Born into a wealthy merchant family, he studied at the University of Bologna, where in 1530 he received a doctorate in canon and civil law (in utroque jure).

In 1531-1539. taught at the university. In 1538, Pope Paul III attracted Hugo Boncompagni as a lawyer to work in the Roman Curia. In 1546, as an abbreviator of Boncompagni, he participated in the work of the Council of Trent (also in 1561-1563). Under Pope Paul IV in Jan. 1556 became a member of the papal commission that worked on the preparation of reforms in the Catholic. Churches. As a papal datarius, he was an assistant card. Carlo Caraffa, the nephew of Paul IV, accompanied the cardinal to France, where he was sent as a papal legate, and to the Spanish court. box Philip II in Brussels. In 1558, Boncompagni was ordained a presbyter, on July 20 of the same year he was named bishop of the city of Vieste. Pope Pius IV appointed Boncompagni prefect of the supreme papal tribunal Signatura apostolica, and on March 12, 1565, he elevated Rome to the cardinal presbyter. c. Sixtus (received May 15, 1565). In the autumn of 1565 he was sent as a legate to Spain for trial in the case of the archbishop. Toledo Bartolome Carranza. After the death of Pius IV, Boncompagni, who was not present at the conclave, was considered as one of the possible contenders for the Papacy, but in January. 1566 Bishop was elected pope. Nepi Antonio (Michele) Ghislieri, under which Boncompagni became a member of the commission of Roman correctors (Correctores Romani) created by the new pope to streamline the codes of canon law and prepare the official edition of the Corpus juris canonici.

After the death of Pius V card. Hugo Boncompagni, with the support of Cardinal Antoine Granvela, at that time viceroy of Naples and close associate of King Philip II of Spain, was elected pope and ascended the throne of Rome. A supporter and conductor of the Counter-Reformation, Pope Gregory XIII prepared a series of reforms in the spirit of the Council of Trent. In contrast to the strict asceticism of Pope Pius V, the reign of Pope Gregory XIII, probably due to his legal education, according to his contemporaries, was characterized as more secular.

Declaring himself as an opponent of nepotism, Pope Gregory XIII nevertheless appointed his nephews Philip Boncompagni (since June 2, 1572) and Philip Vastavillano (since July 5, 1574) as cardinals, the 3rd nephew was denied the dignity. Brother Pope Gregory XIII, who asked the pope for financial assistance, was denied access to Rome. Pope Gregory XIII was the last pope who is known for certain to have had illegitimate children - the son of Giacomo genus. before the adoption of Hugo Boncompagni priesthood. Pope Gregory XIII arranged the marriage of his son with Countess Sforza and elevated the castle to St. Angel and Gonfalonier of the Roman Church (commander-in-chief of the Papal States).

Pope Gregory XIII, already on the day of his election, informed the ambassadors of Spain and Portugal that he intended to continue the struggle against the Turks, begun by his predecessors, and to provide assistance to the Holy Antitour. the league organized by Pope Pius V. However, the conflict between the members of the league, primarily Spain and Venice, which concluded separate peace treaties with the Ottoman Empire (Venice in 1573, Spain in 1581), prevented any success in the fight against the Ottoman threat. The main direction of the policy of Pope Gregory XIII was the fight against the spreading Protestantism.

Papal legates acted at the courts of France, Spain, Portugal, in the German principalities, in Sweden and in Poland, seeking to contain the Reformation at any cost. It is traditionally believed that the pope took the news of Bartholomew's night (Aug. 24, 1572) positively, which he called "a very joyful event for the entire Christian world" ( Romier L. La S. -Barthelemy // Revue du XVIe siècle. 1913. P. 530), the victory of the Church over heretics. However, modern studies clarify that the pope not only did not take any part in the preparation of the massacre, but, moreover, as a lawyer, he regretted that the French king Charles IX failed to resort to more legal methods of punishing heretics. Later, in order to support the fight against the Huguenots in France, Pope Gregory XIII blessed the Catholics who fought against the "new heresy" (February 15, 1585). Secret treaties were made with the Spanish Inquisition. With the bull "Antiqua Judeorum" (1581), Pope Gregory XIII extended the powers of the Inquisition to matters related to Jews and Muslims. According to the bull "Consueverunt Romani pontifices" (1583), the categories of those who were excommunicated were expanded - among them were not only heretics, but also pirates, ransom bandits, counterfeiters and other disturbers of public peace.

The Pope had high hopes for an alliance with the Spanish king against the English Queen Elizabeth I.

In the Netherlands, he also supported the struggle against Prince William of Orange and the Geuzes, hoping to use these lands as a springboard to fight against Protestant England.

In Sweden, where in 1577 the Jesuit Antonio Possevino was sent as an extraordinary ambassador, King John III Vasa, under the influence of his Catholic wife Catherine Jagiellonka, sister of the Polish king Sigismund II Augustus, agreed to preserve the Catholic faith in his state, provided that celebration of the mass in the national language, communion with bread and wine, marriage of clergy, refusal to venerate saints, and also that the former church property, which passed to secular owners during the years of the Reformation, will be preserved for them. After the refusal of Pope Gregory XIII to recognize such a "reconciliation of religions" as possible, after the death of Catherine the Jagiellonian (1583) and a new marriage with a Lutheran, the Swedish king finally fell away from Catholicism, converting to the Lutheran faith. In Poland, the pope approved the election of Stefan Batory as king (1576), who subsequently supported the Catholic clergy and the Jesuits in the fight against the reform movement.

In an effort to put into practice the decisions of the Council of Trent, the pope first of all took measures to ensure that the documents of the Council were published everywhere. Following the conciliar decisions, from 1573 he made compulsory visits of church provinces to the North. and Center. Italy. In other regions (for example, in the Catholic cantons of Switzerland, in N. Austria and Tyrol), papal nuncios became the conductors of papal policy. In the Holy The Roman Empire, in the conditions of the active spread of Protestantism, which threatened to fall away from Catholicism, the Church of the Archdiocese of Cologne (in 1582, Archbishop Gebhard II von Waldburg of Cologne declared himself a Calvinist, joining him to the Protestant electors gave them an advantage in the college that elected the emperor), the pope had to to agree to the election in 1583 to the archiepiscopal chair of the Catholic Ernst of Bavaria, brother of Hertz. Wilhelm V of Bavaria, despite the fact that the future Archbishop of Cologne by that time was simultaneously the Bishop of Münster, Liège, Freisingen and Hildesheim.

To strengthen church discipline (this requirement was also put forward at the Council of Trent), Pope Gregory XIII carried out a series of transformations of the Roman Curia. In an effort to control the process of appointing bishops, the pope demanded that a list of those priests be drawn up who, if there were vacancies, could receive the episcopal rank in the near future, so that as much information as possible about the candidates would be collected and only deserving ones would be appointed to vacant positions. A congregation for the affairs of bishops was organized (in 1601, together with the congregation for the affairs of monastics, it became part of the congregation for the affairs of bishops and monastics) and the congregation of ceremonial (1572). The financial structure of the Catholic Church was changed. Churches, control over revenues was transferred to the Apostolic Chamber (Camera apostolica). Pope Gregory XIII laid the foundation for Bud. Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (Propaganda fidei) - a committee of 3 cardinals was entrusted with the leadership of the Catholic. missions in the East to support the Catholics of the East. rite in canonical communion with the See of Rome and the spread of Catholic. faith among the Orthodox population. For the same purpose, Pope Gregory XIII contributed to the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic Church in Eastern languages. The missionary activity of Catholic monastic orders in non-European territories received support from Pope Gregory XIII. The Jesuits began an active missionary activity in China, Japan, having received a papal privilege and being the only order that could conduct preaching activities in these lands, as well as in Peru, Mexico, and East. Africa and the Middle East. The Pope provided significant financial assistance to the Jesuit Collegium in Japan. Augustinian and Franciscan missions worked in the Philippine Islands; in 1579, the Episcopacy of Manila was founded there.

In con. 1577 - early. In 1578, the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch, Ignatius Namatalla, was in Rome, with whom negotiations began on the conclusion of a church union of the Roman Catholic Church and the ancient Eastern Churches (Syrian (Jacobite), Coptic and Ethiopian). The unions were concluded after the death of Pope Gregory XIII.

In 1581, Russian. Tsar John IV Vasilyevich the Terrible turned to Pope Gregory XIII with a request for mediation in concluding peace between the Russian state and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Possevino was sent to Moscow, also authorized to negotiate a union. After the signing of the Yam-Zapolsky peace, Possevino arrived in Moscow, where, with the permission of Ivan the Terrible, he held (February 21, 23 and March 4) public debates about faith, after one of which, in a fit of rage, the tsar almost killed the papal legate. Possevino's mission was completed without producing any results in the union negotiations.

Following the program of the Council for the revival of Catholic spirituality, the pope supported the activities of the Jesuits, Capuchins and other orders. In 1575, with the Bull Copiosus, Pope Gregory XIII approved the Oratorian Order, and in 1579 he reorganized the Western Order. branches of the Basilian order (bulla "Benedictus Dominus"). In 1580, the pope approved the reform of the Carmelite order, carried out by Teresa of Avila, as a result of which a branch of barefoot Carmelites and Carmelites stood out.

Pope Gregory XIII commissioned C. Barony to edit and prepare for publication the Roman Martyrology. In 1582, an official was published. approved by G. (bull "Cum pro munere pastorali") collection of laws of the Catholic Church "Corpus juris canonici", in force until 1917. In the process of preparing the 4-volume edition, the search and comparison of ancient manuscripts of the Gratian Decree and codes of decretal law were carried out in order to eliminate errors and discrepancies.

In 1582, the pope reformed the calendar. Its necessity was already announced at the Council of Trent: due to the error of the Julian calendar, the date of March 21, traditionally considered the early boundary of the Paschal full moon, gradually receded from the astronomical spring equinox and by 1545, when the Council opened, lagged behind it by 10 days. A special commission was organized to prepare the reform, and the final draft (drawn up by the astronomer L. Lilio) was approved by many. European universities. It was proposed to remove the 10 days that had accumulated in following the Julian calendar since the Council of Nicaea (325), and to avoid their accumulation in the future, skip 3 leap years every 400 years; for this purpose, years divisible by 100, but not divisible by 400, were taken as ordinary instead of leap years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 and 2200 are ordinary years; 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years). Thus, the border of the Easter year, March 21, again, as in the 4th century, returned to the vernal equinox. At the same time, the method for determining full moons was corrected. The new calendar, which received the name "Gregorian" by the name of Pope Gregory XIII, was put into effect by a bull of 24 Feb. 1582 "Inter gravissimas". After 4 Oct. That year, all Christians were instructed to immediately consider October 15. In 1583, the pope sent an embassy to Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople with gifts and a proposal to switch to a new calendar. At the end of 1583, at the Council in Constantinople, this proposal was rejected as not in accordance with the canonical rules for celebrating Easter.

Pope Gregory XIII, more than any of his predecessors, tried to turn Rome into a center of Catholic church education - the German Collegium (Postquam Deo placuit, 1574), the Greek Collegium of St. Athanasius (bull "In apostolicae Sedis", 1577), College of the Angles of St. Thomas (bulla "Quoniam divinae", 1579) and the Maronite College (bull "Humana sic ferunt", 1584), the purpose of which was to train the priests of the east. rite. The College of Rome received a new building and an annual cash grant. In 1575, the jubilee year (“annus sanctus”) was widely celebrated in Rome, approx. 400 thousand pilgrims. For this event, work was carried out in Rome on the reconstruction of roads, fountains were broken, including 2 on Sq. Navona, the construction of the Quirinal Palace began.

Pope Gregory XIII died in Rome and is buried in the Basilica of St. Peter.

Roman calendar and its Julian reform

Roman calendar. History has not kept us accurate information about the time of the birth of the Roman calendar. However, it is known that during the time of Romulus, the legendary founder of Rome and the first Roman king, that is, around the middle of the 8th century. BC e., the Romans used a calendar in which the year, according to Censorinus, consisted of only 10 months and contained 304 days. Initially, the months did not have names and were designated by serial numbers. The year began on the first day of the month in which the beginning of spring fell.

Around the end of the 8th century BC e. some months have their own names. So, the first month of the year was named Martius (Martius) in honor of the god of war Mars. The second month of the year was named Aprilis. This word comes from the Latin “aperire”, which means “to open”, as the buds on the trees open this month. The third month was dedicated to the goddess Maya - the mother of the god Hermes (Mercury) - and received the name Mayus (Majus), and the fourth in honor of the goddess Juno (Fig. 8), wife Jupiter, was named Junius. This is how the names of the months of March, April, May and June appeared. The following months continued to retain their numerical designations:

Quintilis (Quintilis) - "fifth"
Sextilis (Sextilis) - "sixth"
September (September) - "seventh"
Oktober (Oktober) - "eighth"
November (November) - "ninth"
December (December) - "tenth"

Martius, Maius, Quintilis and October had 31 days each, and the rest of the months consisted of 30 days. Therefore, the most ancient Roman calendar can be represented in the form of a table. 1, and one of his samples is shown in Fig. 9.

Table 1 Roman calendar (VIII century BC)
Name of the month	Number of days	Name of the month	Number of days
March	31	Sextilis	30
April	30	September	30
May	31	October	31
June	30	November	30
Quintilis	31	December	30

Create a 12-month calendar. In the 7th century BC e., that is, during the time of the second legendary ancient Roman king - Numa Pompilius, the Roman calendar was reformed and two more months were added to the calendar year: the eleventh and twelfth. The first of them was named January (Januarius) - in honor of the two-faced god Janus (Fig. 10), whose one face was turned forward and the other backward: he could simultaneously contemplate the past and foresee the future. The name of the second new month, February, comes from the Latin word "februarius", which means "purification" and is associated with the rite of purification, celebrated annually on February 15th. This month was dedicated to the god of the underworld, Februus.

The history of the distribution of days according to months. The original year of the Roman calendar, as already mentioned, consisted of 304 days. To equalize it with the calendar year of the Greeks, one would have to add 50 days to it, and then there would be 354 days in a year. But the superstitious Romans believed that odd numbers happier than even ones, and therefore they added 51 days. However, from such a number of days it was impossible to make 2 full months. Therefore, from six months, which previously consisted of 30 days, i.e. from April, June, sextilis, September, November and December, one day was taken away. Then the number of days from which new months were formed increased to 57. From this number of days, the months of January were formed, containing 29 days, and February, which received 28 days.

Thus, a year containing 355 days was divided into 12 months with the number of days indicated in Table. 2.

Here, February has only 28 days. This month was doubly "unlucky": it was shorter than the others and contained an even number of days. This is what the Roman calendar looked like for several centuries BC. e. The established length of the year of 355 days almost coincided with the length of the lunar year, which consisted of 12 lunar months but 29.53 days, since 29.53 × 12 == 354.4 days.

Such a coincidence is not accidental. It is explained by the fact that the Romans used the lunar calendar and determined the beginning of each month by the first appearance of the lunar crescent after the new moon. The priests ordered the heralds to publicly "call out" for general information the beginning of each new month, as well as the beginning of the year.

Randomness of the Roman calendar. The Roman calendar year is shorter than the tropical year by more than 10 days. Because of this, calendar numbers every year less and less corresponded to natural phenomena. To eliminate this irregularity, an additional month was inserted every two years between February 23 and 24, the so-called mercedonium, which alternately contained either 22 or 23 days. Therefore, the duration of the years alternated as follows:

table 2
Roman calendar (7th century BC)
Name	Number	Name	Number
meoscha	days	months	days
March	31	September	29
April	29	October	31
May	31	November	29
June	29	December	29
Kshshtplis	31	Yapnar	29
Sextnlys	29	February	28

355 days

377 (355+22) days

355 days

378 (355+23) days.

Thus, each four years consisted of two simple years and two extended ones. The average length of the year in such a four-year period was 366.25 days, that is, it was a whole day longer than in reality. In order to eliminate the discrepancy between calendar numbers and natural phenomena, it was necessary from time to time to resort to increasing or decreasing the duration of additional months.

The right to change the duration of the additional months belonged to the priests (pontiffs), headed by the high priest (Pontifex Maximus). They often abused their power by arbitrarily lengthening or shortening the year. According to Cicero, the priests, using the power granted to them, lengthened the terms of public posts for their friends or for those who bribed them, and shortened the terms for their enemies. The time of paying various taxes and fulfilling other obligations also depended on the arbitrariness of the priest. To all this, confusion began in the celebration of the holidays. So, the harvest festival sometimes had to be celebrated not in summer, but in winter.

We find a very apt description of the state of the Roman calendar of that time in the outstanding French writer and educator of the 18th century. Voltaire, who wrote: "The Roman generals always won, but they never knew what day it happened."

Julius Caesar and the calendar reform. The chaotic nature of the Roman calendar created such great inconvenience that its urgent reform turned into an acute social problem. Such a reform was carried out over two thousand years ago, in 46 BC. e. It was initiated by the Roman statesman and commander Julius Caesar. By this time, he had visited Egypt, the center of ancient science and culture, and got acquainted with the peculiarities of the Egyptian calendar. It was this calendar, with the amendment of the Canopic Decree, that Julius Caesar decided to introduce in Rome. He entrusted the creation of a new calendar to a group of Alexandrian astronomers headed by Sosigenes.

Julian calendar of Sosigenes. The essence of the reform was that the calendar was based on the annual movement of the Sun between the stars. The average length of the year was set at 365.25 days, which exactly corresponded to the length of the tropical year known at that time. But so that the beginning of the calendar year always falls on the same date, as well as at the same time of day, they decided to count up to 365 days in each year for three years, and 366 in the fourth. This lastthe year was called a leap year. True, Sosigenes should have known that the Greek astronomer Hipparchus, about 75 years before the reform planned by Julius Caesar, established that the duration of the tropical year is not 365.25 days, but somewhat less, but he probably considered this difference insignificant and therefore neglected them.

Sosigene divided the year into 12 months, for which he retained their ancient names: January, February, March, April, May, June, quintilis, sextilis, September, October, November and December. The month of Mercedonia was removed from the calendar. January was adopted for the first month of the year, since already from 153 BC. e. newly elected Roman consuls took office on 1 January. The number of days in months was also ordered (Table 3).

Table 3
Julian calendar of Sosigenes (for 46 years BC)
Name	Number	Name	Number
months	days	months	days
January	31	Quintilis	31
February	29 (30)	Sextilis	30
March	31	September	31
April	30	October	30
Mal	31	November	31
June	30	December	30

Consequently, all odd months (January, March, May, quintilis, September and November) had 31 days each, and even ones (February, April, June, sextilis, October and December) had 30. Only February of a simple year contained 29 days.

Before the implementation of the reform, in an effort to achieve the coincidence of all holidays with their corresponding At seasons of the year, the Romans added to the calendar year, besides Mercedonia, which consisted of 23 days, two intercalary months, one of 33 days and the other of 34. Both of these months were placed between November and December. Thus, a year of 445 days was formed, known in history under the name of disorderly or "year of confusion." This was the year 46 BC. e.

In gratitude to Julius Caesar for streamlining the calendar and his military merits, the Senate, at the suggestion of the Roman politician Mark Antony, in 44 BC. e. renamed the month quintilis (fifth), in which Caesar was born, to July (Julius)

Roman Emperor Augustus (63 BC-14 AD)

The account according to the new calendar, called the Julian, began on January 1, 45 BC. e. That day was the first new moon after the winter solstice. This is the only moment in the Julian calendar that has a connection with the lunar phases.

August calendar reform. The members of the highest priestly college in Rym - the pontiffs were instructed to monitor the correct calculation of time, however, not understanding the essence of Sosigene's reform, for some reason they inserted leap days not after three years on the fourth, but after two on the third. Due to this error, the calendar account was again confused.

The error was discovered only in 8 BC. e. during the time of Caesar's successor Emperor Augustus, who brought about a new reform and destroyed the accumulated error. By his order, starting from 8 BC. e. and ending with 8 AD. e., skipped the insertion of extra days in leap years.

At the same time, the Senate decided to rename the month sextilis (sixth) to August - in honor of Emperor Augustus, in gratitude for correcting the Julian calendar and the great military victories won by him in this month. But there were only 30 days in the sextilis. The Senate considered it inconvenient to leave fewer days in the month dedicated to Augustus than in the month dedicated to Julius Caesar, especially since the number 30, as an even number, was considered unlucky. Then another day was taken away from February and added to sextiles - August. So February was left with 28 or 29 days. But now it turned out that three months in a row (July, August and September) have 31 days each. This again did not suit the superstitious Romans. Then they decided to move one day of September to October. At the same time, one day of November was moved to December. These innovations completely destroyed the regular alternation of long and short months created by Sosigenes.

Thus, the Julian calendar was gradually improved (Table 4), which remained the only and unchanged in almost all of Europe until the end of the 16th century, and in some countries even until the beginning of the 20th century.

Table 4
Julian calendar (early AD)
Name	Number	Name	Number
months	days	months	days
January	31	July	31
February	28 (29)	August	31
March April May June	31 30 31 30	September October November December	30 31 30 31

Historians point out that the emperors of Tiberius, Nero and Commodus tried the next three month to call by their names, but their attempts failed.

Counting days in months. The Roman calendar did not know the ordinal count of days in a month. The account was kept by the number of days up to three specific moments within each month: calends, non and id, as shown in Table. 5.

Kalends were called only the first days of the months and fell on a time close to the new moon.

Nons were the 5th of the month (in January, February, April, June, August, September, November and December) or the 7th (in March, May, July and October). They coincided with the beginning of the first quarter of the moon.

Finally, the ides were called the 13th of the month (in those months in which nones fell on the 5th) or the 15th (in those months in which nones fell on the 7th).

Unlike the forward counting we are used to, the Romans counted the days from calends, non and id in the opposite direction. So, if it was necessary to say "January 1", then they said "in the January kalends"; May 9 was called “the 7th day from the May ides”, December 5 was called “on the December nones”, and instead of “June 15”, they said “on the 17th day from the July kalends”, etc. It must be remembered that that the original date itself was always included in the count of days.

The considered examples show that when dating the Romans never used the word "after", but only "from".

In each month of the Roman calendar, there were three more days that had special names. These are the eve, i.e., the days preceding nons, ides, and also kalends of the next month. Therefore, speaking of these days, they said: “on the eve of the Ides of January” (i.e., January 12), “on the eve of the March kalends” (i.e., February 28), etc.

Leap years and the origin of the word "leap year". During the calendar reform of Augustus, errors made during the incorrect use of the Julian calendar were eliminated, and the basic rule of a leap year was legitimized: every fourth year is a leap year. Therefore, leap years are those whose numbers are divisible by 4 without a remainder. Considering that thousands and hundreds are always divisible by 4, it is enough to establish whether the last two digits of the year are divisible by 4: for example, 1968 is a leap year, since 68 is divisible by 4 without remainder, and 1970 is a simple year, since 70 is not divisible by 4.

The expression "leap year" is associated with the origin of the Julian calendar and the peculiar counting of days used by the ancient Romans. When reforming the calendar, Julius Caesar did not dare to place an extra day in a leap year after February 28, but hid it where mercedonium used to be, that is, between February 23 and 24. Therefore, February 24 was repeated twice.

But instead of "February 24," the Romans said "the sixth day before the March calendars." In Latin, the sixth number is called "sextus", and "once again the sixth" is called "bissextus". Therefore, the year containing an extra day in February was called "bissextilis". The Russians, having heard this word from the Byzantine Greeks, who pronounced "b" as "v", turned it into "high-rise". Therefore, it is impossible to write “high”, as is sometimes done, since the word “high” is not Russian and has nothing to do with the word “high”.

Accuracy of the Julian calendar. The Julian year was set at 365 days and 6 hours. But this value is 11 minutes longer than the tropical year. 14 sec. Therefore, for every 128 years, a whole day accumulated. Consequently, the Julian calendar was not very accurate. Another important advantage was its considerable simplicity.

Chronology. In the first centuries of its existence, the dating of events in Rome was carried out by the names of the consuls. In the 1st century n. e. the era “from the creation of the city” began to spread, which was important in the chronology of Roman history.

According to the Roman writer and scholar Mark Terentius Varro (116-27 BC), the estimated date of the founding of Rome corresponds to the third year of the 6th Olympiad (Ol. 6.3). Since the day of the founding of Rome was annually celebrated as a spring holiday, it was possible to establish that the epoch of the Roman calendar, that is, its starting point, is April 21, 753 BC. e. The era "from the founding of Rome" was used by many Western European historians until the end of the 17th century.

A. VENEDIKTOV: 13 hours and 12 minutes in Moscow. You are listening to the radio station "Echo of Moscow", this is our program, together with Natalya Ivanovna Basovskaya, "Everything is so". Today we will talk about Pope Gregory XIII, about the Pope, not about your dad. Naturally, as always, we raffle the books. We will have 20 winners today. I'll post a question first. What is the crown of the popes called? What is the headdress of the popes called? If you remember this, send us an answer by SMS +7-985-970-45-45. This is a Moscow number for SMS messages. Don't forget to subscribe. Of course, the pager and the Internet work. What is the name of the ceremonial headdress of the Pope? What do the winners get? The first 10 winners receive a book from the Young Guard publishing house, the Daily Life series. The book is called The Daily Life of the Papal Court in the Times of Borgia and the Medici. A little earlier than our hero, but nonetheless. From the 11th to the 20th, the winner will receive Samuil Lozinsky's History of the Papacy, the Popular Historical Library series, Rusich Publishing House. [repeating question and telephone].

Our program "Everything is so" begins. Gregory XIII, the Pope is our hero today. Why is he our hero? Because the calendar. Natalya Ivanovna, hello.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Good afternoon. He would know that he is a hero, because the calendar. His life, about which very little is known, there were a lot of popes and they left different traces in History. His life as a political figure, church figure, statesman, is little known to us, but perhaps many have heard about the calendar, because it is Gregorian. And because it is a very noticeable phenomenon, to dominate the time. He would be surprised that he remained in the memory of posterity as the initiator of the calendar change. To understand why he might be surprised, let's look back at his life. He belongs to the category of the so-called "militant popes", there is such a term in historiography, the era of the counter-reformation. This also includes a few more figures. The people who, occupying the papacy, gave great strength and great energy to stop the reform of the church.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Because they thought it was accidental, that it was just a few evil minds.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Luther [ed. (German Martin Luther; November 10, 1483, Eischleben, Saxony - February 18, 1546)], Zwingli [ed. (German Ulrich Zwingli; January 1, 1484, Wilhaus, Canton of St. Gallen - October 11, 1531, Kappel an der Albis, Zurich Canton)], Calvin [ed. fr. Jean Calvin, also Cauvin; lat. variant of the name Ioannes Calvinus; (July 10, 1509 - May 27, 1564) - French theologian, church reformer, founder of Calvinism.], Hus [ed. (Czech. Jan Hus, 1369/1371, born in the village of Gusinec in southern Bohemia - July 6, 1415, Konstanz)], once, before, several apostates. And it was impossible to accept that this was actually an overdue spiritual upheaval. And they gave it their lives. In a sense, the creator of the new calendar, in this political aspect, in fact, tried to stop time, to stop the course of History. A calendar is a calendar, and it was impossible to stop the reformation, which was a phenomenon and a sign of the exit from the Middle Ages, one of the signs. But they were not allowed to know. So, the stormy, violent champion of the revival of the idea of ​​​​papal theocracy, i.e. the power of the popes, coming directly from God and standing above all other types of power, spiritual and secular too.

Celebrated Bartholomew's Night [ed. Massacre of the Huguenots in France by Catholics on the night of August 24, 1572, St. Bartholomew.], details later. Celebrate different things. He celebrated her. He revived and far promoted the phenomenon, which was called nepotism, in Russian - nepotism, from the Latin nepotis. A grandson, a nephew revived this nepotism, a painful phenomenon in the church. And, finally, the calendar, which for him was also associated with his ministry, with his faith, with the church, and we will also talk about this again. So who is he? Details from the private lives of the popes are rare to this day. And we know little. But anyway. In the world - Hugo Boncompagni. Hugo - the name also belongs to a politician today. From a wealthy, fairly distinguished family. [ed. Gregory XIII (lat. Gregorius PP. XIII; in the world of Hugo Boncompagni, Italian. Ugo Boncompagni; January 7, 1501 - April 10, 1585) - Pope from May 13, 1572 to April 10, 1585.]

A. VENEDIKTOV: In the 19th century they became princes.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Very distinguished people.

A. VENEDIKTOV: By the way, there is Boncompagni Street in Rome. Where their mansion once stood.

N. BASOVSKAYA: At the University of Bologna, he turned out to be a very learned person, he was really fond of science, since he took the chair of canon law at the University of Bologna. He was a competent, educated lawyer. And to say that his attempt to stop time in the form of reformation was a delusion of the unenlightened and dark, no.

A. VENEDIKTOV: He became a doctor of law at the age of 28, which was…

N. BASOVSKAYA: Young and capable.

A. VENEDIKTOV: In an era where it was so difficult to obtain all sorts of gradations, at the age of 28 he headed the department, became a doctor of law, i.e. he is a scientist.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Of course, not mediocre, not devoid of intelligence. Received the title of cardinal. But who is this cardinal? In general, the cardinals today we know that this is about 70 people.

A. VENEDIKTOV: We know that he is Richelieu. We know this for sure.

N. BASOVSKAYA: In essence, the position, the status of a cardinal, what is it? From the simplest word "cardo", which means - a door hook. In the 5th-11th centuries, these were clerics who gradually strengthened their positions, occupying permanent positions in certain parish churches, but not in villages, but in cities. Which were so firmly connected with their places, as they wrote in the sources, as the door is connected to the hook on which it hangs. True, I would not have guessed to say that the door hangs on a hook, probably the device was not the same as today's iron doors. In 1059, already the beginning of the second half of the 11th century, by the Decree of the Lateran Council, one of the popes, Nicholas II, granted the cardinals the right to elect popes. That is, this practice goes only from the middle, the beginning of the second half of the 11th century. The conclave of the assembly is about 70 cardinals, at first it was much less, 7, 11. To this day, he elects the pope from his midst. The conclave, literally, is the “Locked Hall”, because until they decide by secret ballot which of them will become pope, they do not have the right to leave this room. The servants who serve them also do not have the right to leave the adjacent room. Everything is under lock and key. Hence the conclave.

And this, quite a learned, educated person receives a cardinal's hat, as they say now, because it has become a practice that cardinals have such a headdress. Not the one you asked our radio listeners about, but also a headdress that is distinctive. In the Catholic Church, however, and in the Orthodox too, a headdress marks a status in the church hierarchy, so that it can be immediately seen ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Like shoulder straps or aiguillettes.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes, sort of. Just like the color of the dress. Bishops wear purple, cardinals red, popes white or gold. And all at once, as if it were immediately written who he is. In general, for the era of the formation of the Christian Church, in its great status in which it still exists, the image, the picture, the visual range, as we will say today, was very important. For it replaced the text for the illiterate flock. And people who could neither read nor write, the majority of absolute believers, formed an idea according to the visual image, no worse than according to the text. Apparently, he was a prominent cardinal, due to his education, innate intelligence and unprecedented energy. And he proved it, he was on the papal throne for 15 years. But he entered there at 70, i.e. these 15 years were after the 70-year-old milestone. And he was incredibly energetic. And by Pope Pim IV, this cardinal was sent to participate in the meetings of the Council of Trent [ed. The Council of Trent is the nineteenth Ecumenical Council (according to the Roman Catholic Church), which opened on December 13, 1545 in Trento (lat. Tridentum) at the initiative of Pope Paul III, mainly in response to the Reformation, and closed there on December 4, 1563, in the pontificate Pius IV, was the most important cathedral in the history of the Catholic Church.], to Germany, the city of Trident, Latin - tridentum. There, intermittently, at first he sat only in Trident, then he sat in Bologna, as the atmosphere in Trident heated up, and Bologna was then very positive about the papacy. In total, this Council sat for about 6 years, with interruptions, from 1545 to 1563, even more than six years. There he justified the trust of Pope Pius IV who sent him. He consistently, intelligently, reasonably, with legal arguments defended the principle of the absolute fullness of papal power. And this principle was questioned from all sides. First of all, he was subjected to unformulated doubts in the midst of the heretical movements that preceded the Reformation, from the depravity of many figures on the papal throne, such a person cannot have all-embracing power, such a person, such a person cannot ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: That is, it was a riot of bishops?

N. BASOVSKAYA: In part, both bishops and ordinary people participated. And it was formulated, in the end, by Jan Hus, who said that the true head of the church is only Jesus Christ himself. That figure is morally impeccable, and no other person, whoever he may be, can be indisputable main Christian church. I must say that for quite a long time - from the 11th to the 15th century, inside the church and next to it, in the environment, there was a broad movement for the reform of the church, the Cluniac movement [ed. The Cluniac movement - a movement for the reform of monastic life and the church, the center of which was Cluniac Abbey], we once talked about it. These are people who sincerely wanted to correct morals and carry out reforms not like the Reformation, which would change both worship and the relationship of the idea of ​​a person's relationship with God. Not! Purge morals, purge the church of figures that don't fit. The Council of Trent drew a line under that.

A. VENEDIKTOV: But our hero was orthodox.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Absolutely.

A. VENEDIKTOV: He is 65 years old at this time. End of life for the 16th century. 65 is not even an average age. There, in my opinion, the average age for men is 45-48 years.

N. BASOVSKAYA: It's even a lot. I think it's a lot. Around 40.

A. VENEDIKTOV: He is a deep old man according to the concepts of the 16th century.

N. BASOVSKAYA: After 50, an old man was considered completely. Elder. Here my chroniclers wrote about the French king Charles VI. And I once, as a very young researcher, completely fell under their influence and wrote in some early article, around the 100-year war, that “decrepit Charles VI”, I didn’t count, now I think I met a wonderful colleague Vladimir Ilyich Raitis, who wrote about Joan of Arc. We met and he said: “For you, of course, I am a decrepit old man, because, like Charles VI, I am 54 years old.” And I understood what it means to go on about the source. Yes, in the 16th century he was not so decrepit, but an old man. And this was not felt in his behavior. So, the fullness of the papal power. The papal theocracy is God's own vicar on earth and no more reforms, no purification, because talk about the purification of the morals of the clergy inevitably leads to the fact that the pope must be corrected if he is wrong about something. No. The Pope is absolutely innocent. And this dogma, dating back to very ancient times, to the times of Charlemagne and Pope Leo, who first went blind, then regained his sight. To return it to the new time that has begun, because the 16th century is not even a threshold, it is the new time that has begun. This is the time of an economically reborn Europe, a spiritually reborn Europe. Bring back this past. In 1572 this emeritus cardinal, this man who...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Fighter!

N. BASOVSKAYA: ... showed that he is a fighter, clever, militant. He becomes a militant pope.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Moreover, he was elected fairly quickly. The conclave did not last long, because at that moment there was a war.

N. BASOVSKAYA: But this conclave was prepared by a very significant type - Cardinal Granvela, this is the executioner ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: The red dog, as they called him.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. By the color of the red robe. That is, since Cardinal Granvela [ed. (Granvelle, Granvela) Antoine Perrenot de (1517-86), cardinal (since 1561), in 1559-1564], consider that this is Philip II of Spain, because Granvela is a direct tool of Philip II. So the Conclave worked under the influence of these most Christian, most Catholic figures in what was then Western Europe.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Let's remember the alignment of forces in Europe. UK, Elizabeth.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Infected with heresy.

A. VENEDIKTOV: France. Civil War.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Huguenots, Calvinists.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Catholics, etc. Spain. The most Christian king.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Here it is, a support!

A. VENEDIKTOV: Holland. Gyoza uprising. Germany.

N. BASOVSKAYA: We jumped to the republic in Holland.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Germany. Some sovereigns support the reformers.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Augsburg Religious Peace, 1555. This is a world that is fraught with endless war, because it fixes the division of principalities into Catholic and Protestant. [ed. agreement concluded on September 25, 1555 at the Reichstag in Augsburg between the Lutheran and Catholic subjects of the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman king Ferdinand I, acting on behalf of Emperor Charles V]

A. VENEDIKTOV: And we have Ivan the Terrible.

N. BASOVSKAYA: And we have Ivan the Terrible. And our dad, our today's character, had something to do with Ivan the Terrible.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I just wanted to remind you about Europe, that this is a seething time, the 70s of the 16th century.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Fault phenomena, reformation. And our character is a passionate champion of the fact that the reformation should and can be destroyed. That's what he didn't understand.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I tried to understand why he took the name Grigory. Because he was the heir of Pius V, ideological. Why did he take Gregory? Tried to find some connection.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Gregory the Great is one of the early leaders of the Christian church, a man who, with his certain reforms and regulations, determined a lot in dogma, rituals and strict adherence to the fact that the organization of the church is vertical. There, with the vertical of power, it was clear in the eyes of Catholics. And the pope is fully consistent with God's will and is able to carry it out.

NEWS

A. VENEDIKTOV: Before we continue, we asked you the name of the crown, the headdress of the popes. And we play, the first 10 people receive a book by Jacques Hers from the series “Daily Life of the Papal Court in the Times of Borgia and the Medici”, the second, from 11 to 20 - Lozinsky’s book “History of the Papacy”. Our winners who correctly said it was a tiara and said it very quickly. Vera (951), Galina (875), Anita (255), Yuri from Kazan (515), Polina (453), Alexander (513). Nadezhda (518), Igor (104), Dasha (315) and Vladimir (144) ). Lazinsky's book is received by Galina (663), Dmitry from Perm (268), Tanya, or Tonya (721), Kostya (747), Tamara from Vladikavkaz (483), Vladislav (037), Yana (251). Sergey (828), Rufa (042) and Mikhail from Tomsk (252). These are the ones who get the book. And further. Before we continue, I want to address our listeners. We, with Natalya Ivanovna, are forming a list of new heroes for 2008. If you want to hear a program about some historical foreign figure before the 20th century, send your suggestions right now, within 20 minutes to SMS +985-970-45-45, about whom you would like to hear the program “Everything is so”.

Three months before Bartholomew's night, the new Pope. He is chosen.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Let us note right away that our frantic, militant, who devoted himself entirely to the idea of ​​papal power, its purity, he did have a natural son, Giacomo.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Fine!

N. BASOVSKAYA: And, according to experts, this is the last pope, regarding the presence of illegitimate children, reliable information has been preserved. Everything else is hidden in the fog.

A. VENEDIKTOV: What a man! Moreover, he is 70 years old.

N. BASOVSKAYA: But he did not dare to show a policy of nepotism towards his son

A. VENEDIKTOV: Everyone knew that this was his son.

N. BASOVSKAYA: But he quite calmly promoted his two nephews high. Because of this Nepatism, in time very noble families were born in Italy - Barghese, Ludovisi, Borgio, among other things, from the practice of Nepatism. And so he elevated his two nephews not just anywhere, but to the cardinals, i.e. to say that he personally, within himself and his practice, was absolutely pure, like a crystal, is also impossible. And in the year of his election, after a short time, he is elected in May, in August ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: Oh! May I tell you how he reacted to the marriage of Henry of Navarre to Marguerite of Valois? He was asked permission because Henry of Navarre was a heretic. He writes to Charles IX: "I find no better means to put an end to heretics than this union." This is his first letter to Charles IX.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Get married to finish. But this marriage was tragic from the very beginning. And so he organized the solemn celebrations of St. Bartholomew's night. Only he and Philip II of Spain showed such public joy at the murder of some 2,000 Huguenots in one night, and then, in the next two weeks, some 30,000 Protestants are believed to have been killed in France. That is, a celebration, fireworks, illumination, a solemn procession, worship, the manufacture of a special medal. It's incredible! And Philip II wrote a greeting to Catherine de Medici about the bloodshed, in which he said that he was delighted with his son (this is Charles IX), that he had such a mother. And the mother that she has such a son who allowed it, allowed or sanctioned who knows what.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Moreover. Gregory XIII orders Vasari, the famous painter, a painting entitled "The Pope approves the murder of the heretic Coligny." This painting is still in the Vatican to this day.

N. BASOVSKAYA: The picture exists. The murder was brutal, brutal. Coligny was a middle-aged man, one might say an old man, who was stabbed to death, thrown from a balcony, then cut off his head. It's ferocity and welcoming rivers of blood is not very wonderful. What did they expect? After all, they really wanted to stop these militant popes. What to stop? What did the Council of Trent decide, by what means can this be done? In general, the means, I would say, are hopeless. The Index of Forbidden Books, which was only abolished in 1934. Before that there was an Index. Over time, Galileo disappeared from it, but there were Jan Hus, Spinoza, Voltaire, Rousseau, Stendhal, Hugo, a huge list of quite worthy people. To fight heresy in this way, so that people do not think wrong, to assert the categorical superiority of the pope over the Council, a collegiate body, to expand the activities of the Inquisition, excellent measures, but hopeless. The only relatively constructive and not intimidating measure is to open additional schools.

A. VENEDIKTOV: They were called seminars.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes. Schools for Orthodox priests. The Jesuits, whom Gregory XIII adored, taught, and the young people had to take an oath, a terrible oath, that all their lives they would fight for the true faith. Nothing else in life will be distracted. What other ways were there, how did he want to win, this energetic 70-year-old man? He sought to plant orthodox Catholicism in neighboring European countries, in Sweden, Ireland, and Russia. On his orders, the Jesuit Posevina traveled to Russia to Ivan the Terrible. Is it possible to persuade him to switch to the true, the only true - this is the Catholic faith. Didn't persuade. Not without success, Jesuit missionary preachers preached with the support of Pope Gregory XIII in China and Japan. And they even had some success. That is, at times he had the illusion that something was working out. He created in Rome a special collegium for foreigners, where the same Jesuits trained preachers, missionaries, fiery ones who would turn the world around and lead them. Of course, the case is doomed, but it looked like that, with some results.

What inspired him? Why Gregory XIII, like other militant popes, considered himself entitled to rule over minds, and now we will see that over the calendar, time, too. How did it come about? I thought about it and turned over some pages of history that show how this idea was born. Who are, in essence, Christian communities? These were communities of like-minded people, believers, and the only title, title, dignity there was a charismatic, a person with charisma. That is, God-inspired, able to preach, able to lead people. And that's it. There were no more posts. Then there are presbyters, elders, organizers. Then the deacons, those who serve joint meals, the so-called meals of love, where they eat together not just to eat, but at the same time tasting bright ideas. And, finally, the bishops who came to the fore as organizers of economic life. They owned the cash desk, what they need to exist for, there are some general needs, well, at least to provide this meal financially. They owned organizational activities and the practice gradually took root that bishops are those who are richer, because he will add something to this cash desk. They began to appropriate from it later. First added. And then the attitude towards ordinary believers changes. No longer a charismatic in honor, a divinely inspired, sincere and ideological person, but a bishop, he is called a shepherd. And the flock and the equal community suddenly begin to be called the flock that this same bishop tends. That is, the transformation was very slow, gradual. And over time, an idea appeared. In the 6th century, it already sounded. In the 6th century, after the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the birth of barbarian kingdoms. That the Bishop of Rome, he is somehow special, he is the first among all others and a certain Bishop Marcellinus [ed. lat. Ammianus Marcellinus - an ancient Roman historian (c. 330 - after 391 A.D.), at the beginning of the 4th century, began to call himself pope, and from the 6th century all the bishops of Rome began to be called popes, father and mentor.

There were rivals of Rome who said that no, it was not right, the main argument was that here, in Rome, the Apostle Peter was a bishop. But competitors fought, declared their rights. Jerusalem, Pela, the community on the banks of the Jordan, tried to prove that St. Peter created their community, and not the Roman one. And then a completely crushing argument was put forward. Because the land of Rome is most abundantly watered with the blood of the martyrs and great martyrs who were persecuted by the Roman emperors. That's where Bishop number one should be. That is, this bishop number one, who began to be called the pope, he grew out of a completely different religious practice, sincere, open, equal in rights, but having grown out of it, the popes considered themselves entitled to lead the entire Christian world, firmly claiming to do so. When the Orthodox and Catholic churches split in 1054, divided according to the principles of nuance, dogmatics and worship, everyone thought that this was for a while. Today we know that this is a deep division. But, nevertheless, even after that, the popes of Rome did not leave their claims about the fact that they are the masters of the minds, but in the person of Gregory XIII and the fleeting time.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Before you start talking about the calendar, I want to say that Gregory XIII used such a technique as creating monseats, permanent embassies. First. Embassies in all countries. As a sovereign to keep a permanent embassy.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Representation.

A. VENEDIKTOV: In all countries, including Protestant ones.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Today it seems to be the norm, but he came up with it. What was the goal? He very little separated religious tasks from general political ones. In any case, it is considered quite reliable that he prepared Bartholomew's night in England. And he dreamed that the same thing would happen there. With the support of Philip II of Spain, such a grim figure, he was preparing this. How? He officially excommunicated Elizabeth I from the Catholic Church. Although it is so clear that she adhered to a different faith. But the very fact of excommunication is a spiritual, ideological preparation.

A. VENEDIKTOV: This is the exemption from the oath of Catholic subjects.

N. BASOVSKAYA: And that means that St. Bartholomew's night is becoming more real. He declared her deposed. He is an active politician, and such a militant politician. These are steps that prepare the possibility of a Catholic uprising against Elizabeth, which will be seen not as a rebellion, but as an ideological act. And he supported several conspiracies with attempts on her life, which is no longer religious or ecclesiastical, but purely political. He justified the possible murder of Elizabeth by the danger she posed to the true faith. And so, preparing cadres for the fight against the reformation, preparing such possible actions, actions against a politician who does not suit him, he actually became an active politician and succeeded in some places. He kindled religious passions and strife not only in England, in Switzerland he, in fact, managed to kindle a civil war. In Switzerland, where the killings of Protestants began, like Bartholomew's night. In general, this is his ideal - St. Bartholomew's Night.

A. VENEDIKTOV: But you somehow turned it down!

N. BASOVSKAYA: He led to this. In the city of Valtellina, 600 Protestants were killed with his full approval. And as a result, several antons left the Swiss union for a while and were content with the persecution of Protestants in the homeland of one of the leading currents of Protestantism. In this case, he had some "successes", let's put them in quotation marks, in Germany and Austria. So in Austria, 62 thousand Protestants were forcibly converted to the true faith. And there have been such attempts. That is, it seemed to him that direct violence, political, bloody, elementary, open violence, spiritual violence, such as the Index of Forbidden Books and the education of such militant priests, ministers of the church, could be stopped ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: ... this accident, like a reformation.

N. BASOVSKAYA: As he apparently thought. Although, who knows how he exactly thought, but this is a terrible and unacceptable course for him. And you know, looking at his deeds, you say jokingly "turned down." I look at the facts and such an active participation in the political activities of a cruel plan, namely, a conspiracy, an attempt on life ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: …which was quite common for the 16th century, by the way.

N. BASOVSKAYA: This is the current flock trying to avoid this, of course. And in general, the current Christian church quite correctly, on the whole, without nuances, understands that its deeds are moral deeds and direct participation in political events is not the business of church ministers. Gregory XIII did not adhere to this concept. He is as much a politician as he is a servant of God. And for the 16th century, this is probably inevitable, because this is the century of a great spiritual break, a quick run through Western Europe and Central Europe. The picture is very tense. So it is generally clear that time has given rise to such a figure. But to consider this figure as ...

A. VENEDIKTOV: ... a great reformer. He is a great reformer!

N. BASOVSKAYA: That means a calendar! Let's take a look at the calendar.

A. VENEDIKTOV: This is how, in fact, he entered History. And there was a calendar.

N. BASOVSKAYA: The calendar has remained, it is walking all over the world, now it is international, although it did not immediately become so. What prompted him? This is hardly conducive to the fight against heresy. So what is a calendar anyway? A complex phenomenon, since ancient times there have been several systems, we know. Lunar, solar and lunar-solar, and each is rather complicated in its own way. And in ancient Egypt, ancient Greece. And based on the invention of the calendar, which shows the connection between the movements of heavenly bodies and the change of seasons on earth, one must be an astronomer and mathematician to understand well what a calendar is. On the basis of this phenomenon of people who have learned to associate these phenomena with earthly changes in nature, the concept of an era arises, when each civilization chose some real or conditional event, from which they began to count historical time. The eras were varied. In Egypt, in general, the strangest phenomenon. There, each year of the reign of the new pharaoh was the first year, so there is no era. in ancient Greece, an era was invented, from the first Olympic Games, conditionally 776 BC. In 46 BC. Julius Caesar reformed the calendar before Gregory XIII.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I will note that when Rome was already a world state. There was already Egypt.

N. BASOVSKAYA: World power. Julius Caesar could feel inwardly that he was reforming the counting of time in the then civilized world. He was advised by the Egyptian priest Sosigen [ed. (Sosigenes) - Alexandrian scientist, lived in the 1st century. before the birth of Christ] to switch to the solar, before that, the calens, nones, ides, a confused system, but the reform was carried out. This lunisolar calendar was adopted by Caesar and named after him the Julian calendar. Three years of 365 days, one year of 366 days. Plus one day after February 28th. And the Council of Nicaea, the Christian one, adopted the Julian calendar in 325, and on the basis of this Julian calendar, inspired by the pagan Julius Caesar, an absolute pagan, there was a dating, its own concept of an era was given. From Christmas. And in the 6th century in Western Europe, the monk Dionysius, nicknamed Dionysius the Small, carried out recalculations and found out that 754 from the founding of Rome is the year of the birth of Christ. Thus the Julian calendar was established.

And what was seen? That misunderstandings begin over time. Gradually, when calculating Easter, the date of Easter, it turned out that the time of Easter diverges from March 21. In the 16th century, it turned out that Easter was no longer on March 21, the spring equinox, but on the 11th. And it began to coincide very often with the Jewish Passover, which did not suit such orthodox people as Gregory XIII at all. And inspired by this, to more accurately calculate Easter, so that the time of this great Christian holiday, coming from pagan traditions, so that the time of this great Christian holiday is calculated correctly, so that it does not correspond to the Jewish Easter, Jewish, but to the spring solstice, which connects this approach with pagan, by the way. And it was ordered to count. He created a commission of about 20 people, first 10, then 20. He attracted astronomers, the most notable of them was Lulius. In 1582, he issued a special bull - intergravisimos, regarding the creation of a new calendar. And, according to this bull, after October 4, an amendment came, came on October 15. The fix was for 10 days. The difference with the Julian calendar continued to grow and in the XX, early XXI reached 13 days. Gregorian calendar then, in the 16th century

A. VENEDIKTOV: Gradually, he was very accepted.

N. BASOVSKAYA: Yes, of course.

A. VENEDIKTOV: An anecdote. It is known that Cervantes died on April 23 in Spain in 1616, and Shakespeare died on April 23 in England. But they did not die on the same day, because in England there was still the Julian calendar, and in Spain there was already the Gregorian calendar. This is such a joke of history.

A. VENEDIKTOV: Man's relationship with time is a complex thing. And all these calendar systems, when their first creators tried to strictly interact with the heavenly bodies and the change of seasons as a result of imperfections in measurements, the complexities of mathematical calculations, sooner or later lead to the fact that a person wants to control time.

A. VENEDIKTOV: I want to talk about Russia. It is known that Peter I switched to the Gregorian calendar, while the Russian Orthodox Church remained and remains in the Julian calendar. And so I discovered the correspondence of Catherine II with whom do you think? With Casanova. With the same Casanova. What do they write about? Do you think they write about love?

N. BASOVSKAYA: I think about love!

A. VENEDIKTOV: Nothing of the kind! Casanova convinces Catherine in a letter to force the ROC to switch to the Gregorian calendar. And Ekaterina answers him literally the following: “Full confidence,” writes Ekaterina Casanova, “likes minds that are accustomed to questioning everything in important matters. And therefore, if there is an opportunity to have such confidence in trifles, then it is necessary to use this. It seems to me - Catherine writes - that Gregory XIII, our hero, did not even need to give an account of his mistake, even if even he was sure that there really was a mistake. I believe that the ruler should be, - Ekaterina writes further, - confident in the eyes of his subjects. But the Roman pontiff could carry out this reform with such ease as would not have been possible in the Greek church, which strictly adheres to the ancient customs. Of course, my church would not disobey me if I ordered to exclude 11 days, but how upset they would be, seeing themselves forced to cancel the celebration of the day assigned to them for hundreds of saints, because it was included in the number of excluded days. In your calendar, for the most part, only one saint appears for each day, while in ours there are 10 and 12 of them. You can see for yourself that such an operation would be cruel, writes Catherine II Casanova about the Gregorian calendar. What did they write about?

N. BASOVSKAYA: Certainly a smart woman. And, unlike Peter I, who simply subordinated the church to himself, she did not dare to do this, although she hinted that she would not mind. And Peter, resolute in everything, he announced that from now on in Russia everything will be different. December 15, 1699, the beginning of the year, January 1, the era from the Nativity of Christ, the countdown from the creation of the world is canceled. And after December 31, 7208 from the creation of the world, January 1, 1700 AD came. Here he proved that time obeys him.

A. VENEDIKTOV: And Pope Gregory XIII died at the age of 84, and now, by the way, in St. Peter, on the floor in the chapel of St. Gregory, you can find the coat of arms of his family, the coat of arms of Boncampagni. And there is his tombstone. Gregory XIII is one of the most revered popes in the Roman Catholic Church. Natalia Basovskaya and Alexei Venediktov. See you next time!

N. BASOVSKAYA: See you next time!

(01/01/1502, Bologna - 04/10/1585, Rome; before being elected pope - Hugo Boncompagni), Pope of Rome (since May 13, 1572). Genus. in a wealthy merchant family, he studied at the University of Bologna, where in 1530 he received a doctorate in canon and civil law (in utroque jure). In 1531-1539. taught at the university. In 1538, Pope Paul III attracted Hugo Boncompagni as a lawyer to work in the Roman Curia. In 1546, as an abbreviator of Boncompagni, he participated in the work of the Council of Trent (also in 1561-1563). Under Pope Paul IV in Jan. 1556 became a member of the papal commission that worked on the preparation of reforms in the Catholic. Churches. As a papal datarius, he was an assistant card. Carlo Caraffa, the nephew of Paul IV, accompanied the cardinal to France, where he was sent as a papal legate, and to the Spanish court. box Philip II in Brussels. In 1558, Boncompagni was ordained a presbyter, on July 20 of the same year he was named bishop of the city of Vieste. Pope Pius IV appointed Boncompagni prefect of the supreme papal tribunal Signatura apostolica, and on March 12, 1565, he elevated Rome to the cardinal presbyter. c. Sixtus (received May 15, 1565). In the autumn of 1565 he was sent as a legate to Spain for trial in the case of the archbishop. Toledo Bartolome Carranza. After the death of Pius IV, Boncompagni, who was not present at the conclave, was considered as one of the possible contenders for the Papacy, but in January. 1566 Bishop was elected pope. Nepi Antonio (Michele) Gislieri (see Pius V), under Krom Boncompagni, became a member of the Rome commission created by the new pope. proofreaders (Correctores Romani) to streamline the codes of canon law and prepare official. editions of the Corpus juris canonici.

After the death of Pius V card. Hugo Boncompagni with the support of card. Antoine Granvela, then Vice Cor. Neapolitan and approximate Spanish. box Philip II, was elected pope and ascended the throne of Rome. A supporter and conductor of the Counter-Reformation, G. prepared a series of reforms in the spirit of the Council of Trent. In contrast to the strict asceticism of Pope Pius V, G.'s reign, probably due to his legal education, according to his contemporaries, was characterized as more secular.

Declaring himself as an opponent of nepotism, G. nevertheless appointed his nephews as cardinals - Philip Boncompagni (from June 2, 1572) and Philip Vastavillano (from July 5, 1574), the 3rd nephew was denied the dignity. Brother G., who asked the pope for financial assistance, was denied access to Rome. G. was the last pope, about whom it is known for sure that he had illegitimate children - the son of Giacomo was born. before the adoption of Hugo Boncompagni priesthood. G. arranged the marriage of his son with Countess Sforza and elevated to the position of manager of the castle of St. Angel and Gonfalonier of the Roman Church (commander in chief of the Papal States).

On the day of his election, G. informed the ambassadors of Spain and Portugal that he intended to continue the struggle against the Turks, begun by his predecessors, and to provide assistance to the Holy Antitour. league organized by Pope Pius V. However, the conflict between the members of the league, primarily Spain and Venice, which concluded separate peace treaties with the Ottoman Empire (Venice in 1573, Spain in 1581), prevented the achievement of c.-l. success in the fight against the Ottoman threat. The main direction of G.'s policy was the struggle against the spreading Protestantism. Papal legates acted at the courts of France, Spain, Portugal, in it. principalities, in Sweden and in Poland, seeking to contain the Reformation at all costs. It is traditionally believed that the Pope positively received the news of Bartholomew's Night (Aug. 24, 1572), which he called "a very joyful event for the entire Christian world" (Romier L. La S.-Barthélemy // Revue du XVIe siècle. 1913. P 530), the victory of the Church over the heretics. However, in modern research clarifies that the pope not only did not take any part in the preparation of the massacre, but, moreover, as a lawyer regretted that the French. box Charles IX failed to resort to more legal methods of punishing heretics. Later, in order to support the fight against the Huguenots in France, G. blessed the Catholics who fought against the "new heresy" (February 15, 1585). Secret agreements were made with the Spanish. by the Inquisition. Bull "Antiqua Judeorum" (1581) G. extended the powers of the Inquisition to matters related to Jews and Muslims. According to the bull "Consueverunt Romani pontifices" (1583), the categories of those who were excommunicated were expanded - among them were not only heretics, but also pirates, ransom bandits, counterfeiters and other disturbers of public peace.

The pope had high hopes for an alliance with the Spanish. king against English. box Elizabeth I. In the Netherlands, he also supported the struggle against Prince William of Orange and the Geuzes, hoping to use these lands as a springboard to fight the Protestants. England. In Sweden, where in 1577 the Jesuit Antonio Possevino was sent as an ambassador extraordinary, Cor. John III Vasa under the influence of his Catholic wife Catherine Jagiellonka, sister of the Polish. box Sigismund II Augustus, agreed to keep a Catholic in his state. faith, on the condition that Mass in the national language, communion with bread and wine, the marriage of clergy, the refusal to venerate saints, and also that the former. church property that passed to secular owners during the years of the Reformation will be preserved for them. After G.'s refusal to recognize such a "reconciliation of religions" as possible, after the death of Catherine the Jagiellonian (1583) and a new marriage with a Lutheran Swede. the king finally fell away from Catholicism, going over to the Lutherans. faith. In Poland, the pope approved the election of Stefan Batory as king (1576), to-ry after. supported the Catholics. clergy and Jesuits in the fight against the reform movement.

In an effort to put into practice the decisions of the Council of Trent, the pope first of all took measures to ensure that the documents of the Council were published everywhere. Following the conciliar decisions, from 1573 he made compulsory visits of church provinces to the North. and Center. Italy. In other regions (for example, in the Catholic cantons of Switzerland, in N. Austria and Tyrol), papal nuncios became the conductors of papal policy. In the Holy The Roman Empire in the conditions of the active spread of Protestantism, which threatened to fall away from the Catholic. Churches of the Archdiocese of Cologne (in 1582, Archbishop Gebhard II von Waldburg of Cologne declared himself a Calvinist, joining him to the Protestant Electors gave them an advantage in the college that elected the emperor), the pope had to agree to the election in 1583 to the archiepiscopal chair of the Catholic Ernst of Bavaria , brother hertz. Bavarian Wilhelm V, despite the fact that Bud. the archbishop of Cologne by that time was simultaneously the bishop of Münster, Liège, Freisingen and Hildesheim.

To strengthen church discipline (this requirement was also put forward at the Council of Trent) G. held a series of transformations of the Roman Curia. In an effort to control the process of appointing bishops, the pope demanded that a list of those priests be drawn up who, if there were vacancies, could receive the episcopal rank in the near future, so that as much information as possible about the candidates would be collected and only deserving ones would be appointed to vacant positions. A congregation for the affairs of bishops was organized (in 1601, together with the congregation for the affairs of monastics, it became part of the congregation for the affairs of bishops and monastics) and the congregation of ceremonial (1572). The financial structure of the Catholic Church was changed. Churches, control over revenues was transferred to the Apostolic Chamber (Camera apostolica). G. laid the foundation for Bud. Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (Propaganda fidei) - a committee of 3 cardinals was entrusted with the leadership of the Catholic. missions in the East to support the Catholics of the East. rite in canonical communion with the See of Rome and the spread of Catholic. faith among the Orthodox population. With the same purpose, G. contributed to the publication of the Catechism of the Catholic. Churches to the east languages. Missionary activity of the Catholic monastic orders in non-European. territories received support from G. The Jesuits began active missionary work in China, Japan, having received a papal privilege and being the only order that could conduct preaching activities in these lands, as well as in Peru, Mexico, and East. Africa and the Middle East. The Pope provided significant financial assistance to the Jesuit Collegium in Japan. Augustinian and Franciscan missions worked in the Philippine Islands; in 1579, the Episcopacy of Manila was founded there.

In con. 1577 - beginning. In 1578, the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch, Ignatius Namatalla, was in Rome, with whom negotiations began on the conclusion of a church union of the Roman Catholic Church and the ancient Eastern Churches (Syrian (Jacobite), Coptic and Ethiopian). The unions were concluded after the death of G. (see Art. Eastern Catholic Churches).

In 1581, Russian. Tsar John IV Vasilyevich the Terrible turned to G. with a request for mediation in concluding peace between the Russian state and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Possevino was sent to Moscow, also authorized to negotiate a union. After the signing of the Treaty of Yam-Zapolsky, Possevino arrived in Moscow, where, with the permission of Ivan the Terrible, he held (February 21, 23 and March 4) public debates about faith, after one of which, in a fit of rage, the tsar almost killed the papal legate. Possevino's mission was completed without producing any results in the union negotiations.

Following the program of the Council for the revival of the Catholic. spirituality, the pope supported the activities of the Jesuits, Capuchins and other orders. In 1575, G. approved the Order of Oratorians with the Bull Copiosus, and in 1579 he reorganized the West. branches of the Basilian order (bulla "Benedictus Dominus"). In 1580, the pope approved the reform of the Carmelite order, carried out by Teresa of Avila, as a result, a branch of barefoot Carmelites and Carmelites stood out.

G. instructed Ts. Barony to edit and prepare for publication the Roman Martyrology. In 1582, an official was published. approved by G. (bull "Cum pro munere pastorali") collection of laws of the Catholic. Church "Corpus juris canonici", which operated until 1917. In the process of preparing a 4-volume edition, a search and comparison of ancient manuscripts of the Decree of Gratian and codes of decretal law was carried out in order to eliminate errors and discrepancies.

In 1582, the pope reformed the calendar. Its necessity was already announced at the Council of Trent: due to the error of the Julian calendar, the date of March 21, traditionally considered the early boundary of the Paschal full moon, gradually receded from the astronomical spring equinox and by 1545, when the Council opened, lagged behind it by 10 days. A special commission was organized to prepare the reform, and the final draft (drawn up by the astronomer L. Lilio) was approved by many. European Univ. It was proposed to remove the 10 days that had accumulated in following the Julian calendar since the Council of Nicaea (325), and to avoid their accumulation in the future, skip 3 leap years every 400 years; for this, years divisible by 100, but not divisible by 400, were taken as ordinary instead of leap years (1700, 1800, 1900, 2100 and 2200 are ordinary years; 1600, 2000 and 2400 are leap years). Thus, the border of the Easter year, March 21, again, as in the 4th century, returned to the vernal equinox. At the same time, the method for determining full moons also underwent correction (see the articles Calendar, Paschalia). The new calendar, to-ry received the name "Gregorian" by the name of G., was put into effect by a bull of 24 Feb. 1582 "Inter gravissimas". After 4 Oct. That year, all Christians were instructed to immediately consider October 15. In 1583, the pope sent an embassy to the Polish Patriarch Jeremiah II with gifts and a proposal to switch to a new calendar. In con. In 1583, at the Council in K-Pole, this proposal was rejected as not in accordance with the canonical rules for celebrating Easter.

G. more than any of his predecessors tried to turn Rome into the center of the Catholic. church education - at the Roman College (see Art. Gregorian University) the German College was founded (bull "Postquam Deo placuit", 1574), the Greek College of St. Athanasius (bull "In apostolicae Sedis", 1577), College of the Angles of St. Thomas (bulla "Quoniam divinae", 1579) and the Maronite College (bull "Humana sic ferunt", 1584), the purpose of which was to train the priests of the east. rite. The College of Rome received a new building and an annual cash grant. In 1575, the jubilee year (“annus sanctus”) was widely celebrated in Rome, approx. 400 thousand pilgrims. For this event, work was carried out in Rome on the reconstruction of roads, fountains were broken, including 2 on Sq. Navona, the construction of the Quirinal Palace began.

G. died in Rome and was buried in the Basilica of St.. Peter.

Source: Magnum bullarium romanum / Ed. L. Cherubini et. al. Luxemburgi, 1742. Vol. 2. P. 387-526; Levi della Vida G. Documenti intorno alle relazioni delle Chiese otientali con la S. Sede durante il pontificato di Gregorio XIII. Vat., 1948.

Lit.: Karttunen L . Gregoire XIII comme politicien et souverain. Helsinki, 1911; Schelnass K. Wissenschaftiche Forschungen unter Gregor XIII. für die Neuausgabe des Gratianischen Dekrets // Papsttum und Kaisertum: Forschungen z. politischen Geschichte und Geisteskultur des Mittelalters: F.S. P. Kehr / Hrsg. A. Brackmann. Munch., 1926. S. 674-690; Pastor L. Gregoire XIII: Trad. de l "allemand. P., 1938. 2 vol. (Histoire des Papes depuis la fin du Moyen Âge; 19-20); Pecchiai P. La nascità di Giacomo Boncompagni // Archivi: Archivi d "Italia e rassegna internazionale degli archivi . R., 1954. Ser. 2 Vol. 21. P. 9-47; Catalano G. Controversie giurisdizionali tra Chiesa e Stato nell "età di Gregorio XIII et di Filippo II. Palermo, 1955. (Atti dell" Accademia di Scenze, Lettere ed Arti di Palermo. Ser. 4. Vol. 15. Pt. 2. Fasc. 1 ); Lukacs L . Die nordlichen päpstlichen Seminarien und P. Possevino (1577-1587) // Archivium Historicum Societatis Iesu. 1955 Vol. 24. P. 33-94; Polein St. Une tentative d "Union au XVIe siècle: La mission religieuse du Père Antoine Possevin, S. J. en Moscovie (1581-1582). R., 1957. (OCA; 150); Prodi P. S. Carlo Borromeo et la trattative tra Gregorio XIII et Filippo II sulla giurisdizione ecclesiastica // Rivista di storia d. Chiesa in Italia. R., 1957. Vol. 11. P. 195-240; Cloulas I. Grégoire XIII et l "aliénation des biens du clergé de France en 1574- 1575 // Mélanges de l "École Française de Rome. R., 1959. Vol. 71. P. 381-404; De" Reguardati F .-M. Il fenomeno del banditismo sotto Gregorio XIII (1572-1585) et Sisto V (1585-1590): Suoi riflessi sulla nobilità // Rivista Araldica. R., 1987. Vol. 85. P. 198-207; Jack P. A Sacred Meta for Pilgrims in the Holy Year 1575 // Architectura. Munch., 1989. Vol. 19. P. 137-165.

N. I. Altukhova