MORPHEMS. MORPHEMICS
Morphemes. Morpheme types
Morpheme(from the Greek. morphe - form) - the minimum significant part of the word.
The term was introduced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay in the 70s. 19th century and is generally accepted in modern linguistics.
It is customary to distinguish two groups of morphemes: root(basic morpheme) and affixes(service morphemes, lat. affixus "attached").
The affixes include the following types of morphemes:
prefixes(lat. praefixum “attached in front”, i.e. standing in front of the root), i.e. prefixes;
suffixes(lat. suffixus "nailed", i.e. affixes after the root);
infixes(lat. infixus "inserted", i.e. affixes inserted inside the root);
inflections(lat. flexio "flexion, transition"), i.e. endings.
All these morphemes combine to form words. A part of a word will be recognized as a morpheme if it is repeated in some other word: games-a, games-ah, games-OK.
A morpheme, as you can see, can also consist of one phoneme, but these are different linguistic units. Phonemes do not express meanings, morphemes have meanings; phonemes interact with phonemes, morphemes with morphemes; morphemes can be the arena of the functioning of phonemes, but they themselves are used only in the word.
General linguistic signs of morphemes and phonemes:
1. opposition, correlation: for example, in the word house stands out, in addition to the root, there is also a zero ending, or a zero morpheme. It is defined by its opposition to the morpheme -a, -y: house-a, to house-y.
2. Another common feature - fact of distribution- location in the word. Each morpheme has a permanent place in the word: the root is the core of morphemic associations, inflection completes, shapes the word and always stands at the end of it. The exceptions are the particles -sya and -ka, which are after the endings: s-move-and-ka, kup-a-et-sya.
3. Both morpheme and phoneme have their own options. Variants of a morpheme are called allomorphs (gr. allos "other", + morphe "form"): friend-, friend-, friend-; times-, races-; -onok, -enok; -nick, -nich.
Morphemes differ among themselves not only in place in the word, but also in the nature of the expressed meaning and in the function in the word.
2. Meanings expressed by morphemes
According to the American scientist E dward C e Peer, morphemes express three types of meanings: real, derivative(from Latin derivatio “abduction”, or better “clarification”), and, finally, relational(lat. relatio "relationship").
Real ( lexical) or substantive meaning. This concept is correlated with specific objects and phenomena of reality. It is expressed with a root, but can be expressed with a prefix and a suffix: years, you years, flying ik.
Derivative value close to the real, but not equal to it: it expresses feelings - diminutiveness, caress, scorn. Otherwise, it is called expressive-emotional (lat. expressio "expression (of feelings)", lat. emovere "to excite"). The derivational meaning is expressed by suffixes. For example, in the fable of I.A. Krylov "The Crow and the Fox" close, eyes, sock, voice, sister, craftswoman. The derivational value refines the real value.
relational value is concomitant of both real and derivational values. It expresses an abstract, abstract meaning, which may be real, or may have a relative, conditional character. For example, the meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter are sometimes due to the natural division of living beings by sex. In this case, the gender value is real. But the meaning of the middle gender is no longer real, it is purely grammatical.
Grammatical meanings also correspond to the real content of objective reality, only this content is not expressed materially and derivatively, it is expressed relationally, i.e. in word relationships. For example, in the words house and master the meaning of belonging is not expressed separately, but as soon as we put words in relationships, in connection, the meaning of belonging will immediately become real: master's house.
Morphemes derivational and formative
According to the function in the word, all morphemes are divided into derivational and formative.
word-building- these are mainly those that express lexical meaning: root, prefixes, suffixes: snowdrop. But inflection can also be a derivational morpheme: game-a, black-th, blue-th.Form-building- such morphemes that, without changing the real meaning, introduce additional grammatical meanings into it and form the word, these are mainly inflections: hand-a, hand-and, hand-e, hand-y, hand-oh, (o) hand-e.
In the process of word formation and shaping, the so-called stem of the word plays an important role.
stem- this is part of the word before the end. There are several types of bases:
Derivative basis one in which there is a formative or word-formative affix: game, that is, in addition to the root, there is also some morpheme. Non-derivative the stem does not have any derivational affix: the game, that is, the stem of the word is equal to the root morpheme.
Non-root morphemes are divided into word-forming (word-forming) and form-forming (form-forming).
Word-forming non-root morphemes serve to form new words, morphemes, formative - to form word forms.
There are several terminological traditions in linguistics. The most common is the terminology in which all non-root morphemes are called affixes. Further, affixes are subdivided in it into derivational affixes and inflections. Another fairly authoritative tradition assigns the term affixes only to word-forming morphemes.
Word-forming morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.
A prefix is a derivational morpheme that precedes a root or another prefix (re-do, pre-pretty, by the seaside, in some places, re-do).
A derivational suffix is a derivational morpheme that comes after the root (table-ik, red-e-t).
In linguistics, along with the suffix, there is also a postfix - a word-forming morpheme that comes after the ending or the form-forming suffix (mind-th-sya, someone else).
Prefixes are more autonomous in word structure than suffixes:
1) prefixes can have a secondary, weaker stress in polysyllabic words: ultraviolet,
2) they do not cause grammatical alternations at the root, unlike suffixes that can cause similar alternations: hand-a - hand-to-a,
3) by adding a prefix alone, a word of another part of speech cannot be formed, unlike suffixes: the addition of a suffix can either not change the part of the word (dom - dom-ik), or form a word of another part of speech (white - white-e- t, white-out-a),
4) prefixes are often not associated with a specific part of speech (under-work, under-sleep), while suffixes are usually assigned to a certain part of speech: -nick- serves to form nouns, -liv- - adjectives, -iva- - verbs) ,
5) the meaning of the prefix is usually quite specific and only modifies the meaning of the original stem, while the meaning of the suffix can be either very specific (-yonok- denotes the cub of the one who is named in the root) or very abstract (-n- denotes a feature of the subject ).
Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix
Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are divided into endings and formative suffixes.
Formative morphemes, like other types of morphemes, necessarily have a meaning. But these are meanings of a different kind than those of roots or word-forming morphemes: endings and formative suffixes express the grammatical meanings of the word - abstract meanings abstracted from the lexical meanings of words (gender, person, number, case, inclination, time, degrees of comparison, etc.).
Endings and formative suffixes differing in the nature of the grammatical meaning they express
A morpheme is the smallest two-sided unit of a language. The concept of a morpheme was introduced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay (1845-1929) as the concept of the minimum meaningful part of a word, linearly distinguished in the form of a certain “sound segment” (segment) in morphological analysis.
Speaking about formative and word-forming morphemes, you should first clarify the difference between inflection (formation) and word formation.
Inflection is the formation for each word (except for words of invariable parts of speech) of its paradigm. In inflection, the identity of the lexeme is not violated, in contrast to word formation. An inflection in a certain class of words is a change in the inflectional categories of this class for words (so, for a noun, this is the CC of the case and number). Sometimes inflection ≠ shaping (because it also includes analytical forms, for example, will read).
Word formation is the formation of words, called derivatives or compound words, usually on the basis of single-root words according to the formal models existing in the language (affixation, compounding, etc.). Word formation, providing the nomination process and its results, acts as one of the main means of replenishing the vocabulary of the language, as well as establishing links between individual parts of speech.
The boundary between word formation and inflection is not absolute: intermediate phenomena are possible. Therefore, linguists often disagree on this issue: for example, it is debatable whether the formation of verb forms is included in Russian inflection. There are 2 positions for distinguishing between form formation and word formation: 1) form formation is regular, word formation is not (here we are not talking about a law, but about a trend); 2) Jacobson, Plungyan: word formation is optional, form formation is obligatory, the existence of regular word formation is recognized.
Morphemes that serve to form words are word-forming, to change them within the framework of a lexeme, they are formative .
As for morphemes that perform both of these functions, it is necessary to say about partial stems (the case when word forms are formed from different roots or with the help of different affixes). Example: hare/onok/¤/(units) - hare/at/a/(plural); FOS - hare-, and part of these words without inflections is a partial stem. Indeed, with the help of these suffixes, a new seme ‘cub’ and different forms are formed: singular. and many others. h.
41. Variation of the morpheme. The concept of allomorpheme (allomorph). Limits of morpheme variation.
Morpheme - an abstract unit of a language, many morphemes appear in a number of language variants - allomorphemes(allomorphs), in the flow of speech the morpheme is represented by specific options - morphs.
The morpheme is a two-sided unit, therefore its variation is twofold: in terms of expression - the variation of the exponent (the prefix over- in the language appears in two versions "over" and "nat"), in terms of content - polysemy (the meanings of the prefix "over" 1 - adding from above “build on” or 2 - penetration to a shallow depth “cut”). Exponential and meaningful variation.
In exponential variation, we have either distribution (inscribe, but I will cut) - a mandatory option, or free variation (by hand - by hand) - optional options.
Limits of variation.
Exponential variation: what ensures the unity of the morpheme? One morpheme or two different ones? One morpheme, if there is an identity of meaning and belonging to the same type, identity of a positional characteristic, regular alternations (otherwise worked = wrote). If these formal connections are absent, then this is homosemy (equivalence) of different morphemes (daN and takenT, sizhU and emM).
Homosemy, polysemy and homonymy of morphemes (in the ticket above).
The grammatical structure of the word. The concept of the basis of the word and formative (formant) in the aspect of form and word formation. Foundation types. word-changing paradigm. Zero morphemes. Paradigm shift as a word-formation tool (conversion).
Morphemes - building material for a higher unit of language - words.
By presence/absence shaping all words are divided into two structural types: uniform(immutable) and multiform(changeable).
By word-formation structure fishing is divided into derivatives and non-derivative.
Formation.
monoform words are represented in the language by only one word form (yesterday, skipping, here, alas, and, because of).
In terms of composition, it can be monomorphemic (yesterday, here) and polymorphemic (because of, in, again, in, during, jump, ku);
Polyform word exists as a set of word forms (the lexeme does not coincide with the word form: “read” is a lexeme, word forms are “read”, “read”, “read”, “read”, “would read” ...).
Composition: is built in different word forms partially, and sometimes completely from different morphemes. The analysis highlights constant part – formative (lexical) basis(defined as part of a word that necessarily contains a root and is constantly repeated without changes in all grammatical categories) and variable part – formative (formant). For example, in the words table, table, table, tables - the formative base is table-, and the formants: -#-, -a-, -y-, -s-.
A set of formative formants (formatives) - formative (inflectional) paradigm. Formants can be monomorphemic (ending) or polymorphemic (-l \ a in sang), may include suprasegmental morphemes (stress) - hornA (compare horn)
Word formation.
The derivativeness and non-production of a word takes place only in the synchronic aspect (language at the present stage) and also the derivativeness is comparable with motivation, in the diachronic aspect (language throughout time) all words are produced from something.
Attention is focused on synchronic aspect!
If we compare the derived word with the generating one, then the a common part– generating derivational basis and distinguishing feature – derivational format. For example, in the adjective peas, when comparing, we single out the derivational stem “peas” and the word-formative formatives “ov”, and a set of endings for this adjective.
The word-forming basis and the form-forming basis are basically similar, but differ in the way of selection: in the first case, the derived word is considered as a lexeme (whole) and compared with the generating one, in the second case, we simply compare different forms of one word.
The word-formation base necessarily contains a root, but it can also contain affixes (quick - speed - speed - speed - every time some affixes are repeated). We reveal it in a strict binary opposition up to the final components.
Foundation types:
1 - the basis of the generating word acts as a generating basis (fast - speed "fast")
2 - a separate word form acts as a generating basis (you - poke)
About a paradigm shift.
Sometimes a derivative word differs from a generating one only in the formative paradigm. This phenomenon was described by Smirnitsky and is called morphological conversion.
For example, English master (master, master) - to master (master, cope). There is homonymy, but it is not the point! The formation of a word occurs without affixes, bases. But only a change of paradigm (so “master (master, master)” in the paradigm will have the forms the master, a master, master's, masters, and “to master (master, cope)” - to master, I master, he masters, I'm mastering). In Russian, conversion is represented in such pairs as husband-wife, Eugene - Eugene, salt - salt.
Conversion can also be syntactic, i.e. at the heart of word formation is change syntactic compatibility(adverb "remained behind"combines with the verb and the preposition formed from it -" behind at home" is combined with a noun in R.p.).
About zero endings, um, not quite out of place - it goes into the list of questions for consultations (because why are they here ??) It is also useful to read pages 151-152 in the bible (the points covered there are not stated in the question, but it would be useful to know them too) - word-formation structure of compound words.
Words consist of minimal (hereinafter indivisible) meaningful parts, called morphemes(from Greek. morphe- form): roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. The doctrine of significant parts of a word (morphemes) is called morphemics.
According to their role, meaning and place in the word, morphemes are divided into root and official(affixal).
The ending- a variable significant part of the word, indicating the connection of the word with other words in the sentence. Expresses meanings: for nominal parts of speech and participles - gender, number and case; verbs in the present tense have persons and numbers, in the past tense - gender and number.
Zero ending- an ending that is not expressed by sounds and is found when comparing word forms. It is an indicator of a certain grammatical form. For example, the zero ending of a noun wind indicates I. (V.) p. h.m.r.; null verb ending spoke- per unit h.m.
To highlight ending, you should change the word, i.e. decline (names) or conjugate (verbs). Separating the ending, we simultaneously highlight the base.
The foundation
The foundation- part of the modified word without ending, expressing its lexical meaning: light, answer, work .
In addition to the root, the stem may include a prefix (s) and a suffix (s).
Root- the main indivisible part of related (single-root) words, which contains their common lexical meaning (shore - shore - coastal - coastal). To find the root of a word, you need to find related words. So, the words water, water, water, waterman, water, underwater, surface water have a common root -water-. Such a group of single-root words is called nest.
Console, or prefix (from lat. praefixus - attached in front) - a service morpheme that comes before the root and serves to form new words or their grammatical forms. For example: read up, top, unrepeatable.
Suffix(from lat. suffixus - attached, pinned) - an auxiliary morpheme, standing after the root and serving to form new words or their grammatical forms. For example: floating, get used to - get used to, reader.
The base equal to the root is called not a derivative(house, window, book). A stem that also includes one or more auxiliary morphemes (suffixes or prefixes) is called derivative(flight, day, justice).
Prefixes and suffixes can be word-forming and shaping.
derivational(word-forming) are called prefixes and suffixes that serve to form new words ( morning - morning, know - knowing, true - not true).
Form-building(formative) prefixes and suffixes are used to form word forms (draw- perfect form of the verb paint, pure- the superlative form of the adjective clean, wrote- past tense form of the verb write).
In Russian, the same prefixes serve to form words of different parts of speech ( interlocutor, take place; recognize, sign), and most suffixes serve to form any one part of speech ( -chik-, -ost and others - nouns, -sk-, -n- and others - adjectives, -ova-, -eva-, -iva-, -iva- and others - verbs, -o-, -e-, -mu-, -him-, -and- and others - adverbs).
In this chapter:
§one. Morpheme
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. It is not divided into smaller significant parts. Words are built from morphemes, while the meanings of morphemes are components of the general meaning of the word.
Morphemes are divided into derivational and inflectional (shaping).
Word-building morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word.
Inflectional (formative) morphemes are needed to form the forms of modified words and express the grammatical meaning of words.
§2. Types of derivational morphemes
Word-forming morphemes include root, prefix, suffix and interfix.
Root- the main morpheme common to related words and expressing the main lexical meaning of the word.
Remember:
Words without a root in Russian are impossible.
In words house, house ik, house ische, ova house, earphone house, home gardening, house island there is a root house. In the given examples of compound words, this is the first of two roots. There can be several roots in a word, as can be seen from the example.
In Russian, there are words consisting only of the root. These are, first of all, service words: prepositions: on, to, above, unions: and, but, if, interjections: Oh, oh, hello, some adverbs: very, there, as well as immutable nouns: coffee, underground and adjectives: beige, khaki.
Console is a morpheme that occupies a position in the word before the root, for example with run, when you go, rethink. There can be several prefixes, as well as roots, in a word: demon with mental, imp by powerful.
Remember:
A word cannot consist only of a prefix.
Suffix- a morpheme that occupies a position in a word after the root, for example, human new, Coast ow oh. In many Russian words, not one, but several suffixes: violence essentially, America an iz irova nn.
Remember:
A word cannot consist only of a suffix.
Somewhat special in the system of morphemes is interfix.
Interfixes in Russian include letters about
and e
as connecting vowels in compound words. Interfixes participate in word formation, but do not add their own meaning: warm about move, steam about WHO, myself about var.
§3. Types of formative morphemes
Form-building morphemes include, first of all, endings and suffixes.
The ending- this is a morpheme that serves to change the word, form its forms and express meanings: number, gender, case, person. Endings are needed to connect words in a sentence.
Only modified words have endings. Examples:
listening yu, listening, listening, listening, listening, listening
ch. present time of the 1st ref., forms of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd person singular. and plural. h.
dachas a, dacha, dacha, dacha, dacha, o dacha
noun 1st fold, female, unit h., im., genus., dates., wine., tv., p. pad.
Zero ending
The termination may be null, i.e. not expressed, not represented, but such an ending also carries information about the grammatical meaning.
Example: table - zero ending (n. m.r., 2nd skl., name = vin. fall.), read - zero ending (ch. past tense, m.r., pl.) .
Remember:
These words and these forms have zero endings:
- for nouns of the 2nd and 3rd cl. in the form of I.p. and V.p. in the singular, if their forms are the same, as in inanimate nouns: house, horse, mother, night
- for nouns of all declensions in the form R.p. in plural: cars, windows, soldiers, armies
- for short adjectives in singular form. m.r.: healthy, glad, happy
- in verbs in the indicative mood, past. time, units, m.r.: read, write, count
- for verbs in the form of the conditional mood, singular, m.p.: read, write, count would
- for verbs in the imperative mood singular: write, read, count
- in short passive participles in the singular form. m.r.: written, read
Do not confuse:
Zero ending and no ending for immutable words. This is a gross error, common in parsing.
Formative suffixes- these are morphemes that stand in the word after the root and serve to form the forms of the word. Examples: suffix of the indefinite form of the verb -th, -ti: chita be, id ti, past tense suffix -l: go l, imperative mood -and: see and, degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs -e:hush e.
We discuss the problem of interpretation.
Formative suffixes or endings?
Some authors consider formative suffixes as endings. Their logic is as follows: if a morpheme is used to form new words, this is a suffix, and if different forms of the same word are formed with the help of a morpheme, then these are endings. According to this logic, it turns out that the indicator of the past tense -l is the ending, and the indicator of the infinitive too. After all be in love and I loved It's the same word, only the forms are different.
I recommend that the guys not be surprised when they meet a new interpretation for themselves. Nothing can be done, there are issues on which researchers have not yet agreed. The main thing is to be consistent and always comment on controversial phenomena in the same way.
test of strength
Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.
Final test
What is the smallest meaningful part of a word?
- Morpheme
Is the meaning of the morpheme a component of the overall meaning of the word?
What morphemes serve to form words and help express the lexical meaning of a word?
- word-building
- Formative (inflectional)
What morpheme is common for related words and expresses the main lexical meaning of the word?
- Root
- Console
- Suffix
Can a word consist only of a prefix?
Can a word consist only of a suffix?
What morpheme is used to express the meanings of person, gender, number, case?
- Suffix
- The ending
Why are interfixes needed?
- For word formation
- To pass a new value
- For shaping
What morpheme is used to connect words in a sentence?
- Root
- Suffix
- The ending
Do verbs have a conditional ending in the masculine singular?
Right answers:
- Morpheme
- word-building
- Root
- The ending
- For word formation
- The ending
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