How did the Mongol domination end?

With the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, the decline of Mongol rule begins. The imperial authorities failed to subjugate the northern nomadic tribes. The strife began. Riots broke out, the Mongol officials were enriched, while the Chinese peasants became more and more impoverished.

One of the rebels was Zhu Yuanzhang (1328-1398), who experienced all the hardships of peasant life during the years of Mongol rule. During the great famine, he took refuge in a Buddhist monastery. At the age of 23, he joined the rebels and, leading them, won victories one after another. In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang conquered Dadu, present-day Beijing, expelled the Mongols, and established the Ming Dynasty in Nanjing. In the following decades, he systematically strengthened and expanded his power and adopted the imperial name Taizu. He proceeds to restore the country, frees the peasants from taxes and transfers land allotments to them. With the establishment of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), China freed itself from foreign domination.

The Ming Dynasty's splendid period begins with its third Yongle Emperor, who reigned from 1402 to 1424. He moved the capital from Nanjing back to Beijing and set about building an imperial city, which partially survives to this day.

Who built the "forbidden city"?

The Imperial City is the longest residence on earth. It was surrounded by a 7-kilometer wall, and its area was 720,000 square meters. m. The city consisted of numerous palaces, temples, houses, gardens and lakes. All buildings were covered with yellow roofs (yellow is the color of the emperor). Inside the imperial city there was a "forbidden city" - a palace ensemble, where the uninitiated were forbidden to enter under pain of death.

Yongle himself lived in a luxurious palace for only 4 years.

Before the Ming Dynasty came to power, China was politically fragmented. During the three centuries of Ming rule, the unity of the empire was managed to be maintained. To protect against the Mongols, they fortified the Great Wall. They improved the canal network, but above all they revived the traditions of the Chinese dynasties. However, the desire to rely on the country's historical past has increasingly isolated China from the rest of the world, inevitably dooming it to cultural stagnation.

The Ming era was also the era of great navigators. China has not only expanded its borders on land, but has also become a major maritime power. The Portuguese and Spanish navigators had yet to make great discoveries, while the Chinese already possessed excellent shipbuilding techniques.

Who turned China into a maritime power?

At the Ming court, eunuchs were the emperor's advisers and servants. They exercised widespread control, subordinating even the secret police. By the end of the Ming Dynasty, there were supposedly 70,000 eunuchs in the imperial court.

One of them was the Muslim Zheng He. He was originally from Annan, his real name is Ma, in 1404 he changed it to Chinese. He made a career serving in the female quarters of the Yongle Emperor, then as a military leader. However, he became famous for seven sea expeditions, which he visited from 1405 to 1433. He sailed to Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the east coast of Africa.

Zheng He's fleet consisted of several hundred huge junks. Supplying more than 20,000 sailors and covering such gigantic distances is in itself an amazing achievement. In addition to the sailors, countless detachments of translators, doctors and officials served on the ships.

More than 300 ships took part in the first voyage. The first three expeditions were sent to India. The next target was Hormuz in the Persian Gulf and the East African coast. Thanks to Zheng He's expeditions, China's trade ties with many countries were strengthened. Unlike European navigators, who, several centuries after the Chinese, made expeditions to the Far East, Zheng He did not build bases, countries were subjected to tribute only in connection with an opportunity.

As a result of a long struggle in the middle of the XIV century, the Mongols were expelled from China. One of the leaders of the uprising came to power - the son of a peasant Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming state. China became an independent state again. The Ming Empire subjugated part of the Jurchen tribes, the state of Nanzhao (the modern provinces of Yunnan and Guizhou), part of the modern provinces of Qinghai and Sichuan.

Zhu Yuanzhang was an educated man well versed in Chinese history and philosophical traditions. He had his own ideas about the ideal social structure, which he drew from Chinese traditions. His ideas were based on the idea of ​​the need for a powerful imperial power based on a community freed from the oppression of property inequality. Having become the ruler, Zhu Yuanzhang made an unsuccessful attempt to realize these plans.

During the reign of Zhu, the allotment system was restored. The state fund was created. lands from the state lands of the Song and Yuan era and from the possessions of adherents of the Yuan dynasty and those who were repressed (and given the emperor’s tendency to see conspiracies among officials, there were up to 40 thousand repressed). In the course of these measures, lease relations were abolished in the Yangtze basin and in the northern provinces of China, and the independent peasant landowner became the main figure in the countryside. Land and subjects were registered. Thus, the following year after the founding of the dynasty, an imperial decree was issued ordering all subjects to register when compiling new poll registers.

In 1370, the first population census was carried out, which aimed not only to take into account all subjects, but also to determine the size of the property of each court. Depending on the property status, households were subject to land tax and labor duties in such a way that their size depended on the amount of land, workers, property in a separate farm.

In 1381, changes were made to this system, which made it possible to streamline the procedure for collecting taxes and serving duties. Courtyards were united in groups of 10 units (jia), and every 10 jia were Li. These courts were bound by mutual responsibility in paying taxes and public duties. Thus, Li consisted of 110 households: 100 peasants and 10 elders.

The ruler placed special hopes on the institute of village elders. They had to be chosen from persons who had reached the age of 50 and who had an impeccable moral behavior. The elders had to report to the supreme ruler about all cases of reprehensible behavior of the elders of the lizia and local officials, who, under pain of death, were forbidden to appear in the village to collect taxes. After Zhu's death, the institution of village elders gradually fell into decay, but mutual responsibility was preserved.

Information about the economic situation of individual households was collected from Li, then from the volost (Xiang) and about the quarter (Fang) and added up, they had to be wrapped in yellow paper (“yellow registers”), and information about all provinces - in blue paper (“blue registers”). registries). This information served to determine the land tax. In addition to him, every subject of the empire was obliged to bear labor service in favor of the state.

Then Zhu began to create destinies (guo). Allotments were distributed to members of the imperial clan, primarily to sons. The purpose of their creation was to strengthen the power of the emperor through control by the owners of the destinies over the official administration, that is, local officials. However, as history has shown, such an innovation did not bring anything good: his grandson, thanks to specific vans, lost his throne.

Zhu Yuanzhang also carried out military reform. Previously, the army was formed by convening a popular militia. From the middle of the 8th century, China switched to a mercenary system. Zhu Yuanzhang divided the population into "people" (ming) and "army" (jun). This meant that some part of the Chinese population was included in the permanent territorial troops, had plots assigned to them, which they cultivated.

The dominant religion in the country was recognized as a somewhat reformed Confucianism - Zhusianism, the basis of which was the doctrine of unquestioning obedience to the monarch. However, the population was also allowed to practice the Buddhist, Taoist and Muslim religions.

According to the decrees of succession to the throne, the throne was to pass to the eldest son from the eldest wife, and in the event of his death - to the grandson of the ruler. The 16-year-old grandson of the emperor, who ascended the throne after the death of Zhu Yuanzhang, was able to hold power only for 3 years, colliding with the owners of the destinies from among the sons of the late ruler. In 1402 he was deposed from the throne by his uncle Zhu Di (Chengzu, 1403-1424), whose inheritance was located in northern China. According to some sources, the young emperor died during a fire that engulfed the palace, according to others, he cut his hair, put on a cassock and went to wander around China.

Emperor Yong Le (the reign of Zhu Di was named Yong Le (“Eternal Joy”) - the second and last strong ruler after the founder of the dynasty. Under him, China achieved prosperity - international relations expanded, and China's international influence grew in Indochina, Southeast Asia.

Yun Le abandoned the specific system, but its abolition did not happen immediately. Zhu Yuanzhang's heir clan was still a privileged group. Their political influence was replaced by the fact that large landed property was transferred to them, i.e. it was a kind of ransom of the ruling house from relatives. It was the possessions of the aristocrats that turned out to be the object of the blows of a powerful popular movement that led to the fall of the Mings.

During the Ming period, agriculture flourished in China, thanks to irrigation methods adopted from Vietnam; new agricultural crops appeared - sweet potatoes, peanuts. In the XV century. The division of lands into "state" (guantian) and "civilian" (mintian) was established. State lands - estates of emperors, members of the imperial family, titled nobility of officials, military settlers (up to 1/6 of the entire area of ​​cultivated land). Officials who received state salaries were not liable for taxation.

Cities developed. About 1 million people lived in Beijing, more than a million people lived in Nanjing. The urban population was subject to taxes and duties in favor of the treasury, and the artisans themselves could be involved in working off at state-owned enterprises. Flourished - silk weaving, cotton weaving, dyeing, production of ceramics, porcelain, paper, book printing, shipbuilding, construction. The city of Jingdezhen (prov. Jiangxi) became a major center for the production of porcelain. The rise of the economy lasted until the second half of the 15th century, after which the decline began. The reasons are population growth, which overtook the introduction of new agricultural lands into circulation, high taxes (for the maintenance of the state apparatus and financed military operations).

A feature of the political life of this period is the participation in it of the eunuchs who served the imperial harem. The ruler believed that eunuchs were the most loyal group of people close to the imperial court. In 1420, a special school was created, where eunuchs were taught public administration. But there were too many eunuchs - in the 16th century. - 100.000, in the XIV century. - 10,000, they sought personal enrichment, not professionals, prone to corruption.

In the XVI century. tax reform was carried out. The essence of the reform, called the "single whip", was to combine taxes and duties into a single tax, as well as to commute taxes and duties, which was based on silver. However, it was not possible to completely replace the tax in kind with cash, but such a goal was not set. Where it was more convenient to continue collecting the tax in kind, the old system was preserved (especially in the rice-producing provinces). This was done during Zhang Juzheng's chancellorship. Under him, regular inspections of the activities of officials were also carried out. They strengthened the army, the border guards, began to select officer cadres more carefully. After the death of Zhang Juzheng, opponents accused the chancellor of state. crime, and members of his family were killed.

At the end of the XVI century. Gu Xiancheng tried to continue the reforms, relying on the academicians of Dunlin, located in Qsi (Jiannan Province). This grouping expressed the interests of commercial and business circles, demanding the promotion of crafts, trade and entrepreneurial activity, protecting the interests of the owners of manufactories using hired labor; at the same time, she advocated the restriction of large feudal landownership, demanded tax cuts, the abolition of the monopoly on the development of minerals, etc. In 1620, the reformers achieved the coming to power of the young emperor, who supported their plans. But he was poisoned, and the reforms ended. The Donglin were defeated.

Foreign policy.

The first half of the Ming reign is characterized by an active foreign policy. There was a foreign policy doctrine - the whole world around was considered as a barbaric periphery, with which only vassal relations are possible. The tasks are the complete expulsion of the Mongols from the country and the strengthening of the land and sea borders of the country. By the end of the XIV century. Chinese troops inflicted new major defeats on the Mongols and annexed Liaodong. At the northwestern borders of China, military settlements were created and military garrisons were located. The Great Wall of China was being completed.

In 1398, Korea's vassalage to China was confirmed and remained largely nominal. Zhu Yuanzhang stepped up diplomatic and trade relations with the countries of Southeast Asia by sending a diplomatic mission. missions to Java, Cambodia, Japan and other countries. In the first decades of the fifteenth century offensive operations are being carried out against the nomads, expeditions were sent to the Hindustan Peninsula, to the Persian Gulf and to the shores of East Africa. At the beginning of the XV century. China survived the threat of Timur's invasion. In the XV century. China made 7 expeditions (1405-1433) to the countries of Southeast and South Asia. These expeditions were led by Zheng He.

By the middle of the XV century. China has reduced its foreign policy activity. Only campaigns in Northern Burma (1441-1446), which ended with the formal recognition of vassalage, belong to this time. But there were also failures. So, in 1449, the Chinese army was defeated, and the emperor fell into the hands of Essen, the leader of the Western Mongols-Oirats.

By the first half of the XVI century. refers to the first attempt of Europeans to penetrate China (1516-1517), when Portuguese merchant ships with goods approached the Chinese coast near Canton. However, they were expelled from the coast by the Chinese. An attempt by Portuguese merchants to settle near Ningbo (40s of the 16th century) also ended unsuccessfully. Only in 1557 was Macao captured. In the 20s of the XVII century. Dutch and English ships appeared. In 1624, the south of Taiwan was captured. By the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. the appearance in Chinese cities of monks - Jesuits (Italians, Germans, Portuguese), who were not only missionaries, but also spies, collecting information about the country, traded in weapons. In the 17th century the Manchus appeared.

Fall of the Ming Dynasty

At the beginning of the XVII century. China is in a difficult situation. The increase in taxes, the corruption of officials, the impoverishment of the main part of small landowners and the growth of large landownership led to a popular uprising in 1628-1644. The rebels, united with the Manchus, captured Beijing. The Ming dynasty ended its existence.

After the end of the era of territorial and state fragmentation, at the end of the 6th century, imperial order was revived in China. The First Chinese States. During the reign of the Tang Dynasty (7th–10th centuries), the Chinese empire was a state with centralized administration and a powerful bureaucratic apparatus.

At this time, many peasant uprisings were taking place in the country against the policy of tyrannical rule. Representatives of the Tang dynasty did not have a good material base for waging wars.

However, by raising the taxation of the peasantry, they organized military campaigns to neighboring territories with enviable constancy.

Long-term military confrontations with the Tibetans, as well as with the southern state of Nanzhao, were unsuccessful. Exhausted by hunger and poverty, the people were able to overthrow the Tans. Together with the fall of the ruling dynasty, a new period of territorial fragmentation of the state began.

China on the eve of the Mongol invasion

By the end of the 13th century, China consisted of two empires, the Jin and the Southern Song. By this period, the process of consolidating the Chinese nation had reached its completion. Despite the fragmentation, the population of the two empires perceives itself as a single nation.

The system of government that developed in the two empires has become a classic of public administration, and will be adopted by many countries in the future. The economy of China was represented by the most powerful agricultural production, as well as small, but fairly well-organized manufactories of artisans, in which the state was able to get ahead of the countries of Western Europe.

Foreign trade with Asian countries and Japan played a significant role in the development of the economy. Society, as was typical for all states of the medieval period, was divided into estates. However, the lower classes were by no means the peasants.

In many cities, for the first time, a layer of the so-called lumpen of the impoverished urban population appears, who often did not even have their own home. It was they who most often organized anti-government uprisings.

Mongol rule in China

During 70 years of uninterrupted struggle for the independence of their own statehood, the population of China in 1215 was under the rule of the Mongols. Mongol rule lasted in China for about a century. It was the most difficult time for the country, when all the previously flourishing branches of the economy fell into decline.

China was declared part of the Mongol Yuan Empire. The Mongol rulers exploited the Chinese economy with hard work and levied a tax of 40% of the total production.

However, internal strife did not allow the Mongols to consolidate their dominance in the long term. As a result of large-scale peasant militia, they were overthrown from the throne.

Ming Empire

In 1368, the people of China actually completely liberated themselves from the Mongol invaders. The Ming Dynasty came to power. The first period of their reign was marked by a deep state crisis, which will be repeated exactly at the end of the reign of the monarchical family.

The first emperor initiated large-scale reforms that concerned the political system and the economic life of the country. However, all seemingly loyal measures of the emperor were accompanied by a tough police regime: special committees were created, the main function of which was denunciations and political persecution of the opposition population.

The dawn of the Ming Empire dates back to the beginning of the 15th century, when the state territory expanded significantly, the trade and economy of the state experienced a rise. The Chinese, under the leadership of talented commanders, were able to stop new attempts to conquer the empire by the Mongols.

The main prerequisite for the collapse of the Ming Empire was an attempt to introduce democracy as a state form of government. The supreme power was concentrated primarily in the hands of officials, who increased the oppression of the peasants and artisans. Protests and military uprisings already in 1644 provoked the fall of the once prosperous empire.

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In 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang created the Ming Dynasty. He was not a representative of the "shenshi" and considered the interests of this estate, and likewise the dominance of the bureaucracy in governing the country, dangerous for the form of state apparatus that he was going to implement. The tendency towards the legalized centralization of government, which was noticeably manifested already in the Sung period, received a priority development in the Ming era. After the death of Zhu Yuanzhang, the emperor's son ascended the throne, then his uncle Zhu-Di became emperor. In 1421 he moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing.

Even the position of chancellor --- the chief political adviser to the emperor in all Chinese dynasties --- was not preserved under the Ming. Never before have the subjects of the country been treated with such cruelty. The caning of high-ranking officials in the presence of the entire court became a common practice. There are cases when the effigy of the executed official was hung in the office of his successor. The despotic regime could only be maintained during the reign of strong and energetic emperors. However, soon the rulers began to be attracted by the luxury of palace life, and power was in the hands of the eunuchs. From time to time, fierce fights broke out between the officials and the eunuchs, in which the Confucians were usually defeated, as already happened during the reign of the emperors of the Han Dynasty.

In the era of the Ming Dynasty, the famous politician Zhang Juzheng appeared. He carried out a reform in order to mitigate the contradictions in society and save the Minsk authorities. He streamlined management methods, developed agriculture in order to remove hardships from the peasants.

During this period, agriculture developed rapidly. The textile industry and the production of porcelain were developed. The iron industry, the paper industry, and the shipbuilding industry also developed rapidly. Foreign exchange in the field of economy and culture has expanded. On July 11, 1405, the naval commander Zheng He went to sea at the head of a squadron of 208 ships, on board of which there were 28 thousand sailors. During his nearly 30-year maritime career, Zheng He has traveled to the South Pacific, the Indian Ocean, the Persian Gulf and off the coast of East Africa. In China, it is believed that it was Zheng He who discovered America, 70 years ahead of Columbus, who reached the shores of the New World in 1492.

During the Ming Dynasty, the commodity economy developed rapidly. The first shoots of capitalism appeared. At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty, Zhu Yuanzhang reduced taxes. He also attracted people to the cultivation of new types of crops, such as tobacco, tomatoes, corn and peanuts, brought from other countries to China. Manufactories appeared in the textile industry, in which there were more than 10 looms, and hired workers. All this testifies to the sprouts of capitalism in China. Under the Ming Dynasty, the production of various goods increased. Commercial centers were established in places that had convenient communications. Prosperous cities appeared --- Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou, Hangzhou and Guangzhou.

During this period, the writing of examination essays --- eight-part written works was widespread, for the sake of obtaining the position of a government official, famous classic novels appeared, for example, "River Pools", "Three Kingdoms", "Journey to the West" and "Plum Blossoms in a Golden Vase". In addition, "Xu Xiake's Journey" --- literature on geography was created, and the book "Chinese Pharmacopeia of Medicinal Plants" appeared in the field of medicine; the "Agricultural Encyclopedia", the treatise "The Work of Natural Forces", as well as the famous "Yongle Encyclopedia" were published.

In the later period of the Ming Dynasty, the concentration of land increased greatly. Soon, a new and powerful enemy arose near the northeastern borders of China. The leader of the descendants of the Jurchens, Nurkhatsi, declared himself Khan in 1616 and founded the Jin (Golden) dynasty. Thus was created the Manchu Empire, a typical frontier empire, but Nurhaci made much greater use of Chinese experience in the administrative and military fields to consolidate his own dominance. In the organization of its armed forces, the features inherent in the troops of the steppe peoples were observed, and the methods of conducting combat operations were combined with Chinese methods of strict command and control.

As a result of the peasant uprising, the power of the Mongols was overthrown. The (foreign) dynasty was replaced by the Ming dynasty (1368 - 1644). From the end of the XIV century. China is flourishing economically and culturally. Old cities begin to develop, new ones appear, in which trade and craft prevail. The process of evolution of the country is reinforced by the emergence of manufactories, where the division of labor is introduced. The best scientists, architects and artists are attracted to the imperial court. The main focus is on urban development.

Chinese Ming Dynasty: Economic Transformations

Almost immediately after the advent of this dynasty, measures began to be introduced to improve the existing situation of the peasants, since it was they who helped to effect a change of power. The Ming Dynasty revived the allotment system in the North, which eliminated the economic power of the landowning elite (Northern Chinese), who had previously allied with Yuanyamm. And in the South, everything was exactly the opposite - landownership was preserved. Modernization of the existing accounting and tax system, as well as special attention on the part of the authorities to irrigation - all this contributed to rapid economic growth.

The growth of the urban economy was traced, the reason for which was the regional specialization (in Jiangxi there was porcelain production, and in Guangdong - mainly railway), the emergence of new directions, a special place among which was the construction of 4-deck ships.

Gradually develop and commodity-money relationships. On the basis of merchant's capital, private manufactories appeared. Central and South China became the place where handicraft settlements appeared. Subsequently, prerequisites were formed for the creation of an all-Chinese market (the number of official fairs was already close to 38).

but on the other hand

Simultaneously with the above progressive phenomena, there were a number of obstacles that hindered the development of entrepreneurship (this was typical for the entire East). These include state monopolies, state-owned manufactories, in which more than 300 thousand artisans worked, state extortions from trade and. They did not give the economy the opportunity to switch to a qualitatively different production.

Ming dynasty

During the period of economic recovery and the strengthening of state power, a predominantly offensive policy is carried out (until 1450 it was called “facing the sea”, and after that it turned into “facing the barbarians”).

The most significant event of this time is the expansion of China, which affected the states of the South Seas.

The Ming Dynasty, in view of the growing need to solve the problem of Japanese, Chinese, Korean piracy, was forced to create a fleet that consisted of 3,500 ships. Further economic growth contributed to the completion of seven expeditions of a separate fleet, led by the chief eunuch Zheng He, to East Africa. This naval commander had at his disposal 60 large 4-deck ships, the length of which reached 47 meters, they had such pretentious names as "Pure Harmony", "Prosperity and Prosperity". Each had 600 crew members, including a group of diplomats.

Excerpt from logbooks

According to them, during the journey to the coast, Zheng, speaking in modern language, acted calmly and humbly at sea. However, occasionally small foreigners did not obey the good intentions of the emperor.

Ming Dynasty History

The main emphasis of Zhu Yuanzhang (the first in the period of 70-80 years was made on the final expulsion of the Mongols from their country, the suppression of attempts at social protest among Chinese peasants through the procedure of improving the economy and strengthening personal power. Such tasks were solved by increasing the army, strengthening centralization, the use of the most stringent methods that caused discontent in all segments of the population.

Simultaneously with the limitation of the powers of local authorities, the emperor relied on numerous relatives who later became rulers - vans (title) of specific principalities due to the fact that, in his opinion, children and grandchildren are the most reliable.

There were vanities throughout the country: near the periphery, they performed a defensive function against threats from the outside, and in the center they acted as a counterweight to separatism and rebellions.

Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang died in 1398, after which the court camarilla, bypassing his direct heirs, placed Zhu Yongwen, one of his grandsons, on the throne.

Zhu Yongwen's reign

He first of all laid eyes on the system of destinies created by his grandfather. This caused a war with Jingnan (1398 - 1402). The confrontation ended with the capture of the capital of the empire Nanjing by the ruler of Beijing - the eldest son of Zhu Yuanzhang, Zhu Di. She was burned in the fire along with his opponent.

Third Emperor of the Ming Dynasty

Zhu-Di continued his father's policy of centralizing the state, while abandoning the existing system of vans (in 1426, a rebellion of discontented vans was suppressed). He laid siege to the titular nobility and increased the importance of the palace secret services in the process of governing the state.

Under him, the question was finally resolved as to what significantly influenced the political weight of the South and North. So, the latter, acting as the cradle of Chinese civilization, loses its weight in the III - V centuries. in favor of the first because of the constant threat of nomads. These parts of the country are carriers of fundamentally different traditions and mentalities: the southerners are complacent, careless, and the northerners are resolute, tough, having a higher social status - “han-zhen”. All this was reinforced by existing linguistic (dialectical) differences.

The Yuan and the Songs chose the North as their political base, while the Ming Dynasty, on the contrary, chose the South. This is what gave them the opportunity to win.

In 1403, the new emperor renamed the existing Beiping (translated as "Pacified North") into Beijing ("Northern Capital"). So, until 1421, there were two capitals in China - the imperial one in the north and the government-bureaucratic one in the south. Zhu Di thus got rid of the influence and guardianship of the southerners, at the same time depriving the southern bureaucracy (Nanjing) of excessive independence.

In 1421, the final consolidation of the capital in the North took place. In connection with the Ming, it provided itself with the support of the northern Chinese population and strengthened the country's defenses.

Ming emperors

As mentioned earlier, this dynasty ruled over China from 1368 to 1644. The Ming replaced the Mongolian Yuan in a popular uprising. A total of sixteen emperors of this dynasty ruled for 276 years. For ease of reference, the emperors of the Ming Dynasty are listed in the table below.

	Years of government	Motto
1. Zhu Yuanzhang	1368 - 1398	Hongwu ("Spill of Militancy")
2. Zhu Yunwen	1398 - 1402	Jianwen ("Civil Order Establishment")
	1402 - 1424	Yongle ("Eternal Joy")
4. Zhu Gaochi	1424 - 1425	Hongxi ("Great Radiance")
5. Zhu Zhanji	1425 - 1435	Xuande ("Propagation of Virtue")
6. Zhu Qizhen	1435 - 1449	Zhengtong ("Lawful Legacy")
7. Zhu Qiyu	1449 - 1457	Jingtai (Glittering Prosperity)
8. Zhu Qizhen	1457 - 1464	Tianshun ("Heavenly Favor")
9. Zhu Jianshen	1464 - 1487	Chenghua ("Perfect Prosperity")
10. Zhu Yutang	1487 - 1505	Hongzhi ("Generous Rule")
11. Zhu Houzhao	1505 -1521	Zhengde ("True Virtue")
12. Zhu Houcong	1521 - 1567	Jiajing ("Wonderful Peace")
13. Zhu Zaihou	1567 - 1572	Longqing ("Sublime Happiness")
14. Zhu Yijun	1572 - 1620	Wanli ("Countless Years")
15. Zhu Youjiao	1620 -1627	Tianqi ("Heavenly Guidance")
16. Zhu Youjian	1627 - 1644	Chongzhen ("Sublime Happiness")

Outcome of the peasant war

It was she who caused the fall of the Ming Dynasty. It is known that, unlike the uprising, it is not only numerous, but also affects different segments of the population. It is larger, longer, well organized, disciplined due to the presence of the leading center and the presence of ideology.

It is worth analyzing this event in more detail in order to understand how the fall of the Ming dynasty happened.

The first stage of the peasant movement began in 1628 and lasted for 11 years. Over 100 foci failed to unite, which is why they were suppressed. The second stage took place in 1641 and lasted only 3 years. The united forces of the rebels were led by the capable commander-in-chief Li Zicheng. He managed to form a peasant army from the existing numerous chaotically arisen detachments, which was distinguished by discipline, had clear tactics and strategy.

Li advanced rapidly under popular slogans among the masses regarding the overthrow of the Ming Dynasty. He promoted universal equality, made a promise regarding the non-collection of taxes at the end of the war.

As it became known, in the early morning of April 26, 1644, absolutely no one came to the ringing of the bell, which called for the ministers to come to Emperor Chong Zhen for an audience. Then he said that this was the end, his entourage began to weep. The Empress turned to her husband for the last time and told him that for 18 years she had been devoted to him, but he never bothered to listen to her, which led to this. After that, the Empress hanged herself on her belt.

The emperor had no choice but to clumsily kill his daughter and concubine with a sword and hang himself from his belt on an ash tree. Following the emperor, according to the customs of that time, all 80 thousand officials passed away. According to one version, the Great Sovereign left a note on a piece of silk, which was addressed to Li Zicheng. In it, he said that all officials are traitors, which is why they deserve death, they must be executed. The emperor justified his departure from life by his unwillingness to be indebted to the very last, despicable of his subjects. After a few hours, the messengers of the invader removed the body of the emperor from the tree, and then placed it in a coffin, which was intended for the poor.

Great Ming Dynasty Tomb

More precisely, tombs, since the graves of thirteen emperors of this dynasty are located on the territory of the famous memorial. The Ming Dynasty tomb extends over 40 square meters. km. It is located about 50 km from Beijing (to the north) at the foot of the great Mountain of Heavenly Longevity. The Ming Dynasty Tomb is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many come to Beijing just to see her.

Conclusion

The Manchurian yoke of the newly minted Qing dynasty, one might say, was imposed on the country during European times, which doomed China to as much as 268 years of political and socio-economic stagnation before the growing colonial expansion from Europe.

The two most powerful dynasties are the Ming and Qing. But the differences between them are colossal: the first showed the people the opportunity to enter a new, progressive path, allowed them to feel free and significant. The second destroyed everything that had been created by many years of work, made the state reclusive.