Vocabulary Vocabulary

(from Greek λεξικός - related to) - a set of words of the language, its vocabulary. This term is used both in relation to individual layers of vocabulary (everyday, business, poetic vocabulary, etc.), and to refer to all words used by any writer (Pushkin's vocabulary) or in any one work (lexicon " Words about Igor's regiment.

Vocabulary is the subject of study, and. Vocabulary directly or indirectly reflects reality, reacts to changes in the social, material and cultural life of the people, is constantly updated with new words to denote new objects, phenomena, processes, concepts. Thus, the expansion and improvement of various areas of material production, science and technology leads to the emergence of new special words - or entire terminological layers; such words often move into the area of ​​common vocabulary, which is associated, in particular, with the expansion of general education and scientific awareness of the average native speaker.

The vocabulary reflects social class, professional, age differences within the language community. In accordance with this, vocabulary is divided according to the principle of belonging to different social:, etc. Social stratification of vocabulary is studied by social dialectology,. The vocabulary reflects the belonging of native speakers to different territorial dialects, and also preserves the specific local features of speech. He is engaged in the study of territorial variability. Dialect words play a certain role in replenishing the vocabulary of the general literary language. Those of them that are not fully mastered and retain the local flavor are qualified as (cf. the parallel words of the South Russian and North Russian dialects: “kochet” - “cock”, “biryuk” - “wolf”, “baz” - “yard”, “ way" - "road").

The openness and dynamism of vocabulary are especially clearly observed when studying its historical development. On the one hand, the old words fade into the background or disappear altogether (for example, “griden”, “ratai”), and on the other hand, the vocabulary is replenished, the stylistic differentiation of words and their meanings, which enriches the expressive means of the language. As a result of these changes, the increase in words always exceeds their decrease. Lexical units do not suddenly disappear, they can be stored in the language for a long time as or. New words in the language are called; having become common, fixed in the language, they lose the quality of novelty. The formation of new words is carried out in different ways: 1) with the help of grammatical (word-building) models (see, in linguistics); 2) by forming new meanings for words (see); 3) a special, semantic-grammatical way of forming new words is conversion (see in word formation), cf. English hand ‘hand’ - to hand ‘transfer’; even ‘smooth’ - to even ‘align’; 4) new words enter the given language as a result of borrowing from other languages ​​through oral communication or through books, directly from another language or through a third language (cf. Rus. ‘cafe’< франц. café < араб. qahwa قهوة ). Некоторые заимствования остаются не до конца освоенными языком и употребляются при описании чужеземных реалий или для придания местного колорита (см. ): например, «мулла», «клерк», «констебль», «виски». Существует пласт заимствованной лексики, функционирующий во многих языках и восходящий, как правило, к единому источнику, чаще всего латинскому или греческому (например, «класс», «коммунизм», «демократия»), - это международная лексика (см. ): 5) ряд слов образуется по правилам аналитического наименования и сокращения слов, см. ; 6) небольшую группу составляют искусственно созданные слова: «газ», «рококо», «гном», «лилипут».

A significant part of lexical neoplasms is firmly fixed in the language, loses its own and is included in the main vocabulary fund, which remains in the language for a long time. This includes all the root words that make up the core of the vocabulary of the language (, kinship names, words denoting movement, size, position in space, etc.). They are understandable to all native speakers of a given language, in their direct meanings, as a rule, they are stylistically neutral and are distinguished by a relatively high text or frequency. The words of the main vocabulary fund are different in their origins. Words such as "mother", "brother", "sister", "I", "you", "five", "ten" are common to many languages. Words like "house", "white", "throw" -; “peasant”, “good”, “throw” are purely Russian. The origin of words in the language studies. Changes in vocabulary occur constantly, so that each period of language development is characterized by its own vocabulary, combining obsolete words, which, together with other words that are understandable but not used by native speakers, form a passive vocabulary (or), and words that speak the given language not only understand, but also use (active vocabulary, or).

From the point of view of the content plan, the following are distinguished in the vocabulary: 1) significant words and. The former have a nominative function (see), are able to express concepts and act in the role, the latter are devoid of these features; 2) abstract words, i.e. words with a generalized meaning, and concrete words, i.e. words with an objective, “real” meaning; 3), i.e., words that are close or identical in meaning, but sound differently; 4) - words that are opposite in meaning; 5) - words organized according to the principle of subordination of meanings, for example "birch" - "tree" - "plant". (meaningful) relationships of words underlie various types of lexico-semantic groupings (, thematic, etc.), which reflect connections in the lexicon as a manifestation of the structural-system organization in the language according to the field principle at the lexico-semantic level (see).

From the point of view of the plan of expression in the vocabulary, the following are distinguished: 1) - words that are identical in but not related in meaning; 2) homographs - different words, identical in spelling, but differing in pronunciation (stress or sound composition), for example, Russian. "flour" - "flour", eng. lower ‘lower’, ‘lower’ - lower ‘frown’; lead 'lead' - lead 'leadership', 'initiative'; 3) homophones - different words that differ in spelling, but coincide in pronunciation, for example, Russian. "meadow" and "bow", eng. write 'write' and right 'direct'; 4) homoforms - different grammatical forms of words that coincide in sound appearance, for example, “my” is a possessive pronoun and “my” is an imperative form “to wash”; 5) - words that are converging in - and composition (cf. "general" - "general", "introduce yourself" - "pass away").

Vocabulary is different in every language. Stylistically neutral words can be used in any speech and form the basis of the vocabulary. Other words - stylistically colored - can be "high" or "low" style, can be limited to certain types of speech, the conditions of speech communication or genres of literature (scientific vocabulary, poetic vocabulary, vocabulary, colloquial vocabulary, vulgar vocabulary, etc.) . The sources of replenishment of stylistically marked vocabulary for different languages ​​are different. For the Russian language, these are Greek-Latin words and internationalisms, terms, as well as vernacular words, dialectisms, jargon, etc., for - words and (and) origin, words from slang, cockney, dialectisms.

Within the vocabulary, a special place is occupied by - lexicalized, expressing a single concept. They can be substantive (“White Sea”, “railway”), verbal (“beat the buckets”, “pull the rubber”) or (“headlong”, “sleeveless”). The most lexicalized phrases (phraseological unions) are also called; they are individual in each language and literally untranslatable. The sources of phraseological units in the language are folklore, professional speech, mythology, fiction. Terms and idioms are two layers of vocabulary opposite in their properties. The former, as a rule, are unambiguous, abstract, stylistically and expressively neutral; the latter are concrete, polysemantic, individual and expressive.

The main means of fixing vocabulary are dictionaries, the theory and practice of compiling which is within the competence.

• Reformed A. A., Introduction to linguistics, M., 1967;
• Ufimtseva A. A., Word in the lexical-semantic system of the language, M., 1968;
• Shmelev D.N., Modern Russian language. Lexika, M., 1977;
• Borodin M.A., Gak V. G., On the typology and methodology of historical and semantic research, L., 1979;
• Kuhn P., Der Grundwortschatz. Bestimmung und Systematisierung, Tübingen, 1979.

A. M. Kuznetsov.

Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. 1990 .

Synonyms:

See what "Vocabulary" is in other dictionaries:

Vocabulary- (Greek) a set of words of some kind of language, the vocabulary of a language. L. one of the sides of the language, most clearly revealing the connection of the language. as "practical consciousness" (Marx's definition of language) with its socio-economic base and its role as a tool ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

VOCABULARY Modern Encyclopedia

VOCABULARY- [Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

vocabulary- lexicon, vocabulary, active dictionary, lexical stock, dictionary, vocabulary, stock of words, lexical composition Dictionary of Russian synonyms. vocabulary vocabulary, dictionary, lexical composition (or stock) Dictionary of Russian synonyms ... ... Synonym dictionary

Vocabulary- (from the Greek lexikos referring to the word), 1) the whole set of words, the vocabulary of the language. 2) The totality of words characteristic of a given variant of speech (household, military, children's vocabulary, etc.), of one or another stylistic layer (lexicon ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

VOCABULARY- (from Greek lexikos referring to the word) 1) the entire set of words, the vocabulary of the language. 2) The set of words characteristic of a given variant of speech (household vocabulary, military vocabulary, children's vocabulary, etc.), one or another stylistic layer (lexicon ... … Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

VOCABULARY- VOCABULARY, vocabulary, pl. no, female (from Greek lexikos dictionary) (philol.). A set of words of some language, dialect, works of some writer, etc.; same as dictionary in 2 digits. Russian vocabulary. Lexicon of Pushkin. Dictionary… … Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

That is, the vocabulary itself does not study anything. Vocabulary- this is the vocabulary of a language, a stylistic layer, a specific text or a set of texts. Studying vocabulary lexicology, and it is this section of linguistics that is meant when referring to scientific research in this area.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages ​​due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

Lexical meaning of the word

LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD - the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality, fixed in the mind of the speaker.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

• scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
• proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
• recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
• words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning of "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning of "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and a figurative meaning - "a heavy feeling that remains after something".

Lexicology includes sections that study words and phrases in different aspects. So, semantics explores the semantic meanings of language units, phraseology- stable speech patterns, etymology- the origin of words and expressions, onomastics studies proper names, including the names and surnames of people, lexicography- the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries, onomasiology- analyzes the processes of naming in the direction from the phenomenon or object to the word denoting it.

(neologisms);

professional words (professionalisms);

dialect words (dialects, dialectisms);

slang words

• professional jargon;
• thieves' jargon (slang).

There are other groups, the study of which is beyond the scope of the school curriculum. On our site there is an article about the Russian language and a selection of words on various topics.

Single and multiple words

The same words of the Russian language can name different objects, signs, actions. In this case, the word has several lexical meanings and is called polysemantic. A word that denotes one object, sign, action and, accordingly, has only one lexical word is called unambiguous. Polysemantic words are found in all independent parts of speech, except for numerals. Examples of polysemantic words: forge a chain and ice a pond, a leaf of a tree and a sheet of paper, a silver tray and a silver age.

Direct and figurative meanings of words

Words in Russian can have direct and figurative meanings. The direct meaning of the word serves to designate a specific object, attribute, action or quantity of an object. The figurative meaning of the word, in addition to the already existing basic meaning (direct), denotes a new object, sign, action. For example: gold bars (direct meaning) and golden hands / words / hair (figurative meaning). The figurative meaning is sometimes called indirect, it is one of the meanings of a polysemantic word. In Russian, there are words whose figurative meaning has become the main one. For example: the nose of a person (direct meaning) and the bow of a boat (figurative → direct meaning).

Homonyms

Words of the Russian language of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but different in lexical meaning, are called homonyms. Examples of homonyms: crane (lifting and plumbing), environment (habitat and day of the week), boron (pine forest and chemical element). Classification, types of homonyms, as well as examples of words are given in a separate article - homonyms.

Synonyms

Words of the Russian language of one part of speech, denoting the same thing, but having different shades of lexical meaning and use in speech, are called synonyms. For a polysemantic word, synonyms can refer to different lexical meanings. Examples of words that are synonyms: big and large (adjectives), build and construct (verbs), land and territory (nouns), boldly and bravely (adverbs). Good and understandable material about synonyms and examples of the difference in their lexical meaning are given on the website of the dictionary of synonyms.

Antonyms

Words of the Russian language of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning are called antonyms. For polysemantic words, antonyms can refer to different lexical meanings. Examples of words that are antonyms: war - peace (nouns), white - black (adjectives), high - low (adverbs), run - stand (verbs). Materials with examples and explanations are available on the antonym dictionary website.

Paronyms

Words of the Russian language that are similar in spelling and sound, but have a different semantic meaning, are called paronyms. Paronyms have morphological division, lexical-semantic division. Examples of words that are paronyms: put on - put on (verbs), ignorant - ignorant (nouns), economic - economical (adjectives). Definition, classification and examples are given in the dictionary of paronyms.

Group comparison

* The lexical meaning of words from the paronymic series is different. It can be similar, opposite or simply different (neither similar nor opposite).

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Introduction

Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

Chapter 2

2.1 Homonyms in Russian

2.2 Synonyms

2.3 Antonyms

2.4 Paronyms

Chapter 3

3.1 Obsolete words

3.2 Common and restricted vocabulary

3.3 Dialectisms

3.4 Terminological and professional vocabulary

3.5 Slang and slang vocabulary

Chapter 4. Lexical errors in Russian

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

The modern Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, a form of Russian national culture. It is a historically established linguistic community and unites the entire set of linguistic means of the Russian people, including all Russian dialects and dialects, as well as various jargons. The highest form of the national Russian language is the Russian literary language, which has a number of features that distinguish it from other forms of existence of the language: processing, normalization, the breadth of social functioning, universal obligation for all members of the team, a variety of speech styles used in various spheres of society.

The modern Russian language is a literary language, the language of science, press, radio, cinema - its meaning and use of words, pronunciation and spelling, the formation of grammatical forms obey the generally accepted pattern.

The Russian language has two forms - oral and written, which are characterized by features both in terms of lexical composition and grammatical structure, since they are designed for different types of perception - auditory and visual. The written language differs from the oral one in the greater complexity of syntax, the predominance of abstract vocabulary, as well as terminological vocabulary, mainly international in its use.

Term vocabulary (gr. lexikos - verbal, dictionary) serves to designate the vocabulary of the language. This term is also used in narrower meanings 6 to define the totality of words used in one or another functional variety of the language ( book vocabulary).

The synchronous study of vocabulary involves the study of it as a system of interrelated and interdependent elements at the present time.

However, the synchronous system of language is not fixed and absolutely stable. there are always elements in it that go into the past; there are just emerging, new ones. The existence of such heterogeneous elements in one synchronous section of the language indicates its constant movement and development. The task of lexicology is to study the meanings of words, their stylistic characteristics, describe the sources of the formation of the lexical system, and analyze the processes of its renewal and archazation.

The vocabulary of the Russian language, like any other, is not a simple set of words, but a system of interconnected and interdependent units of the same level. The study of the lexical system of a language reveals an interesting and many-sided picture of words connected with each other by various relationships and representing the "molecules" of a large, complex whole - the lexical and phraseological system of the language.

Not a single word in the Russian language exists separately, isolated from its common unified system. Words are combined into various groups based on certain causes and signs.

Lexicology establishes a wide variety of relationships within the various lexical groups that make up the nominative system of the language.

The lexical system singles out groups of words connected by a common or opposite meaning; similar or opposed in stylistic properties; united common type of word formation; connected by a common origin, features of functioning in speech, belonging to an active or passive vocabulary

The systemic connections of words, the interaction of different meanings of one word and its relationship with other words are very diverse, which indicates a large and expressive system of vocabulary, which is an integral part of a larger language system.

The general language system and the lexical norm, as its component, is revealed and recognized in speech practice, has an impact on changes in the language, contributes to its development and enrichment. The study of vocabulary is a necessary norm for the perception of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which is necessary for the development of literary and linguistic forms in artistic speech.

Chapter 1. The word as a unit of the diversity of the Russian language

The word in Russian is the most important nominee of the language system. The idea of ​​a word as the main unit of naming a phenomenon really develops directly in the speech practice of people. However, it is more difficult to give a scientific definition of a word, since words are diverse in terms of structural, grammatical and semantic features.

Word called a linguistic unit that has in its original norm only one main stress (if it is not unstressed) and has some meaning. The most important features of a word, which distinguish it from other linguistic units, are lexical and grammatical relatedness, semantic unity, a unit of grammatical wholeness of naming.

Consider the norms of differential features characteristic of most lexical units:

- Every word has a phonetic (in oral form) and graphic (in writing) design

Words have a certain meaning. The sound design of a word is the external material side, which is a form. Its meaning is the inside meaning the content. Form and content are inextricably linked: a word cannot be perceived if we do not pronounce it or write it, and cannot be understood if the pronounced combinations of sounds are devoid of meaning

- Words characterize the constancy of sound and meaning. No one has the right to change the phonetic shell of a word and give it an unusual meaning, because the form and content of the word are fixed in the language.

- Words (unlike phrases) are impenetrable: any word acts as an integral unit, inside which it is impossible to insert another word, especially several words. Exceptions are negative pronouns, which can be separated by prepositions (no one, no one, no one)

- Words have only one main stress, and some may be unstressed (prepositions, conjunctions, particles, etc.). However, there are no words that would have two main stresses. The non-double stress of a word distinguishes it from a stable (phraseological) combination that has a holistic meaning.

An important feature of words is their lexical and grammatical relatedness; they all belong to one or another part of speech and have a certain grammatical structure. So, nouns, adjectives and other names are characterized by forms of gender, number, case; verbs - forms of mood, aspect, tense, person, etc. These words perform various syntactic functions in a sentence, which creates their syntactic independence.

- Integrity and uniformity distinguish words from phrases. Compound words like fresh frozen, radio show, flirtatious grammatical feature expresses only one ending.

- All words characterize reproducibility: we do not construct them anew each time, but reproduce them in speech in the form in which they are known to all native speakers. This distinguishes words from phrases at the moment of utterance.

- Words are distinguished by their predominant use in conjunction with other words: in the process of communication, we build phrases from words, and from them - sentences

- One of the signs of the norm of the word is isolation. Words can also be perceived outside the speech stream, in isolation, retaining their inherent meaning.

The word is inherent in nominativeness - the ability to name objects, qualities, actions. True, service parts of speech, interjections, modal words, and pronouns do not have this feature, since they have a completely different specificity. The pronoun, for example, indicates objects, qualities, quantity, and interjections express the feelings and experiences of the speaker without naming them.

Lexical meaning word is called the correlation of the sound complex of a linguistic unit fixed in the minds of speakers with one or another phenomenon of reality. Words name not only specific objects that can be seen, heard, touched, but also concepts about these objects that arise in our minds.

The concept is a reflection in the minds of people of the general norms for expressing reality and their properties. Such features may be the shape of an object, its function, color, size, similarity or difference with another object. The concept is the result of a generalization of the mass of single phenomena, during which a person focuses on the main features. Without the ability of the word to name the concept, there would be no language itself. The designation of concepts in words allows us to get by with a relatively small number of linguistic signs. So, in order to single out one person from a multitude, or to name any of the multitude, we use the word Human. To denote all the richness and variety of colors of wildlife, there are words red, yellow, blue, green, etc. Movement in space of various objects is expressed by the word goes (man, train, bus, as well as ice, rain, snow).

A complex lexical system appears in all its diversity and complexity and in individual concepts of words. So, for example, the word Island does not indicate to us a certain geographical position, name, form, fauna, flora, but appears to us as simply a piece of land surrounded by water. Thus, those essential norms for describing objects are fixed in words, which make it possible to distinguish a whole class of some objects from others.

However, not all words name any concept. They are not able to express unions, particles, prepositions, interjections, pronouns, proper names.

There are proper names that name single concepts. These are the names of prominent people ( Shakespeare, Dante, Chaliapin), geographical names (Volga, Baikal, Alps, America) By their nature, they cannot be a generalization and evoke the idea of ​​objects that are one of a kind.

personal names of people (Alexander, Vladimir), surnames (Petrov, Ivanov, Sidorov), on the contrary, do not give rise in our minds to a certain idea of ​​a particular person.

Common nouns (historian, engineer, son-in-law, son) according to various signs of professions, degrees of kinship make it possible to form some small idea about these people.

grammatical the meaning of a word is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), the meaning of a particular time, person, number. Kind.

Lexical and grammatical values ​​are closely related. A change in the lexical meaning of a word leads to a change in the grammatical one. For example: voiceless consonant (relative adjective) and voiceless voice (qualitative adjective) has a degree of comparison, short form, gostiny dvor and living room, adjective and noun

Proper names, geographical concepts, common nouns can also be attributed to unambiguous words.

Unambiguous in Russian, words are called that have only one lexical meaning, they can also be called monosemantic. The ability of words to appear in only one meaning is called the unambiguity of a word, or monosemy.

There are several types of unambiguous words:

Proper names: Ivan, Vladimir, Moscow, Vladivostok. Their limiting value excludes the possibility of variation, since these words are single names.

Recently emerged words that have not yet received distribution: briefing, pizzeria. For the development of their ambiguity, their frequent use in speech is necessary, and new words cannot immediately receive universal recognition and distribution.

Words with a narrowly specific meaning of special use, which are used relatively rarely in speech

Terminological names gastritis, myoma.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. They're called ambiguous or polysemantic and are opposed to single-valued words. The ability of lexical units to have several meanings is called polysemy or polysemy. The ambiguity of a word is usually realized in speech as a complete, in a semantic sense, segment of speech that clarifies one of the specific meanings of the ambiguity of a word.

Usually even the narrowest context is enough to clarify the shades of the meanings of polysemantic words. quiet (quiet) voice, quiet (calm) disposition, quiet (slow) ride, quiet (calm) weather, quiet (smooth) breathing. Here the minimum context is the word quiet allows you to delimit values.

Different meanings of a word, as a rule, are interconnected and form a complex semantic unity, which is called semantic structure the words. The connection of the meanings of a polysemantic word most clearly reflects the systemic nature of the language and, in particular, vocabulary.

Among the meanings inherent in polysemantic words, one is perceived as the main, main, and others - as derivatives of this main, original meaning. The main meaning is always indicated first in the explanatory dictionaries, followed by the numbers of derived meanings. For example, only the word go there are up to forty values: Go where your free mind takes you; I had to walk across the field for a long time; Is it again going to war against Russia; The letter goes for a week; The clock goes forward; There are some gossips and talks about you; Steam comes out of the kettle; It is raining outside the window; There are trades on the stock exchange; Red suits your hair.

It would be a lexical error to assume that the development of the meanings of words is caused only by extralinguistic factors. Multilingualism is also determined purely linguistically: words can also be used in figurative meanings. Names can be transferred from one object to another if these objects have common features. Indeed, the lexical meaning of words does not reflect all the differential features of the named object, but only those that attracted attention at the time of nomination. Thus, many objects have common connections that can serve as the basis for the associative convergence of these objects and the transfer of the name from another.

The word acquires ambiguity in the process of the historical development of the language, reflecting changes in society and nature, as a person learns it. as a result, our thinking is enriched with new concepts. The volume of the dictionary of any language is limited, therefore, the development of vocabulary occurs not only due to the creation of new words, but also as a result of an increase in the number of meanings of previously known ones, the death of some meanings and the emergence of new ones. This leads not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative changes in the Russian language.

Chapter 2. Ttypes of words in Russian,understanding of lexical norms and their rulesuses

Depending on on what basis and on what grounds the name of one object is assigned to another, there are three types of polysemy of words: metaphor, metonymy and synecdoche.

Metaphor(gr. metaphor- transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on some similarity of their features.

The similarity of objects that receive the same name can manifest itself in different ways: they can be similar in shape ( ring 1 on the hand - a ring 2 smoke); by color ( gold 1 medallion - gold 2 curls); by function ( fireplace 1 - "room oven" and fireplace 2 - "Electric device for space heating"). The similarity in the location of two objects in relation to something ( tail 1 animal - tail 2 comets), in their estimate ( clear 1 day - clear 2 style), in the impression they make ( black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts) also often serves as the basis for naming different phenomena with one word. There are other similarities as well: green 1 strawberries - green 2 the youth(the unifying feature is "immaturity"); fast 1 running - fast 2 mind(a common feature is "intensity"); stretch 1 mountains are stretching 2 days(associative connection - "length in time and space"). Metaphorization of meanings often occurs as a result of the transfer of qualities, properties, actions of inanimate objects to animate ones: iron nerves, golden hands, an empty head, and vice versa: gentle rays, the roar of a waterfall, the voice of a stream. It often happens that the main, original meaning of the word is metaphorically rethought on the basis of the convergence of objects according to various signs: gray-haired 1 old man - gray-haired 2 antiquity - gray 3 fog; black 1 bedspread - black 2 thoughts are black 3 ingratitude is black 4 saturday - black 5 box(by plane). Metaphors that expand the polysemanticism of words are fundamentally different from poetic, individual author's metaphors. The former are linguistic in nature, they are frequent, reproducible, anonymous. The linguistic metaphors that served as the source of the new meaning of the word are mostly non-figurative, therefore they are called "dry", "dead": pipe elbow, boat bow, train tail. But there may be such transfers of meaning, in which imagery is partially preserved: blooming girl, steel will. However, the expressiveness of such metaphors is much inferior to the expression of individual poetic images; cf. language metaphors: a spark of feeling, a storm of passions and poetic images of S. Yesenin: sensual blizzard; a riot of eyes and a flood of feelings; fire blue.

Metonymy(gr. metonymia- renaming) is the transfer of a name from one object to another based on their adjacency. Thus, the transfer of the name of the material to the product from which it is made is metonymic ( gold, silver - Athletes brought gold and silver from the Olympics); the names of the place (premises) to the groups of people who are there ( class, audienceClass preparing for the test;Audience listens carefully to the lecturer); names of dishes for their contents ( porcelain dish - deliciousdish ); the name of the action on its result ( doing embroidery - beautifulembroidery ); the name of the action to the scene of the action or those who perform it ( crossing the mountains - undergroundtransition ; dissertation defense - playin defense ); the name of the item to its owner ( tenor - youngtenor ); the name of the author on his works ( Shakespeare - stagedShakespeare ) etc

Synecdoche(gr. Synekdoche- connotation) is the transfer of the name of the whole to its part, and vice versa. For example, pear 1 - "fruit tree" and pear 2 - "the fruit of this tree"; head 1 - "part of the body" and head 2 - "a smart, capable person"; cherry ripe- in the meaning of "cherries"; we are simple people- so the speaker speaks of himself. Synecdoche is based on transfers of meaning in such expressions, for example: a sense of comradeship, a faithful hand, a helping hand, a kind word.

2.1 Homonyms in Russian

In the lexical system of the Russian language, there are words that sound the same, but have completely different meanings. Such words are called lexical homonyms, and the sound and grammatical coincidence of different language units that are not semantically related to each other is called homonymy (gr. homos- identical + onyma- name). For example, key 1 is "spring" ( icykey ) and key 2 - "a metal rod of a special shape for unlocking and locking the lock" ( steelkey ); onion 1 - "plant" ( greenonion ) and onion 2 - "weapon for throwing arrows" ( tightonion ). Unlike polysemantic words, lexical homonyms do not have a subject-semantic connection, that is, they do not have common semantic features by which one could judge the polysemanticism of one word.

Various forms of lexical homonymy are known, as well as phenomena related to it at other levels of the language (phonetic and morphological). Full lexical homonymy is the coincidence of words belonging to the same part of speech in all forms. An example of full homonyms is the words outfit 1 - "clothes" and outfit 2 - "order"; they do not differ in pronunciation and spelling, they coincide in all case forms of the singular and plural. With incomplete (partial) lexical homonymy, the coincidence in sound and spelling is observed in words belonging to the same part of speech, not in all grammatical forms. For example, incomplete homonyms: plant- "industrial enterprise" ( metallurgicalplant ) and plant 2 - "device for actuating the mechanism" ( plant at the clock). The second word has no plural forms, but the first one does. For homonymous verbs bury 1 (pit) and bury 2 (drug) match all imperfective forms ( I'm burying, I'm digging, I'll be burying); forms of real participles of the present and past tense ( digging, digging). But there is no match in the forms of the perfect form ( dig - dig etc.).

By structure, homonyms can be divided into root and derivatives. The former have a non-derivative basis: world 1 - "lack of war, consent" ( cameworld ) and world 2 - "universe" ( world filled with sounds); marriage 1 - "flaw in production" ( factorymarriage ) and marriage 2 - "marriage" ( happymarriage ). The latter arose as a result of word formation, therefore, they have a derivative basis: assembly 1 - "action on the verb collect" (assembly designs) and assembly 2 - "small fold in clothes" ( assembly on a skirt); combatant 1 - "relating to actions in the ranks" ( drill song) and combatant 2 - "suitable for buildings" ( combatant forest).

Along with homonymy, they usually consider related phenomena related to the grammatical, phonetic and graphic levels of the language.

Among consonant forms, there are homoforms- words that coincide only in one grammatical form (less often - in several). For example, three 1 - numeral in the nominative case ( three friend) and three 2 - verb in the imperative mood of the singular of the 2nd person ( three carrots on a grater). The grammatical forms of words of one part of speech can also be homonymous. For example, adjective forms big, young may indicate, firstly, the nominative singular masculine ( large 1 success, young 1 "specialist); second, to the genitive singular feminine ( large 2 career, young 2 women); thirdly, into the dative singular feminine ( to big 3 career, to young 3 woman); fourthly, to the instrumental case of the feminine singular ( with a big 4 career, with a young 4 woman).

There are also words in Russian that sound the same but are spelled differently. This is homophones(gr. homos- identical + phone- sound). For example, words meadow and onion, young and the hammer, carry and lead coincide in pronunciation due to the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant. Changing vowels in an unstressed position leads to the consonance of words rinse and caress, lick and climb up, old-timer and guarded. Words are pronounced the same patronize and march, atstrova and acute, take and brother etc. Consequently, homophones are phonetic homonyms, their appearance in the language is associated with the action of phonetic laws.

Homophony can also manifest itself more widely - in the sound coincidence of a word and several words: Not you, but Sima sufferedunbearable , waterNeva is wearable ; Years beforea hundred grow us withoutold age (M.) Homophony is the subject of study not of lexicology, but of phonetics, as it manifests itself at a different linguistic level - phonetic.

Words that are spelled the same but pronounced differently are called homographs(gr. homos- identical + grapho- writing). They usually have stress on different syllables: mugs - mugs, fell asleep - fell asleep, p'arit - steam etc. There are more than a thousand pairs of homographs in modern Russian. Homography is directly related to the graphic system of the language.

Strict differentiation of linguistic phenomena requires to delimit proper lexical homonyms from homoforms, homophones and homographs.

One cannot ignore the fact that the development of polysemy into homonymy can be facilitated by changes that occur in the process of the historical development of society, in the objects themselves (denotations), in the way they are made. So, once the word paper meant "cotton, products from it" and "material for writing". This was due to the fact that in the past paper was made from rag mass. Until the middle of the 19th century, the connection between these meanings was still alive (one could say paper dress, wool fabric with paper). However, with the replacement of raw materials for the production of paper (it began to be made from wood), a semantic splitting of a polysemantic word into homonyms took place. One of them (meaning cotton and products from it) is given in dictionaries in a separate dictionary entry with the note outdated. The transformation of polysemy into homonymy in such cases should not be in doubt.

Difficulties in distinguishing between polysemy and homonymy lead to the fact that sometimes doubts are expressed about the legitimacy of including words in a number of homonyms, the different meanings of which go back to the same historical root. With this approach, homonyms include only words that are different in origin. However, it is impossible to agree with such a solution to the problem. Accepting this point of view would move the concept of homonymy to the field of historical lexicology, while the distinction between polysemantic words and homonyms is important precisely for the current state of the language.

In the modern Russian language, a significant number of homonyms have been recorded, and with the development of the language, their number is increasing. The question arises whether homonymy interferes with the correct understanding of speech? After all, homonyms are sometimes called "sick" words, since homonymy reduces the informative function of the word: different meanings receive the same form of expression.

In support of the negative assessment of the phenomenon of homonymy, the idea is also expressed that the very development of the language often leads to its elimination. Many examples of such opposition of the language itself to the phenomenon of homonymy can be cited. So, adjectives disappeared from the dictionary eternal(from eyelid), wine(from guilt); the latter is supplanted by a related word - guilty.

However, this process is far from active and not consistent in the lexical system of the modern Russian language. Along with the facts of the elimination of homonymy, the emergence of new homonyms, homophones and homographs is observed, which has a certain linguistic value and therefore cannot be considered as a negative phenomenon, which the language itself "obstructs".

2.2 Synonyms

Synonyms (gr. synonymos - eponymous) are words that are different in sound, but identical or close in meaning, often differing in stylistic coloring: here - here, wife - spouse, look - look; homeland - fatherland, fatherland; brave - courageous, courageous, fearless, fearless, fearless, daring, dashing.

A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called a synonymic row (or nest). Synonymic rows can consist of both heterogeneous and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - fisherman, fisherman. The first place in the synonymic series is usually taken by the defining and stylistically neutral word - dominant (Latin dominans - dominant) (it is also called the core, main, supporting word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. So, in the last example, the word brave is the dominant of the series, it most capaciously conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - "fearless" and free from expressive and stylistic shades. The rest of the synonyms are distinguished in the semantic-stylistic sense and in the peculiarities of their use in speech. For example, fearless is a book word, interpreted as "very brave"; daring - folk poetic, means "full of daring"; dashing - colloquial - "bold, risk-taking". Synonyms brave, courageous, fearless, fearless differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in the possibilities of lexical compatibility (they are combined only with nouns that call people; one cannot say "brave project", "fearless decision", etc.).

Members of the synonymic series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseological units), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, chickens do not peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.

Synonyms always belong to the same part of speech. However, in the word-formation system, each of them has related words related to other parts of speech and entering into the same synonymous relations with each other; cf. beautiful - charming, charming, irresistible --> beauty - charm, charm, irresistibility; to think - to think, to think, to think, to think --> thoughts - thoughts, reflections, reflections, thoughts. Such synonymy is stably preserved between derivative words: harmony - euphony; harmonious - euphonious; harmony - euphony; harmonious - harmonious. This pattern clearly demonstrates the systemic connections of lexical units.

The Russian language is rich in synonyms, rare synonymic series have two or three members, more often there are many more. However, compilers of synonym dictionaries use different criteria for their selection. This leads to the fact that the synonymic rows of different lexicographers often do not match. The reason for such discrepancies lies in the unequal understanding of the essence of lexical synonymy.

Some scientists consider the designation of the same concept by them as an obligatory sign of synonymous relations of words. Others take their interchangeability as a basis for highlighting synonyms. The third point of view boils down to the fact that the proximity of the lexical meanings of words is recognized as the decisive condition for synonymy. In this case, the following criteria are put forward:

1) proximity or identity of lexical meanings;

2) only the identity of lexical meanings;

3) proximity, but not identity, of lexical meanings.

The most important condition for synonymous words is their semantic proximity, and in special cases - identity. Depending on the degree of semantic proximity, synonymy can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent. For example, the synonymy of the verbs hasten - hurry is expressed more clearly than, say, laugh - laugh, flood, roll, roll, giggle, snort, squirt, which have significant semantic and stylistic differences. Synonymy is most fully expressed with the semantic identity of words: here - here, linguistics - linguistics. However, there are few words that are absolutely identical in the language; as a rule, they develop semantic shades, stylistic features that determine their originality in vocabulary. For example, in the last pair of synonyms, differences in lexical compatibility have already been outlined; cf .: domestic linguistics, but structural linguistics.

Full (absolute) synonyms are most often parallel scientific terms: spelling - spelling, nominative - naming, fricative - slot, as well as single-root words formed with the help of synonymic affixes: wretchedness - wretchedness, guard - guard.

With the development of the language, one of the pair of absolute synonyms may disappear. So, for example, the original full-voiced variants fell out of use, giving way to Old Slavonic ones in origin: licorice - sweet, good - brave, helmet - helmet. Others change the meanings, and, as a result, there is a complete break in synonymous relations: lover, lover; vulgar, popular.

Synonyms, as a rule, designate the same phenomenon of objective reality. The nominative function also allows you to combine them into open series, which are replenished with the development of the language, with the emergence of new meanings for words. On the other hand, synonymic relations can break up, and then individual words are excluded from the synonymic series, acquiring other semantic connections. Yes, the word scrupulous, formerly synonymous with haberdashery now synonymized with the words thin, delicate; the word vulgar has ceased to be a synonym for words widespread, popular and approached next to: vulgar - rude, low, immoral, cynical; at the word dream the semantic correlation with the word is currently violated thought, but preserved with the words dream, dream. Accordingly, the system connections of related words also change. The semantic structures of the given lexical units influenced the formation of such, for example, synonymous series: scrupulousness - sophistication, delicacy; vulgarity - rudeness, baseness; to dream - to dream.

Since synonyms, like most words, are characterized by polysemy, they are included in complex synonymous relations with other polysemantic words, forming a branched hierarchy of synonymic series. With other words, synonyms are connected by relations of opposites, forming antonymic pairs with them.

Synonymic connections of words confirm the systemic nature of Russian vocabulary

1. Synonyms that differ in shades of meaning are called semantic (semantic, ideographic) For example, wet - damp, damp reflect a different degree of manifestation of the trait - "having significant moisture, saturated with moisture"; cf. also: die - perish, perish- "to cease to exist, to be destroyed (as a result of disasters, the impact of any forces, conditions)".

2. Synonyms that have differences in expressive and emotional coloring and are therefore used in different styles of speech are called stylistic; cf. wife (common) - spouse(official); young(colloquial) - newlyweds(book), eyes(neutral) - eyes(vyc.), face(neutral) - muzzle(reduced) - face(vyc.).

3. Synonyms that differ both in shades of meaning and stylistically are called semantic-stylistic. For example, wander- a bookish word meaning "to go or go without a certain direction, without a goal, or in search of someone or something"; circle (whirl) - colloquial, meaning "changing the direction of movement, often get to the same place"; stray- everyday-colloquial, meaning "to go or go in search of the right direction, the right road"; with the same meaning: get confused- colloquial fornicate- spacious.

In the context, the semantic differences of words close in meaning are often erased, the so-called value neutralization, and while synonyms can be used words that do not belong to the same synonymous series in the lexical system of the language. For example, in phrases voice (murmur) of waves, noise (rustle, rustle, whisper) foliage the highlighted words are interchangeable, but it is impossible to call them synonyms in the strict sense of the term. In such cases, one speaks of contextual synonyms. For their convergence, only conceptual correlation is sufficient. Therefore, in the context, words that cause certain associations in our minds can be synonymized. So, the girl can be called baby, beauty, laughter, whim, coquette etc.

The richness and expressiveness of synonyms in the Russian language creates unlimited opportunities for their purposeful selection and careful use in speech. Writers, working on the language of their works, attach special importance to synonyms that make speech accurate.

2.3 Antonyms

Antonyms(gr. anti- against + onyma- name) - these are words that are different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - be silent .

Antonyms belong to the same part of speech and form pairs.

The development of antonymic relations in vocabulary reflects our perception of reality in all its contradictory complexity and interdependence. Therefore, contrasting words, as well as the concepts they denote, are not only opposed to each other, but are also closely related. Word kind , for example, evokes in our minds the word evil , far reminiscent of close , speed up - about slow down .

Antonyms "are at the extreme points of the lexical paradigm", but between them in the language there may be words that reflect the indicated feature to a different extent, i.e., its decrease or increase. For example: rich - prosperous - poor - poor -beggar ; harmful - harmless - useless -useful . Such opposition suggests a possible degree of strengthening of a sign, quality, action, or gradation(lat. gradient- gradual increase). Semantic gradation (gradation), thus, is characteristic only of those antonyms whose semantic structure contains an indication of the degree of quality: young - old, big - small, small - large and under. Other antonymic pairs are devoid of the sign of gradualness: up - down, day - night, life - death, floor - ceiling, man - woman .

In the lexical system of the language, one can distinguish and antonyms-conversives(lat. conversion- change). These are words expressing the relationship of opposites in the original (direct) and modified (reverse) statements: Alexandergave book to Dmitry.- Dmitrytook Alexander's book Professoraccepts credit from the trainee.-

traineesurrenders requiredcredit to your professor

There is also intra-word antonymy in the language - the antonymy of the meanings of polysemantic words, or enantiosemy(gr. enantios- opposite + sema - sign). This phenomenon is observed in polysemantic words that develop mutually exclusive meanings. For example, the verb depart can mean "to return to normal, feel better", but it can also mean "to die, say goodbye to life." Enantiosemy becomes the reason for the ambiguity of such statements, for example: Editorviewed these lines; Ilistened to divertissement; Speakermisspoke and under.

By structure, antonyms are divided into heteroroot (day Night ) and single root (come - go, revolution - counter-revolution ). The former constitute a group of proper lexical antonyms, the latter - lexico-grammatical. In single-root antonyms, the opposite of meaning is caused by various prefixes, which are also capable of entering into antonymic relations; compare: in lie down -you lay down,at put -from put,behind cover -from cover. Therefore, the opposition of such words is due to word formation. However, it should be borne in mind that adding prefixes to quality adjectives, adverbs not- , without- most often gives them the meaning of only a weakened opposite ( young - not young ), so that the contrast of their meaning in comparison with non-prefixed antonyms turns out to be "muffled" ( middle-aged It doesn't mean "old" yet. Therefore, not all prefix formations can be attributed to antonyms in the strict sense of this term, but only those that are extreme members of the antonymic paradigm: successful - unsuccessful, strong - powerless .

In modern linguistics, one sometimes speaks of contextual antonyms, i.e., words opposed in a certain context: "Wolves and sheep." The polarity of the meanings of such words is not fixed in the language, their opposition is of an individual authorial nature. The writer can identify opposite qualities in various concepts and, on this basis, contrast them in speech; compare: notmother , adaughter ; solar light -lunar light; oneyear - alla life . However, the words that name such concepts are not antonyms, since their opposition is not reproduced in the language, it is occasional.

Antonymy is used not only to express contrast. Antonyms can show the breadth of spatial and temporal boundaries: Withsouthern mountains tonorthern seas(OK.); Troops are comingday andnight ; they become uncomfortable(P.), completeness of reflection of phenomena, facts of reality: sleepingrich andpoor , andwise , andstupid , andkind , andfierce (Ch.). Antonyms convey the change of pictures observed in life, the alternation of actions, events: Here in the distanceflashed clear lightning,broke out andwent out (Bl.); Let's make peace . Andquarrel . And again you won't sleep. We'll fold our insomnia into a solid white night(Birth.).

2.4 Paronyms

Paronyms(gr. para - near + onima - name) - these are single-root words that are similar in sound, but do not match in meaning: signature - painting, dress - put on, main - capital.

Paronyms usually refer to the same part of speech and

perform similar syntactic functions in a sentence.

Taking into account the peculiarities of word formation of paronyms, the following groups can be distinguished.

Paronyms that differ prefixes: about seals -from seals,at to pay -about to pay;

Paronyms that differ suffixes: no responsen th - no answerstvenn oh, nounnatural o - nounness ; commanderovann th - commandervegetable th;

Paronyms that differ the nature of the basis: one has a non-derivative base, the other has a derivative. In this case, the pair can be:

Words with a non-derivative stem and prefixes: growth -WHO rast;

Words with a non-derivative stem and non-prefixed words with suffixes: brake - brakeenenie ;

words with a non-derivative stem and words with a prefix and suffix: cargo -on the cargoto a.

Semantically, there are two groups among paronyms.

Paronyms that differ subtle semantic nuances: long - long, desired - desirable, maned - maned, vital - worldly, diplomatic - diplomatic and under. There are a majority of such paronyms, their meanings are commented in linguistic dictionaries (explanatory, dictionaries of difficulties, dictionaries of single-root words, dictionaries of paronyms). Many of them are characterized by features in lexical compatibility; compare: economic effects -economical farming, wealthyinheritance - heavyheritage ; fulfill exercise -perform song.

Paronyms, drastically different in meaning: nest - nest, defective - defective. There are few such units in the language.

A special group of paronyms are those that differ in functional and stylistic fixation or stylistic coloring; compare: work(common) - work(simple and special) live(common) - reside(official).

When studying paronyms, the question naturally arises about their relationship to other lexical categories - homonyms, synonyms and antonyms. So, some scientists consider paronymy as a kind of homonymy, and paronyms, therefore, as "pseudo-homonyms", indicating their formal proximity. However, with homonymy, there is a complete coincidence in the pronunciation of words of different meanings, and paronymic forms have some differences not only in pronunciation, but also in spelling. In addition, the semantic proximity of paronyms is explained etymologically: initially they had a common root. And the similarity of homonymous words in the Russian language is purely external, accidental (with the exception of those cases when homonymy develops as a result of the disintegration of the semantic meanings of a polysemantic word).

Paronyms must also be distinguished from synonyms, although this can sometimes be difficult to do. When distinguishing between these phenomena, it should be borne in mind that the discrepancy in the meanings of paronyms is usually so significant that it is impossible to replace one of them with another.

word vocabulary Russian slang

Chapter 3The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others, thanks to the development of the Russian language, relatively recently.

Original Russian vocabulary it is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​\u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language-base: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew and etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary is made up of words pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of labor tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, casket, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, freedom.

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10. The concept of vocabulary, the word.

Vocabulary is the vocabulary of a language.

LEXICOLOGY is a branch of linguistics that deals with the study of vocabulary.

The WORD is the main structural and semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, phenomena, their properties and which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features. The characteristic features of the word are integrity, separability and integral reproducibility in speech.

The main ways of replenishing the vocabulary of the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is replenished in two main ways:

Words are formed on the basis of word-building material (roots, suffixes and endings),

New words come into the Russian language from other languages ​​due to the political, economic and cultural ties of Russian people with other peoples and countries.

11. LEXICAL MEANING OF A WORD- fixed in the mind of the speaker, the correlation of the sound design of a linguistic unit with one or another phenomenon of reality.

single and multiple words.

Words are single-valued and polysemantic. Single-valued words are words that have only one lexical meaning, regardless of the context in which they are used. There are few such words in Russian, these are

• scientific terms (bandage, gastritis),
• proper names (Petrov Nikolay),
• recently emerged words that are still rarely used (pizzeria, foam rubber),
• words with a narrow-subject meaning (binoculars, can, backpack).

Most words in Russian are polysemantic, i.e. they can have multiple meanings. In each separate context, some one value is updated. A polysemantic word has a basic meaning, and meanings derived from it. The main meaning is always given in the explanatory dictionary in the first place, followed by derivatives.

Many words that are now perceived as polysemantic originally had only one meaning, but since they were often used in speech, they began to have more meanings, apart from the main one. Many words that are unambiguous in modern Russian can become ambiguous over time.

Direct and figurative meaning of the word.

The direct meaning is the meaning of a word that directly correlates with the phenomena of objective reality. This value is stable, although it may change over time. For example, the word "table" in Ancient Russia had the meaning "reigning, capital", and now it has the meaning "piece of furniture".

A figurative meaning is such a meaning of a word that arose as a result of the transfer of a name from one object of reality to another on the basis of some kind of similarity.

For example, the word "sediment" has a direct meaning - "solid particles that are in a liquid and deposited on the bottom or on the walls of a vessel after settling", and a figurative meaning - "a heavy feeling that remains after something."

12. HOMONYMS These are words that are different in meaning, but the same in pronunciation and spelling. For example, a club is a "spherical flying smoky mass" (a club of smoke) and a club is a "cultural and educational institution" (a club of railway workers). The use of homonyms in the text is a special stylistic device.

13. SYNONYMS are words that are close to each other in meaning. Synonyms form a synonymous series, for example, assumption - hypothesis - guess - assumption.

Synonyms may differ slightly in sign or style, sometimes both. Synonyms that have the same meaning are called absolute synonyms. There are few of them in the language, these are either scientific terms (for example, spelling - spelling), or words formed using synonymous morphemes (for example, guard - guard).

Synonyms are used to make speech more diverse and avoid repetition, as well as to give a more accurate description of what is being said.

14. ANTONYMS are words that are opposite in meaning.

Antonyms are words that are relative in meaning; you can not put in an antonymous pair of words that characterize an object or phenomenon from different angles (early - late, fall asleep - wake up, white - black.).

If the word is polysemantic, then each meaning has its own antonym (for example, for the word “old” in the phrase “old man”, the antonym is the word “young”, and in the phrase “old carpet” - “new”).

Like synonyms, antonyms are used to make speech more expressive.

15. Discharges of words by origin.

All words in Russian are divided into:

• primordially Russian, which include Indo-Europeanisms (oak, wolf, mother, son), common Slavic pek-sika (birch, cow, friend), East Slavic vocabulary (boot, dog, village), proper Russian vocabulary (mason, leaflet);
• borrowed words, which include borrowings from Slavic languages ​​(finger, mouth - Old Slavicisms, borscht - Ukrainian borrowing, monogram - Polish borrowing) and non-Slavic languages ​​​​(Scandinavian - anchor, hook, Oleg; Turkic - hut, chest; Latin - audience, administration ; Greek - cherry, lantern, history; German - sandwich, tie; French - battalion, buffet, etc.)

16. Obsolete words and neologisms.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is constantly changing: some words that used to be used very often are now almost inaudible, while others, on the contrary, are used more and more often on the web. Such processes in the language are associated with a change in the life of the society that it serves: with the advent of a new concept, a new word appears; if society no longer refers to a certain concept, then it does not refer to the word that this concept stands for.

Words that are no longer used or are used very rarely are called obsolete (for example, child, right hand, mouth, Red Army soldier, people's commissar.

Neologisms are new words that have not yet become familiar and everyday names. The composition of neologisms is constantly changing, some of them take root in the language, some do not. For example, in the middle of the 20th century the word "satellite" was a neologism.

From a stylistic point of view, all the words of the Russian language are divided into two large groups:

• stylistically neutral or common (can be used in all styles of speech without restriction);
• stylistically colored (they belong to one of the styles of speech: bookish: scientific, official business, journalistic - or colloquial; their use “not in their own style” violates the correctness, purity of speech; you need to be extremely careful in their use); for example, the word "hindrance" belongs to the colloquial style, while the word "exorcise" belongs to the book style.

8. In Russian, depending on the nature of the functioning, there are:

Common vocabulary (used without any restrictions),
- vocabulary of a limited scope of use.

17. Vocabulary of a limited scope of use:

• dialectisms are words that belong to a particular dialect. Dialects are Russian folk dialects, which include a significant number of original words that are known only in a certain area. Dialectisms can be

1. lexical (known only in the territory of distribution of this dialect): sash, tsibulya,
2. morphological (characterized by a special inflection): I have,
3. phonetic (characterized by a special pronunciation): [tsai] - tea, [hverma] - farm, etc.

• professionalisms are words that are used in various fields of production, technology, etc. and which have not become common; terms - words that name special concepts of any sphere of production or science; professionalisms and terms are used by people of the same profession, in the same field of science (for example, abscissa (mathematics), affricates (linguistics)),

jargon - these are words that are used by a narrow circle of people united by a common interest, occupation or position in society; for example, they distinguish youth (ancestors - parents), professional (nadomae - shortfall of the landing sign), camp jargon,

argotisms are the same as jargonisms, but they are used as a conventional sign, as an encrypted code, so that people who do not belong to this group cannot understand the meaning of these words; as a rule, this is the speech of socially closed groups, for example, thieves' slang.