - "power of the Tatars." In a letter from the pope

Roman Benedict XII named the state of the Jochids Northern Tataria. AT

in Russian chronicles, the new southern neighbor was first designated with the help of

ethnic term. The princes go to "Tatars to Batyev" and return "from

And only in the last decade of the XIII century. appears and firmly

the new and only name "Horde" is approved, which existed

until the complete collapse of the Jochid state.

As for the now familiar name "Golden Horde", it

began to be used at a time when from the state founded by Batu Khan

there was no trace left. For the first time this phrase appeared in the "Kazan

chronicler", written in the second half of the 16th century, in the form of "Golden Horde" and

"Great Golden Horde". Its origin is connected with the khan's headquarters, and

more precisely, with a front yurt richly decorated with gold and expensive fabrics

khan. Here is how a 14th-century traveler describes it: “Uzbek sits in a tent,

called the golden tent, decorated and outlandish. It consists of

wooden rods covered with gold leaf. In the middle of it is a wooden

throne, overlaid with silver gilded sheets, its legs are made of

silver, and the top is studded with precious stones.

There is no doubt that the term "Golden Horde" existed in Russia in

colloquial speech as early as the 14th century, but in the annals of that period he never

appears. Russian chroniclers proceeded from the emotional load of the word

"golden", used at that time as a synonym for all that is good,

bright and joyful, which could not be said about the state

oppressor, and even inhabited by "nasty".

That is why the name "Golden Horde" appears only after

when all the horrors of Mongol rule were erased by time.

From the first year of its existence, the Golden Horde was not a sovereign

state, and the khan who headed it was also not considered an independent

ruler. This was due to the fact that the possessions of the Jochids, like others

Mongolian princes, legally constituted a single empire with a central

government in rakorum. The kagan who was here, according to one of

articles of the yasa (law) of Genghis Khan had the right to a certain part of the income from

all territories conquered by the Mongols. More than that, he had in these areas

property that belonged to him. The creation of such a system of close

interweaving and interpenetration was associated with an attempt to prevent

the inevitable disintegration of the vast empire into separate independent parts. Only

the central Karakorum government was competent to decide the most

important economic and political issues. The strength of the central government

the remoteness of her stay, which, perhaps, rested only on authority

Genghis Khan was still so great that the khans of Batu and Berke continued

adhere in relation to the Karakorum "the path of sincerity, humility,

friendship and unanimity.

But in the 60s of the XIII century. around the Karakorum throne flared up

internecine struggle between Khubilai and Arig-Buga. The victorious Kublai transferred

the capital from Karakorum to the territory of conquered China in Khan-balyk

(today's Beijing). Mengu-Timur, who ruled at that time in the Golden Horde,

who supported Arig-Buga in the struggle for supreme power, hastened

take advantage of the opportunity that presented itself and did not recognize Khubilai's right

supreme ruler of the entire empire, since he left the capital of its founder

and left to the mercy of fate the indigenous yurt of all Genghisides - Mongolia.

From that moment on, the Golden Horde gained complete independence in deciding

all issues of a foreign and domestic nature, and

the carefully guarded unity of the empire founded by Genghis Khan suddenly

exploded and she fell to pieces.

However, by the time of acquiring full political sovereignty in

The Golden Horde, of course, already had its own

an intrastate structure, moreover, to a sufficiently developed and

developed. There is nothing surprising in the fact that she is basically

copied the system introduced in Mongolia by Genghis Khan.

The basis of this system was the army decimal calculus of everything

the population of the country. In accordance with the army division, the entire state

divided into right and left wings.

In the ulus of Jochi, the right wing made up the possessions of Khan Batu,

stretching from the Danube to the Irtysh. The left wing was under his control

elder brother of the Khan of the Horde. It occupied lands in the south of modern Kazakhstan

along the Syr Darya and to the east of it.

According to the ancient Mongolian tradition, the right wing was called Ak-Orda

(White Horde), and the left - Kok-Orda (Blue). It follows from the foregoing that

the concepts of "Golden Horde" and "ulus of Jochi" in the territorial and state-

legal relations are not synonymous.

The ulus of Jochi after 1242 was divided into two wings, which made up

independent possessions of two khans - Batu and Horde. However, the khans of Kok-Orda

throughout its history, in relation to the khans of the Golden Horde (Ak-

Horde) a certain (largely purely formal) political

addiction.

In turn, the territory under the rule of Batu also

divided into right and left wings. In the initial period of the existence of the Golden

Horde wings corresponded to the largest administrative units

states.

But by the end of the thirteenth century they have changed from administrative to purely

army concepts and survived only in relation to military formations.

In the administrative structure of the state, the wings were replaced by more

convenient subdivision into four main territorial units,

led by ulusbeks. These four uluses were the largest

administrative divisions. They were called Sarai, Desht-i-Kypchak, Crimea,

In the most general form, the administrative system of the Golden Horde was described by

in the thirteenth century G. Rubruk, who traveled the entire state from west to east. According to him

observation, the Mongols "divided among themselves Scythia, which stretches from the Danube

before sunrise; and every leader knows, according to whether he has

more or less people under his authority, the boundaries of his

pastures, and also where he should feed his flocks in winter, summer, spring and

autumn. It is in winter that they descend south to warmer countries, in summer

rise to the north, to colder ones.

This sketch of a traveler contains the basis of the administrative

territorial division of the Golden Horde, defined by the concept of "ulus

system".

Its essence was the right of nomadic feudal lords to receive from

khan or other large steppe aristocrat of a certain destiny - ulus.

For this, the owner of the ulus was obliged to exhibit, if necessary,

a certain number of fully armed warriors (depending on the size

ulus), as well as perform various tax and economic duties.

This system was an exact copy of the device of the Mongolian

army: the whole state - the Great Ulus - was divided according to rank

owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion's manager, ten's manager) - for certain

the size of the destinies and from each of them in case of war ten were exhibited,

one hundred, one thousand or ten thousand armed warriors. At the same time, the uluses were not

hereditary possessions that can be passed from father to son. More

In addition, the khan could take away the ulus completely or replace it with another.

In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, large uluses were

apparently, no more than 15, and rivers most often served as the boundaries between them. AT

this shows a certain primitiveness of administrative division

state, rooted in old nomadic traditions.

Further development of statehood, the emergence of cities, the introduction

Islam, a closer acquaintance with Arabic and Persian traditions

management led to various complications in the possessions of the Jochids with

simultaneous extinction of Central Asian customs dating back to

time of Genghis Khan.

Instead of dividing the territory into two wings, as already mentioned, there appeared

four uluses led by ulusbeks. One of the uluses was the personal domain of the khan.

He occupied the steppes of the left bank of the Volga from its mouth to the Kama.

Each of these four uluses was divided into a certain number of "regions",

which were uluses of feudal lords of the next rank.

In total, in the Golden Horde, the number of such "regions" in the XIV century. was about

70 according to the number of temniki. Simultaneously with the establishment of administrative

territorial division, the formation of the administrative apparatus took place

state.

The period of the reign of the khans Batu and Berke can rightly be called

organizational in the history of the Golden Horde. Batu laid the foundation

national foundations, preserved under all subsequent khans.

The feudal estates of the aristocracy were formalized, an apparatus appeared

officials, the capital was founded, a pit connection was organized between all

uluses, taxes and duties were approved and distributed.

The reign of Batu and Berke is characterized by the absolute power of the khans,

the wealth they stole. Sources unanimously note that the khans in this

time had "amazing power over all." Khan on top

pyramids of power, for most of the year he was in a roaming headquarters in

entourage, his wives and a huge number of courtiers. Only a short winter

period he spent in the capital. The moving Khan horde-headquarters, as it were

emphasized that the main power of the state continued to be based on

nomadic beginning. Naturally, the Khan, who was in constant motion,

it was difficult enough to manage the affairs of the state. This is

sources also emphasize that they directly report that the supreme ruler

draws attention only to the essence of the matter, without entering into the details

circumstances, and is content with being informed, but does not seek

particulars regarding the collection and expenditure.

The entire Horde army was commanded by a warlord - beklyaribek. Sometimes

his influence exceeded the power of the khan, which often led to bloody

civil strife. From time to time the power of the Beklyaribeks, for example, Nogai,

Mamaia, Edigei increased so much that they themselves appointed khans.

With the strengthening of statehood in the Golden Horde, the apparatus

management, its rulers took as a model the administration of the conquered

Mongols of the state of Khorezmshahs. According to this model, under the khan appeared

vizier, a kind of head of government, who was responsible for all areas

non-military life of the state. Vizir and sofa headed by him

(state council) disposed of finances, taxes, trade.

The khan himself was in charge of foreign policy with his closest advisers, and

also beklyaribek.

The Golden Horde has long been the most powerful state in Central

Asia and Eastern Europe. In addition to the expanses of Kazakhstan, among its possessions were

Russia, Khorezm, Crimea, North Caucasus, Western Siberia.

They tried to maintain friendly relations with the Golden Horde court

European kings and pans of Rome, Byzantine emperors and Turkish

sultans of the Ottoman Empire. Certificates of appreciation are evidence of this.

the Golden Horde khans Tokhtamysh to the Polish king Jogaila. Ulug-Muhammad

Turkish Sultan Murad II, preserved to our time.

Interestingly, the main external enemies of the Golden Eagle were not

neighboring alien powers, and the same former uluses of the once united Mongolian

empire - the state of the Mongols of the Hulaguids in Iran and the state of the Mongols

Chagataids in Central Asia.

In the wars with the Khulaguid ulus, the Golden Horde, which had already undergone

Turkization, whose main population was the Polovtsy, secured

support of their fellow tribesmen - the Mamluk sultans of Egypt, immigrants from

Kypchaks. For almost a century and a half, the Turkic rulers of Egypt - the sultans

The Mamluks were loyal allies of Batu's heirs.

Periodically, the Golden Horde "darkness" invaded Poland, Lithuania,

Balkans. The purpose of these campaigns was not to conquer, but to rob neighbors.

Huge territory, large population, strong central

power, a large combat-ready army, the skillful use of trade

caravan routes, extorting tribute from conquered peoples, all this

created the power of the Horde empire. It grew stronger and stronger in the first

half of the 14th century survived the peak of its power.

In conclusion, we can add that in the Golden Horde there is absolutely no

kurultai, so characteristic of Mongolia, were practiced, at which everyone

representatives of the Genghisides family solved the most important state issues.

Changes that have taken place in the administrative and state

structure, nullified the role of this traditional nomadic institution.

Having a government in the stationary capital, consisting of representatives

ruling family and the largest feudal lords, the khan no longer needed kurultais.

He could discuss the most important state issues by collecting

as needed by the highest military and civilian officials of the state. What

concerns such an important prerogative as the approval of the heir, now

it became the exclusive domain of the khan. However, a much larger role in

shifts on the throne were played by palace conspiracies and all-powerful temporary workers.

An important measure to strengthen the Golden Horde was its conversion to Islam.

Even Genghis Khan bequeathed tolerant attitude towards representatives of different

religions. His descendants tried to fulfill this covenant. So, in the lands

subject to the Golden Horde, the clergy of all religions was created preferential

The Russian Orthodox Church and the Armenian Gregorian Church, for example, were

exempted from paying tribute and received special labels that protected

church property from the arbitrariness of the Horde. In the capital of the Golden Horde, Sarai

temples of different denominations were opened. In 1261, an Orthodox church arose there.

But the Horde themselves, for the most part, remained pagan shamanists.

But they were among the ruling Horde elite, including Genghisides,

adherents of Christ, Muhammad and Buddha.

But at the beginning of the XIV century. the situation in the Golden Horde has changed. Most

far-sighted representatives of the ruling circles felt that to regulate

the life of a vast empire according to the old traditions is no longer possible.

The administration of the country became too difficult. It was necessary

attract literate and educated people, experts in economics and finance.

Muslims were the most suitable for this, officials came from

Central Asia, East Turkestan and settled areas of southern Kazakhstan. To

Moreover, the trade of the Golden Horde was in the hands of Muslim merchants. Yes and

intense relations with Iran and Egypt required the involvement of people

knowing Farsi and Arabic. In addition, the religion common to the entire empire

it would help to unite the subjects of the circle of the co-religious sovereign.

In 1313, having reigned on the throne of the Golden Horde, the young Uzbek Khan with

fanaticism of a newly converted Muslim and with the ardor of youth, warmed up

slander and preaching of his Muslim environment, proclaimed Islam

dominant religion and exterminated his noble relatives who tried to

to oppose such a blatant violation of the old Mongol customs. About it

Uzbek Khan informed Mamluk in a personal letter written in Turkic

Sultan of Egypt - An-Nasir in 1314.

The era of Uzbek Khan was marked by a cultural upsurge and a wide urban

construction. By the middle of the XIV century. in the Golden Horde there were more than 100

cities. Many of them were founded by the Horde. These include

the capitals of the Golden Horde - Sarai and the new Sarai in the Lower Volga region, Saraichik and

Western Kazakhstan, where the khans were buried.

Under Uzbek and Dzhanibek, the cities of the Golden Horde flourished.

Palaces, mosques, loaves-sheds erected by the labors of hundreds of thousands of slaves,

rich quarters of the nobility and merchants, more and more populous settlements

artisans turned them into the center of economic and cultural life.

Barn and New Barn were the largest cities in the world.

Thus, the Golden Horde did not remain unchanged, borrowing a lot

in the Muslim East: crafts, architecture, baths, tiles,

ornamental decor, painted dishes, Persian verses, Arabic

geometry and astrolabes, manners and tastes more sophisticated than those of the simple

nomads.

Having extensive ties with Anatolia. Syria and Egypt, the Horde replenished

Turkic and Caucasian slaves to the army of the Mamluk sultans, "and the Horde

culture acquired a certain Muslim-Mediterranean imprint"

according to the orientalist K. Bosworth.

The prosperity of the empire declined after the death of Janibek due to

civil strife of specific rulers who fought for the throne of the barn. Throne

passed from hand to hand. Outlying possessions began to fall away from the state.

“Khan Dzhanibek,” writes L.N. Gumilyov, “was a wise and strong-willed ruler,

but no one can defeat the pattern of ethnogenesis. The massacre committed by him

father Uzbek, and the introduction of Turkmen customs of inheritance instead of the yasa

throne turned the ulus of Dzhuchiev into a chimera. The Horde got freaky

a combination of the Volga cities, numerous "fragments" of the Polovtsians, Alans,

Circassians, Karaites - in the west and the ancestors of the Kazakhs, Siberian Tatars, Bashkirs,

Kama Bulgarians and Chuvash - in the east of the possessions. These ethnic groups were different

culture, religion, (for the obligation of Islam was relative, and

its propaganda - inconsistent), economics and political

aspirations. The term "Tatars" turned from an ethnonym into a polytonym, and in the XV

in. lost this meaning. Only the will of the Khan kept this conglomerate from

disintegration, but, as it turned out, not for long. The direct descendants of Batu held

power in the Golden Horde until 1359, when it broke up into several parts,

moreover, some of them began to be controlled by representatives of other genera.

As long as strong-willed and energetic khans ruled in Saray, the Horde

seemed to be a powerful state. The first shock took place in 1312, when

the population of the Volga region - Muslim, merchant and anti-nomadic -

nominated Prince Uzbek, who immediately executed 70 Genghisid princes and all

noyons who refused to betray the faith of their fathers. The second shock was the murder

Khan Dzhanibek by his eldest son Berdibek, and two years later, in 1359,

a twenty-year civil strife began - the "great jam". In addition to that

in 1346, a plague raged in the Volga region and in other lands of the Golden Horde. AT

years of "great jams" peace left the Horde.

For the 60-70s. 14th century account for the most dramatic pages of history

Golden Horde. Conspiracies, killings of khans, strengthening the power of the temniks, who,

rising along with their proteges to the khan's throne, they die at the hands of

next contenders for power, pass by a quick kaleidoscope in front of

astonished contemporaries.

The most successful temporary worker turned out to be the temnik Mamai, who

for a long time he set in the Golden Horde (more precisely, in its western part)

khans at their discretion. Mamai was not Genghisides, but he married his daughter

Khan Berdebek. Having no right to the throne, he ruled on behalf of dummy

khans. Having subjugated the Great Bulgars, the North Caucasus, Astrakhan, the mighty

temnik by the middle of the 70s of the XIV century. became the most powerful Tatar

ruler. Although in 1375 Arabshah captured Saray-Berke from Mamai

the Bulgars were deposited, and Astrakhan passed to Cherkesbek, he still remained

the ruler of a vast territory from the lower reaches of the Volga to the Crimea.

“In the same years (1379), - writes L.N. Gumilyov, - a conflict broke out

Russian church with Mamai. In Nizhny Novgorod on the initiative of Dionysius

Suzdal (bishop) ambassadors of Mamai were killed. There was a war going on with

with varying success, ending with the Battle of Kulikovo and returning to the Horde

Chingizid Tokhtamysh. In this war, which the church imposed, participated

two coalitions: the chimeric power of Mamaia, Genoa and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,

those. West, and the bloc of Moscow with the White Horde - a traditional alliance, the beginning

which was laid by Alexander Nevsky. Tver from participation in the war

evaded, and the position of the Ryazan prince Oleg is unclear. Anyway, she

was independent of Moscow, because in 1382 he, like Suzdal

princes, fighting on the side of Tokhtamysh against Dmitry "... In 1381, through

a year after the Battle of Kulikovo, Tokhtamysh took and destroyed Moscow.

The "Great Jam" in the Golden Horde ended with the coming to power in

1380 Khan Tokhtamysh, which was associated with the support of his rise by the great

Emir of Samarkand Aksak Timur.

But it is precisely with the reign of Tokhtamysh that the events that turned out to be fatal are connected.

for the Golden Horde. Three campaigns of the ruler of Samarkand, the founder of the world

empires from Asia Minor to the borders of China, Timur crushed the Jochi ulus, were

cities were destroyed, caravan routes moved south to Timur's possessions.

Timur consistently smashed the lands of those peoples who came out on

side of Tokhtamysh. The Kypchak kingdom (Golden Horde) lay in ruins,

the cities were depopulated, the troops were defeated and dispersed.

One of the ardent opponents of Tokhtamysh was the emir of the White Horde from the tribe

mangyt Edigei (Idegei, Idiku), who took part in Timur's wars against

Golden Horde. Having connected his fate with the one who occupied the Golden Horde with his help

throne Khan Timur-Kutluk, Edigei continued the war with Tokhtamysh. He is at the head

of the Golden Horde army in 1399 on the Vorskla River defeated the united troops

Lithuanian prince Vitovt and Tokhtamysh who fled to Lithuania.

After the death of Timur-Kutluk in 1399, Yedigei actually became the head of

Golden Horde. For the last time in the history of the Golden Horde, he managed to unite

under his authority all the former uluses of Jochi.

Edigei, like Mamai, ruled on behalf of dummy khans. In 1406 he

killed Tokhtamysh, who was trying to settle in Western Siberia. In an effort

to restore the ulus of Jochi within its former borders, Edigei repeated the path of Batu. AT

In 1407, he organized a campaign against the Volga Bulgaria and defeated it. In 1408

Edigey attacked Russia, ruined a number of Russian cities, laid siege to Moscow, but to take

couldn't do it.

Edigei ended his eventful life, having lost power in the Horde,

from the hand of one of the sons of Tokhtamysh in 1419.

"The instability of political power and economic life, frequent

devastating campaigns on the Bulgaro-Kazan lands of the Golden Horde khans and

Russian princes, as well as flared up in the Volga regions in 1428 - 1430

gg. a plague epidemic accompanied by a severe drought, - writes A.Kh. Khalikov, -

did not lead to consolidation, but rather to the dispersal of the population. People

whole villages then go to safer northern and eastern

areas". There is also a hypothesis of a socio-ecological crisis in the steppes

Golden Horde in the second half of the XIV - XV centuries. i.e. crisis

nature and society at the same time.

From these shocks, the Golden Horde was no longer able to recover and

throughout the 15th century, the Horde gradually split and broke up into the Nogai

Horde (beginning of the 15th century), Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan

(1459), Siberian (end of the 15th century), the Great Horde and other khanates.

At the beginning of the XV century. The White Horde broke up into a number of possessions, the largest

of which were the Nogai Horde and the Uzbek Khanate. The Nogai Horde occupied

steppes between the Volga and the Urals. "The ethnic composition of the population of the Nogai and

The Uzbek khanates were almost homogeneous. It included parts of the same

local Turkic-speaking tribes and assimilated newcomer Mongolian

tribes. On the territory of these khanates lived Kangly, Kungrats, Kengeres,

Karluks, Naimans, Mangyts, Uysuns, Argyns, Alchins, China, Kipchaks, etc.

These tribes were very close to the level of their economy and culture. Them

The main occupation was nomadic pastoralism. In both khanates

patriarchal-feudal relations dominated. "But in the Nogai Horde

There were more Mongols-Mangyts than in the Uzbek Khanate. Some of her genera

sometimes they crossed to the right bank of the Volga, and in the northeast they reached

to Tobol.

The Uzbek Khanate occupied the steppes of modern Kazakhstan to the east of

Nogai Horde. Its territory stretched from the lower reaches of the Syr Darya and

Aral Sea to the north to Yaik and Tobol and to the northeast to the Irtysh.

“The Golden Horde,” writes L.N. Gumilyov, “was a chimera, while the White

The Horde became the core of the formation of a new independent ethnic group - the Kazakhs.

The nomadic population of the Kypchak kingdom did not succumb to the impact

ethnonoosphere neither Russians nor Bulgars, having gone to the Trans-Volga region, formed their own ethnic group

with its own ethnosphere. Even when part of their tribes pulled the people

Uzbek Khanate to Central Asia to a settled life, they stayed in the steppes,

leaving the departed ethnonym Uzbeks, they proudly called themselves - Kazak (Kazakh),

those. a free man, preferring the suffocating life of cities and villages fresh

steppe wind.

Historically, this gigantic semi-state, semi-nomadic existence existed

not for long. The fall of the Golden Horde, accelerated by the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) and

brutal campaign of Tamerlane in 1395, was as fast as her

birth. And finally collapsed in 1502, unable to withstand a collision with

Crimean Khanate.

CONCLUSION

In the vastness of the then civilized and semi-civilized world

Eurasia, a world empire arose in borders surpassing the Roman world, which

brought East and West together.

The heyday of the Golden Horde fell on time just at the time of the crisis in the Western

Europe at the turn of the XIII - XIV centuries. As writes

from the point of view of socio-natural history, the unit of measurement of which

is a century ... The rise took place almost during the reign of one

ruler - Uzbek (1312 - 1342)".

The Horde order most favored trade, life and life

of a person were more protected than that of a resident of Western Europe. AT

worldview, ideological sphere, the main thing is how the Horde differed from

Europe - this is religious tolerance, dating back to the attitudes of Genghis Khan.

It is no less remarkable that the formation and flourishing of the Eurasian empire

coincide in time with the period of formation and heyday of the Inquisition in

Western Europe. It is far from accidental that in Russia the struggle against heretics began

actually immediately after the so-called liberation from the Tatar-Mongolian

The supreme rulers of the Horde created a regime for the Russian Orthodox Church

most favorable. So, back in 1261, the Sarayskaya

episcopate of the Russian Orthodox Church. Half of all Russian monasteries

arose under the Tatar-Mongolian rule.

In the era of the Golden Horde, a unique urban civilization was created. AT

its formation was attended by all the peoples who lived in the vast Eastern

Europe, Western Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Northern Aral Sea. Main cities

The Golden Horde had wide streets, water supply in ceramic pipes and

sewerage. Residents of cities took drinking water from fountains. In all cities

and villages had baths. At the Horde cities, unlike not only

European, but also from the eastern ones, there were no walls - and hence, western

urban freedoms and privileges. The cities of the Golden Horde successfully developed in

system of functioning of the grandiose in terms of the length of the transport

highway - the Great Silk Road (at least until the fall of the Yuan

(Mongolian) dynasty in China).

The state has assumed the duty to protect the lives of its citizens,

to judge, to organize social, cultural and economic life.

Other people lived in "other" cities - with different ideas about life.

The population of the three main cities - two Sarayev and Solkhat - was estimated

approximately 75 - 150 thousand people in each, and the remaining 110 cities

(identified archaeologically) - within a million. And that's not counting 39

Italian colonial cities of Genoa and Venice.

The heyday of the Horde state was marked by the highest

Europe of that time by the level and quality of life.

To the positive consequences of the Golden Horde dominion for Russia,

hushed up by a number of Russian and Soviet historians can be attributed to

the fact that the tension of the spiritual atmosphere of society led to

creation of high artistic examples in all areas of religious

art (icon painting, church music, religious literature).

icon painter Andrei Rublev. The feeling of national humiliation was replaced by

people with a noble sense of devotion to the national ideal. Religious -

the national upsurge of that era in Russia became a powerful factor in the national

self-awareness and culture, which to a large extent objectively contributed

religious tolerance of the Horde elite. According to Russian historians,

supporters of the theory of Eurasianism (P.N. Savitsky, G.V. Vernadsky,

L.N. Gumilyov), the Russians were saved from physical extermination and

cultural assimilation of the West only due to inclusion in the Mongolian

ulus. By the way, studies of recent years have shown that the population of Russia for

yoke time doubled.

According to Savitsky, the Horde people are a neutral cultural environment,

accepting "all kinds of gods" and unlike Catholic Europe. Russia has become

pay tribute to the Sarai khans, for which she had a merchant fleet on the Volga,

religious residence in Sarai, the liberation of the Russian Orthodox Church

from all types of taxes. For its part, Russia had in the face of the metropolis,

what was the Golden Horde for her, spiritual and military support in

numerous wars with their northwestern neighbors such as

Kingdom of Sweden and the German Teutonic Order, Poland and the Great

Principality of Lithuania, Kingdom of Hungary, Galician Rus, Volhynia,

Chernigov and other principalities that were outside the patronage of the Golden Horde,

victim of Catholic Europe, which declared a crusade against Russia and

Horde.

Thus, the choice of Prince Alexander Nevsky, the winner of the Swedes and

Teutons, was apparently made on the basis of, of course, the dubious theory

"the least evil" in favor of symbiosis with the Golden Horde. And this choice was

approved by the people and consecrated by the Russian Orthodox Church and reckoning

Alexander Nevsky to the face of saints is a clear confirmation of this.

The Golden Horde influence on the Russian language was noticeable, which found its

reflection in modern Russian, where the fifth or sixth part of the vocabulary

stock of Turkic origin.

It was the Golden Horde state system that became the prototype

Russian imperial statehood, part of which later, in

XVIII-XX centuries became for more than two and a half centuries and

Kazakhstan. This was manifested in the establishment of an authoritarian tradition of government, in

rigidly centralized social system, military discipline and

religious tolerance. Although, of course, there were deviations from these principles in

certain periods of Russian history. In addition, medieval

Kazakhstan, Russia, Crimea, Caucasus, Western Siberia, Khorezm and other subject

the Horde of the earth, were involved in a higher level

financial system of the Golden Horde empire. The conquerors created

efficient, centuries-old yam system of communications and network

postal organizations in a significant part of Eurasia, including

territories of Kazakhstan and Russia.

The legacy of the Golden Horde was the habit (although not always on all

throughout the history of Russia) not to assimilate new, conquered or

lands included without bloodshed in the Russian Empire, not

change the life, religion and language of the subject peoples.

On the territory of Kazakhstan after the collapse of the Golden Horde formed

first Kok-Orda and Ak-Orda, and then the Uzbek ulus, direct

predecessor of the Kazakh Khanate, where the legacy of the empire of Genghis Khan

manifested itself in the socio-political structure of the Kazakh society,

the upper class of which were the descendants of Genghis Khan in the male line -

Genghisides, and the Yasa of Genghis Khan is a set of Mongolian laws of the 13th century, possibly

became part of "Zhety-Zhargy" - a monument of Kazakh law of the 17th century.

The origins of the Chingizid Institute lead to the XIII century in the Great

Mongolian ulus created by Genghis Khan and repeating the situation of birth

the new power elite of its predecessor - the Turkic Kaganate of the VI century,

when a ruling class appeared, no longer associated with any one

tribe.

In the Great Steppe in the empire of Genghis Khan and the states of his heirs

for many centuries ahead, a stable tradition of inheritance prevailed

supreme power. At the very top were those groups of military nobility who

were genealogically connected with the Golden Family.

Genghisides were a supra-tribal group of the highest

aristocracy, which regulated the system of power relations within states -

heirs of the Mongol Empire.

One of the new ethnopolitical communities was the Kazakhs, whose birth

as a people is inextricably linked with the era of the collapse of the steppe empire,

the final chord of the existence of which was the fall of the Golden Horde.

Having retained many principles of the political and ideological organization of the empire,

Kazakh society developed, however, under the influence of other

impulses generated by the changed conditions of the geopolitical environment, about which

will be discussed below.

The history of this decisive stage, when from the mass of fragmented Kypchak

tribes were formed in the Kazakh, Nogai, Crimean Tatar and in

to a certain extent, other Turkic ethnic groups of the Volga region, Central Asia and

Caucasus, as well as their states, this history cannot be known, understood

and assessed without knowledge of the structure and the core of power, which was the class

Genghisides not only in the Kazakh Khanate, but also in other states -

heirs of the Golden Horde.

Seeking to organize their own needs and interests, by force

historical necessity Genghisides - the steppe elite of those times, became

a powerful factor in the consolidation of the fragmented nomadic world, accompanied by

division and redistribution of the Golden Horde heritage, which determined for centuries

political and ethnic fate of the post-Horde space.

As in the Kazakh Khanate, so in other successor states

The descendants of Genghis Khan had the right to the throne of the Golden Horde. in Crimean

The khanate was ruled by Genghisides for all the centuries of its existence. Girey, the same

the picture can be observed in Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian (on Tobol)

khanates, as well as in Khiva. Nogais, Karakalpaks, Bashkirs and Kyrgyz did not have

their Genghisides and invited to reign, for example, the Kazakh Genghisides.

Ethnic or, in modern terms, the "national" face of the Genghisides

did not play a significant role. Such was the strength of tradition on huge

expanses of Eurasia, once part of the vast Mongolian

The Kazakh Khanate was a typical nomadic

a state in which the traditions of the Mongol Empire continued to live.

The state of the Kazakhs was considered as the property of the entire

reigning families and broke up into many large and small possessions.

Management was in the hands of the Genghisides to designate which

the term "sultan" is used. Sultans - Genghisides were the highest

class of social hierarchy - ak-suyek (white bone); only the sultan can

was proclaimed khan.

The traditional decimal military-organizational principle of division

armed forces of nomads, originated among the Xiongnu and Huns,

common among the ancient Turks and in the uluses of the Naimans and Kireyites of KhP and the beginning

XIII centuries, which reached its peak in the military organization of Genghis Khan and his first

heirs, is repeatedly recorded in the military structure of the Kazakhs in

periods of their military consolidation and strengthening of the central power in the Kazakh

society, although it seemed to be episodic in nature.

The Mongol conquests and their aftermath represent the last

Pages of the Kazakh Middle Ages. Although the Mongols brought to the Kazakh

steppe own social structure, already at the turn of the XIII-XIV centuries. they

converted to Islam and then mixed, intermarried with the Kipchaks, and they all became

exactly Kipchaks, - as the Arab chronicler Al-Omari writes. And the Turkic tribes

Kipchaks were the main population of the Eurasian steppes from the Irtysh to the Dniester and

Danube, including in the vastness of Kazakhstan.

These two centuries played a particularly prominent role in the history of Kazakhstan.

Golden Horde. Kazakh late medieval statehood, of course,

developed on its own basis and was the fruit of revived traditions

ancient Turkic statehood, which had a huge impact on the creation

empire of Genghis Khan and his heirs, and the Golden Horde or Ulus Jochi -

clear confirmation of this.

Being part of the Golden Horde, the peoples subject to this empire did not

stopped in their development. The ways of this have been radically changed.

development, which eventually led Russia, for example, to the adoption of the Golden Horde

relay race of hegemony in the Eurasian state, when by the end of the 15th century Russia represented

the Muscovite state became the decisive force in the great competition

"heir kingdoms" of the Golden Horde, to which, along with those mentioned above

Turkic states, among which the most formidable rival of Moscow

there was a Crimean yurt, and the Kazakh Khanate also belonged.

In the XVI century. although there was a steady increase in the power of Moscow

sovereigns who by force of arms swallowed up such fragments of the Golden Horde as

Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian (on the Tobol) khanates, Moscow

the state experienced the strongest onslaught from the Crimean Khanate, yes

which stood the then mighty Ottoman Empire. Crimean Tatar

hordes reached the outskirts of Moscow and even captured Alexandrovskaya

settlement - the residence of the winner of Kazan, Astrakhan and the Siberian Khanate on

Tobole - the first Russian Tsar Ivan IV the Terrible. This struggle for hegemony in

Eurasian heritage of the Golden Horde dragged on until the end of the 17th century, when

The Muscovite state stopped paying tribute, though irregular, so

called "commemoration" to the Crimean Khanate. And it happened in the reign of the king

Peter I, who transformed the Muscovite state into the Russian Empire.

Having become a part of the historical past, this rivalry left a

memory and in the form of numerous Russian princely families of the Turkic

origin, the origins of the formation of which belong both to the time of the Golden

Horde, and to a later era, when after its collapse during the XV-XVII

in. a new balance of political forces was emerging in the post-Horde space

in the struggle for the legacy of the Ulus Jochi in the form of two main "poles" of this struggle

Russian state, which evolved over three centuries from

the Grand Duchy of Moscow to the Russian Empire, and the Crimean yurt (whose

power was largely determined by support and allied relations with

Ottoman Empire), to which, one way or another, the Nogai Horde gravitated,

Kazan, Astrakhan, Siberian (on the Tobol) and Kazakh khanates.

One of the forms of gravity was the so-called departures of the Turkic

aristocrats, respectively, in Moscow or Crimean possessions. Moscow

the sovereigns provided cities from the East for feeding and demanded

performance of military service. Under the Turkic nobles, their squads were left,

unborn emigrants from the steppe were allowed to settle in their destinies. Into Miscellaneous

while the Tatars were assigned Kashira and Serpukhov, Zvenigorod and Yuryev-Polsky;

Romanov was allocated to people from the Nogai Horde, and people from the khanates,

ruled by the Jochids, which include the Kazakh Khanate, -

gorodets-Meshchersky or Kasimov with adjacent lands. Prolonged submission

The Golden Horde developed in Russia a steadfast reverence for the Jochids - a dynasty

who ruled in the Horde and most of the hereditary khanates. The nobility of the Turkic

migrants allowed them to claim the highest places in the structure

voivode by regiments) “serving kings” and “princes” are always mentioned after

Russian sovereign and his sons and before (or along with) the highest

representatives of the Moscow nobility.

The influence of the serving Turkic nobility on the history of Russia can hardly be overestimated.

Natives from her environment even became "sovereigns of all Russia", as

nominal as well as real. The first case can be referred to as

the so-called "renunciation" of the Russian throne by Ivan the Terrible in favor of

baptized Tatar prince Chingizid Simeon Bekbulatovich, who became

a short period of time by the nominal ruler of Muscovy without real

authorities. But there were also true rulers. Such as a descendant of the Horde Chet-

Murza - Russian Tsar Boris Godunov - "Tatar, infidel, son-in-law of Malyuta", - as

wrote about him A.S. Pushkin. And Tsar Ivan the Terrible was Genghisides by his mother,

baptized Tatar Elena Glinskaya, and this circumstance was used

them during the conquest of Kazan, in the struggle for the Kazan throne.

The regiments of serving Tatars played a decisive role in the victory of the Moscow

sovereign Ivan III over Novgorod, the last rival of Moscow in the struggle for

dominance over Russia. There were many baptized Tatars in the immediate environment

Ivan the Terrible, who zealously served the Russian throne. It is assumed that to

these included influential favorites of Grozny and prominent political

figures of that era, father and son - Alexei and Fedor Basmanov. mentioned above

head of the oprichnina and the "right hand" of Tsar Malyuta Skuratov, "shoulder affairs

master", one of the most sinister characters in Russian history. Important Services

The Russian monarchy was provided by the descendants of the Nogai biys - the princes Urusovs and Yusupovs.

Prince Peter Urusov, the son of Murza Ismail, led the conspiracy and killed the king

impostor False Dmitry II, and Prince Felix Yusupov participated in the murder

favorite of Tsar Nicholas II and his wife - Grigory Rasputin. Kazakh sultan

Oraz-Mohammed received for service to the Russian throne from Boris Godunov

Kasimov with the district and fully shared the fate of Russia in its "troubled time"

history, fallen at the hands of False Dmitry II. Famous character in Russian history

is the conqueror of Siberia Ermak, about whom there is an opinion as a Nogai

Cossack in Russian service.

The policy of the Russian Empire towards nomadic peoples and states

heirs of the Golden Horde, as long as they have not yet become subjects

Russian crown, in particular Bashkirs, Nogais, Kazakhs, Crimean Tatars,

in many ways bore the stamp of fear, at least until the beginning of the 19th century.

century, since the time of the Golden Horde dominion before a possible

association of these peoples. The final point in this centuries-old

competition in favor of the Russian state was staged at the end of the XVIII

century, when the last Turkic states - the heirs of the Golden Horde -

Nogai Horde, Kazakh and Crimean khanates became part of the Russian

empire. Only Khiva remained outside Russian control.

Khanate on the territory of the Khorezm oasis. But in the second half of the nineteenth century

Khiva was conquered by Russian troops and the Khiva Khanate became a vassal

principality within Russia. History has taken another turn in a spiral -

everything is back to normal. The Eurasian power was revived, although in a different

1. The state of the Golden Horde, which existed in the XIII-XVI centuries on

most of the territory of today's Russia and a number of CIS countries, left

the richest cultural and historical heritage, which had a significant impact

on the formation and fate of many indigenous peoples of Eurasia. This is one of

cornerstones of the history of our Fatherland.

2. It is necessary to attract public interest in the study of the Golden Horde

era, expand the front of scientific research, as well as strengthen measures to

preservation of historical monuments of that time. Making a serious

scientific work on the history of the Golden Horde would finally free

public consciousness from the ballast of a whole system of artificially created

myths and prejudices.

3. Despite the fact that most of the cultural and historical heritage

The Golden Horde is lost forever, today among the population, in vaults and funds

there is still a lot of evidence of that era, not yet available for

researchers. Collecting them, recording and studying in addition to existing institutions

specialized in national or Turkic

museums, archives, libraries, secondhand bookshops, etc.

note that in Moscow, the capital of a multinational state, in

the world's largest scientific center, where more than a million people belong to

to the Turkic group of peoples, the absence of such cultural objects leads to

loss of the most valuable books, documents, paintings, art products from

private and public collections. In addition, the shortage of literate

specialists leads to a systematic underestimation of unique items

ancient Turkic culture, which, without a doubt, harms the cultural

to the heritage of both our countries and all mankind.

Bibliography:

1. History of Little Russia. D.N. Batysh-Kamensky, Kyiv, 1993, Publisher

2. Golden Horde: myths and reality. V.L. Egorov, Moscow, 1990, Publisher

"Knowledge".

3. The Golden Horde and its fall - B.D. Grekov, A.Yu. Yakubovsky, Moscow, 1950,

Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.

4. Ancient Russia and the great steppe. L.N. Gumilyov, Moscow, 1992.

5. The Golden Horde and its Eurasian successors. A.Sh. Kadyrbaev, A., Kazakhstan

The time of the bright prosperity of the Golden Horde did not last long. Each state, like a person, has different stages of development: childhood, youth, maturity, aging, when organs gradually begin to fail, and finally, death. The Golden Horde went through a similar path. Her youth was under Syrtak and Berk, maturity and flourished under Uzbek Khan (1312-1340). It was then that she made a significant contribution to Islamic culture. In those days, the Byzantine emperors, who called themselves the rulers of the whole world, looked at the Golden Horde with apprehension, sought to intermarry with the khans, married their daughters to them, not paying attention to the fact that the khans were Muslims. The mighty Egyptian Mamluks sought an alliance with the Golden Horde, sent gifts, and also wanted to intermarry with the khans of the Horde. The Russian princes who came to the Horde obsequiously bowed to the khans, the Russian clergy settled problems with gifts, the popes of Rome sent their ambassadors to the Horde, the trading republics of Italy - Genoa and Venice entered into various agreements with the Golden Horde, while the khans were called only emperors. It was the time of the highest flowering of the Golden Horde. The Khan's court was a place of great concentration of merchants and scientists. In the cities of the Golden Horde, many mosques, Orthodox churches, inns (caravanserais), as well as other structures of various functional purposes were built. The prosperity of the Golden Horde lasted until 1359, until the death of the powerful Khan Berdibek. This khan took the throne of his father, killing the latter. After the death of Berdibek, everything changed in the country. Bloody civil wars began, which led to the beginning of the process of the decline of the state.
From the end of the 15th century, fundamental changes in the economy and politics of all of Europe began, which were associated with the opening of new trade routes. Before, as described above, they traveled to China and India by land and rivers of the Eurasian continent. European merchants from the Baltic Sea got into the Volga, or through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles - into the Black Sea, stopping in the Crimea or in Azov. From there they went up the Don, crossed to the Volga, along the Volga they got to the city of Atil or, later, to Astrakhan or Tadji, built almost on the same place.

Tarkhan, then to the Caspian - by ship to Iran or Central Asia, to the rich and cultural countries of the East, where they carried on a brisk trade. However, from the end of the fifteenth century the trade route described above has lost its significance. European merchants began to travel to India, Iran and China by the ocean route, opened by the navigators of Portugal and Spain. The old, once very lively road has completely died out. Accordingly, the commercial importance of the Volga cities also fell. The flow of foreign merchants and travelers gradually decreased. In the cities thinned out and bazaars began to fade. Tatar merchants, boatmen and yamchi (coachmen), serving merchants and travelers doing business with Arabs and Iranians, were left without work. Life in the Golden Horde froze. At this time, another misfortune fell upon the Golden Horde. Already in the XV century. Ottoman Turks captured the Dardanelles, and soon all the straits between the Mediterranean, Black and Azov seas passed into their hands. Tatars living in the cities of Cafe and Azov, who previously traded with the Genoese and Venetians, lost their jobs. Trade passed into the hands of the Turks, who first raised duties, then there were feuds between the Turks and Italians, which turned into wars. Vessels of Italian merchants stopped sailing through the straits. As a result of this, life on the once-living trading artery on the Volga came to a complete halt. Since the main source of income in the Golden Horde was formed at the expense of customs duties, the treasury began to empty. The greatly shaken economy of the country no longer allowed to maintain the army necessary to maintain external and internal stability. Riots and even uprisings broke out in the country. Economic weakening led to a strong deterioration in the quality of government. After the death of Mengu, who held the reins of government in his hands, the khans of a large country lost their power functions. Surrounded by a large number of wives and servants, they continued to live carelessly and cheerfully in their Gulistan, surrounded by magnificent gardens. In the summer they went to the steppes, where they lived in wagons, drank koumiss and spent time idly. Interest in alcoholic beverages grew. Even Uzbek Khan, as already mentioned, came to Friday prayers in such a drunken state that he could not stand on his feet during the service. The khans stopped managing the country. The same Uzbek Khan, who was once recognized as the most competent ruler among the khans, stopped delving into matters. Once, when they began to read a letter addressed to him, he even said: "If in
it says anything other than a greeting, speak with my viziers." All problems were transferred to the decision of the beks and other representatives of the "white bone". Already Mengu Khan (1281-1282) completely transferred the conduct of state affairs to the viziers. The khans' hobbies were conversations with poor people, sheikhs and foreigners. The khans loved fairy tales most of all. In their harems there were a huge number of wives of different nationalities. These wives began to interfere in solving state issues, some of them wrote labels. A typical expression appeared on the labels: "So think wives and emirs" "Some wives received rich gifts, and then patronized those who brought gifts. There were cases when Russian princes who came to the Horde to receive a label for the Great reign, first turned to influential wives, presented them with presents, and only then went to the khan's reception. There are known facts when khan's wives - daughters of the rulers of other countries served by their actions for the benefit of their homeland and to the detriment of the Golden Horde, often played a decisive role in state affairs. Their role in the change of khans and their contribution to the fall of the Golden Horde are significant.
When the khans retired from public affairs, the courtiers began to manage the latter. First of all, they did not hesitate to rob the population, the treasury and natural resources. Having killed the khan, they sought to take the throne. The names of such court arbiters of the fate of the state as Nogai, Mamai, Edigey are widely known. Instead of brave statesmen, such as Batu and Syrtak, in whose hands the saber did not tremble, and the ideal of the norms of behavior was Chingiz Yas adopted by the kurultai as the law, completely different people began to occupy the khan's throne. They lived only in palaces, ate gourmet food, drank alcoholic beverages, and had fun surrounded by their wives. Living a dissolute life, they ignored moral imperatives and, in the struggle for the throne, began to kill their loved ones. So, Khan Berdibek (1342) was killed by his son, Janibek killed his brother.

Immediately after the death of Uzbek Khan, chaos immediately set in in the Golden Horde. Before his death, Uzbek Khan declared his eldest son Tanibek his successor. But the middle son of Uzbek Khan Dzhanibek organized an uprising with the emirs who supported him. Janibek seized the throne and executed his brothers. He stepped over the corpses of two brothers. This was unnatural, because it stimulated negative selection, because in addition to the princes, their emirs and nukers perished. It was immoral, as it led to the death of innocent people, shattered the state system, introduced into it nervousness and uncertainty about the future. Once Janibek fell seriously ill. His son Berdibek led a conspiracy against his father to seize the throne. The conspirators killed Janibek and his 12 sons. They exterminated mainly the princes and the family of Uzbek Khan.

Thus ended the clan of Uzbek. But the parricide Berdibek did not sit on the throne for long. He was killed, and the "great commotion" began, as Russian chronicles noted. For 20 years, 25 khans have changed. Many of them ruled for less than a year. In this massacre, not only the princes perished, but also their supporters. So for 20-25 years, the color of the Golden Horde nation perished.

"Zamyatnya" in the Golden Horde hit the administrative apparatus of the capital. Metropolitan officials ceased to obey. Separatist movements for independence went around the country. The Golden Horde began to disintegrate into small Tatar khanates. Internecine clashes began between the formed khanates. One of these clashes took place between Temnik Mamai, who captured the Crimea, and Dmitry of Moscow, which ultimately ended in the Battle of Kulikovo. Tokhtamysh established himself on the throne of the Golden Horde. He was a Tengrian. He began his reign with the restoration of the national religion and the idea of ​​national unity. Tired, deafened, indifferent, poor people and the main Tatar elite saw a ray of light and began to unite around Tokhtamysh. Tokhtamysh waged war against the separatists and in a short time was able to unite the disintegrating state, which gradually began to revive and revive. But there were events that changed the face of the Great Steppe. In Central Asia, in the Dzhagataevsky ulus, there was an internecine war between noble emirs. Emir Timur won this war. In history, he is called Aksak Timur (Tamerlane). When Timur was 25 years old, and he commanded Tyumen, Sheikh Barak, a native of Mecca, appeared to him (who he was - an Arab or a Jew - is unknown), who later became his chief confessor, and handed him a drum and a banner (a symbol of power) predicting a great future. Under the influence of this sheikh, Emir Timur waged wars for the spread of Islam. Timur always deftly found several reasons for attacking the Turkic Muslim states (mostly they were the objects of his attacks), which aroused in him the desire to plunder them. And his warriors enthusiastically carried out all his orders, even such as the construction of towers and pyramids from severed heads. Such towers were erected by Timur in the largest cities of Asia.

And Timur went to war against the Golden Horde for the spread of Islam. The Tatars did not want this. Starting from the reign of Uzbek Khan, they were fed up with troubles and everything connected with Islam. They heroically stood up for the defense of the fatherland. It was a religious war.

In June 1391, the army of Timur and Tokhtamysh met in the area of ​​the Kundurcha River, where it flows into the Idel (Volga). The Tatars launched the attack first and pressed Timur's soldiers. The battle was stubborn, but the Tatars began to win. Most of Timur's troops were destroyed, the rest were preparing to flee. But as they say, Tokhtamysh's army, being under the influence of hypnosis, retreated, which was used by Timur's soldiers. The Tatar army was defeated. Sheikh Barak was no ordinary Seid. Apparently, he was a priest with clairvoyance, hypnosis, who managed to hypnotize an entire army. After this battle, Timur ravaged part of the Golden Horde. But in 1395, Tatar soldiers and Timur's soldiers met again near the Terek.

The Tatars defended their fragrant steppes, herds of horses, wives, who were threatened with severe humiliating captivity. Timur's warriors dreamed of looted gold, swords, Tatar beauties, who would be taken after the battle to Samarkand and Bukhara. None of them could predict the outcome of the war, which was destined to change the face of the Great Steppe.

The important thing was that the fate of the Golden Horde was being decided: either it would survive and crush the rebellious Emir Timur, or it would fall and crumble to dust. The worst has happened. Timur's army defeated the Tatars.

Then Timur destroyed all the cities that stood in the way of caravan trade. He destroyed the economic and military potential of the Golden Horde. The rout was so great that the Golden Horde could not revive the power of the state on its former scale. After the departure of Timur's army, a period of new unrest actually began, which was a continuation of the old "great confusion". The internecine wars began. The Golden Horde was slowly coming to an end and broke up into small Tatar khanates.

In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey in a bloody battle defeated the Khan of the Great Horde, Shikh-Ahmed, who claimed the role of successor to the great Khan of the Golden Horde. Then Mengi-Girey destroyed the city of Saray and finally put an end to the Great Horde. Since that time, the Golden Horde ceased to exist and was officially divided into small khanates.

Having become independent, each khanate was a rather powerful state with which all states began to reckon, both in the East and in Europe. But the old disease remained with them. There was no longer an idea and religion that united the people. Therefore, in these khanates, the unrest continued, which bled them dry, and, in the end, they were all conquered.

Conclusion

Thus, the origin and development of the Golden Horde had a strong influence on the development of the state of Eastern Europe and other Asian states adjacent to the occupied territories, because for many years its history was tragically intertwined with the fate of these peoples. While the Western European states, which were not attacked, were gradually moving from feudalism to capitalism. A new state with gradually emerging institutions of power was formed on a vast territory. Torn from within and strife, and the intrigues of already existing states that were tempted to conduct interstate intrigues. And thus hindering the development of neighboring states with their raids and devastation. After all, the rule of the nomads lasted almost two and a half centuries, and during this time the yoke managed to put a significant imprint on the fate of many states. No matter how strong the Tatar khans are, no matter how trained the Tatar troops are in predatory raids. No matter how much the nomadic steppe supplied tumens of cavalry and foot troops, no matter how large the amount of tribute from the oppressed peoples, the Golden Horde inevitably lagged behind in cultural development, in the growth of productive forces. It is very characteristic that while in the second half of the XIV and in the XV century. The states of Eastern Europe invariably followed the path of overcoming feudal fragmentation, towards the creation of a centralized feudal state, which was also facilitated by the struggle for independence itself. The Golden Horde did not get out of the state of unrest and inevitably broke up into separate parts. Another reason lies in the same progressive development of the agricultural peoples of Central Asia, for which the Golden Horde was also a significant obstacle, since it constantly threatened the settlements and cities of Asia with its predatory raids and plans of conquest.