Negative social conditions and maladaptive constitutional and biological features of a person increase the likelihood of deviance formation. However, the fate of the deviant behavior of a particular individual (group) depends primarily on the psychological characteristics of the subjects of social interaction. This is primarily evidenced by the following facts:
1) in the same people demonstrate completely different behavior;
2) deviant behavior is formed not only in the conditions of a deviant subculture, but all the time - in ordinary social conditions;
3) in the same family, children behave differently;
4) in people with identical neuropsychiatric disorders, deviant behavior occurs in some cases, and not in others.

They cannot explain the above contradictions, since the actual causes of deviation are personal characteristics and psychological mechanisms of deviant behavior.

At this stage in the development of science, the psychological approach to deviant behavior has received priority development. And, despite the fact that hundreds of theories and views on the nature of deviance are combined within the framework of this approach, all of them are united by a common idea of ​​the leading role of the individual.

The existential-humanistic direction considers deviant behavior through the prism of the essential characteristics of a person. In Victor's understanding, specific human characteristics are, first of all, spirituality, freedom and responsibility (30). The spiritual existence of a person implies a meaningful existence in the form of free self-determination in the world of values ​​(taking into account the objective circumstances of his life), for which he is responsible to his conscience and God. Behavioral problems, one way or another, are associated with a deficiency of the qualities considered, that is, with manifestations of lack of spirituality.

The fundamental motivational force in people, according to V., is the desire for meaning. Without this, survival in an extreme situation is aimless, meaningless and impossible. When the desire for meaning is frustrated (something blocked), a state of existential arises. Apathy and boredom are her main characteristics.

The position of an abnormal personality is designated by V. Frankl as fatalistic. In this case, the person does not see himself as responsible for self-determination in values ​​and, therefore, as an active participant in his own life. As a result, he allows various - natural, social and psychological - determinants to determine his life path. The person himself in this case suffers from a sense of meaninglessness, emptiness and futility. V. Frankl called the states of inner emptiness the existential vacuum.

The existential vacuum not only causes a sense of meaninglessness in individuals, but also gives rise to such social disasters as depression, drug addiction and aggression, in relation to which the author uses the term "mass neurotic triad". For example, such a consequence of depression as suicide, according to V. Frankl, is 85% the result of existential frustration. As far as addiction is concerned, people who have low life goals (or no goals) are more likely to try to find meaning in drugs than those people who have well-defined high life goals and meaning.

Closely adjacent to existential psychology are humanistic theories, such as Karl's client-centered psychology (psychotherapy). The key place in this system is occupied by the concepts of selfhood and self-actualization. - the desire of the individual to grow and develop in accordance with the potentialities that were originally inherent in it; the tendency to self-actualization is clearly manifested in a person and is a sign of personal well-being. A self-actualizing personality has a number of specific characteristics: it is openness to new experience, faith in one’s body, an internal locus of control (independence, independence, responsibility), the desire to exist in the process (growth and development). A normal (healthy) personality is relatively close to the ideal of a self-actualizing personality.

In an abnormal personality, the process of self-actualization is blocked and exists only as a possibility. The main obstacle, according to K. Rogers, is rooted in the system of so-called conditional (imposed) values. Conditional values ​​lead to the fact that a person treats himself and other people positively only if they correspond to some conditional ideals. Unrealistic distorted self-images, conflicting experiences, between the need for self-fulfillment and dependence on external evaluations - all this inevitably causes problematic behavior. Therefore, in order to overcome personal and behavioral problems, it is necessary to stimulate the process of actualization by creating special conditions. For example, in the course of client-centered therapy, this is a sincere interest in a person, an unconditional positive acceptance of a person, an invaluable attitude towards him.

According to Erich, striving for harmony with himself and nature, a person is forced to overcome existential contradictions: this is a dichotomy of life and death; the conflict between the desire to realize all the possibilities and insufficient life expectancy for this; the tension between feeling alone and being connected to other people. A person cannot eliminate these objective contradictions, but he can react to them in different ways; he overcomes his opposition to the world, his feeling of loneliness and powerlessness with the help of negative and positive mechanisms. The first lead to "escape from freedom", the second - to a true connection with the world through love and work. The main negative mechanisms for resolving existential contradictions are: authoritarianism, automating conformism and destructiveness.

Erich Fromm identified the first destructive mechanism as an authoritarian character. An authoritarian person refuses his own I, from the burden of freedom and autonomy. Its extreme expression is the sadomasochistic complex. This type of flight manifests itself most fully in totalitarian states, where the masses symbiotically merge with the leader. The second escape mechanism is automating conformism, in which a person completely assimilates the type of personality offered to him by the social template, losing. The third way - destructiveness - is associated with alienation from the world through its destruction. Unlike sadism, destructiveness does not seek dominance, but it turns everything that is alive into dead.

Thus, existential-humanistic psychology focuses on the highest manifestations of the human personality - such as its spiritual being and self-actualization. Spiritual being implies going beyond the limits of one's personality; it is associated with self-determination in human values, with the recognition of the importance of one's individuality and self-realization; manifests itself in higher feelings - such as freedom and responsibility, duty, compassion, respect, interest, love, hope, joy of creativity. In the case of deviance, we observe a completely different picture. Therefore, deviant behavior, of course, can be considered as a consequence of the existential problems of the individual and violations of his spiritual development.

Another group of psychological concepts explains deviations through the prism of learning and cognitive processes.

Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Petrovich, became the first law of behavioral psychology and had a decisive influence on all subsequent studies of the patterns of behavior. Classical conditioning (conditioned, or respondent,) is the learning of a conditioned reaction (reaction to an indifferent stimulus), connected in time and space with an unconditioned stimulus that causes innate reactions of the organism.

In accordance with the theory of J., both man and animal adapt to the environment through the use of hereditary inclinations and acquired habits. Congenital reactions are few, in particular, they include blood circulation, respiration, and a conditioned reflex. According to J. Watson (1998), there are only three types of non-acquired emotional responses to stimuli - fear, anger and love (for example, a child's innate fear of a very loud sound). Most responses are formed as a result of the combination of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli in the course of learning.

BF found that behavior is significantly affected by its consequences. In this regard, B. Skinner proposed the mechanism of operant conditioning. In operant behavior, the learning of any action occurs not in the form of behavior responding to a stimulus, but through the person’s own activity. For example, as a result of trial and error, pleasure or elimination of unpleasantness can be achieved, as a result of which a particular form of behavior is self-reinforcing and tends to be reproduced.

If I.P. Pavlov called all the events that enhanced the behavior of his dogs "reinforcement", and the changes in behavior caused by these events - "conditioning" (connection of reinforcement with a stimulus), then, according to the concept of operant behavior, reinforcement depends on its consequences (Relationship between reinforcement and response to a stimulus). Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are the only two possible mechanisms for conditioning and habit formation.

Although the environment plays an important role in shaping and maintaining behavior, behavior itself affects the environment, producing consequences, and also depends on the consequences produced by the environment. Any adequate description of the interaction between the organism and its environment must contain the definition of three elements: 1) the situation in which this reaction takes place; 2) the response itself; and 3) reinforcing consequences. The relationship of these three elements underlies conjugated reinforcement.

The likelihood of a reaction increases after both positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves giving something (for example, praise, reward). Negative reinforcement involves removing something unpleasant from a given situation (for example, avoiding punishment). Regarding deviant behavior: alcohol consumption, for example, is simultaneously reinforced by both enjoyment (feeling warm, enjoying delicious food, energy, attention from friends, festive atmosphere) and avoiding problems (relieving tension, reducing feelings of self-doubt, distraction from worries and responsibility).

Thus, from the point of view of behavioral psychology, deviant behavior can be defined as the result of complex environmental conditioning.

To reduce or eliminate deviant behavior, the environment has the following methods. This is, firstly, negative reinforcement (deprivation of something important). Secondly, it is emotional-negative conditioning (punishment itself). For example, punishment based on fear of pain: usually it is quite effective, but in some situations the punishment causes other feelings - curiosity, identification with the aggressor, sadomasochistic pleasure, in such cases the punishment will reinforce and reinforce the unwanted behavior.

Another difficulty is that it is not always possible to control the conditions of punishment. The most striking example of this is correctional institutions, where, due to uncontrolled adverse conditions, after 5-7 years, the behavior of the individual is deformed almost irreversibly for the worse, and not for the better.

The effectiveness of punishment depends on the following conditions: it must be applied immediately after the undesirable behavior; be proportional to the act; be individually significant; take place without witnesses. Most researchers admit that punishment does not always prevent unwanted behavior.

Another way to extinguish behavior is operant extinction of the reaction - when it is simply ignored or the person is placed in a different environment where the previous behavior is impossible. It has been proven that extinguishing a reaction in this way is more effective than negative reinforcement or punishment.

D. Wolpe specifically studied a similar phenomenon - the mechanism of joint, reciprocal inhibition. Investigating the processes contributing to unlearning, D. Wolpe noticed that old habits die out if new habits are given the opportunity to develop in the same situation. Reciprocal inhibition occurs whenever a positive response (eg, relaxation) that is incompatible with a specific negative response (eg, anxiety) inhibits the given conditioned response, contributing to its subsequent weakening. Since anxiety is often combined with problem behavior, the task of the specialist is to form an antagonistic response to anxiety during the presence of stimuli that cause this anxiety.

D. Wolpe listed actions that can be used to reduce anxiety and change people's behavior:
assertive reactions (open acceptable expression of emotions in relation to another person);
sexual reactions;
relaxation reactions;
respiratory reactions;
"anxiety relief" reactions;
competitive motor reactions;
pleasant reactions that occur in various life situations (for example, when exposed to drugs);
emotional reactions caused by the conversation;
oral or role play of a conflict situation.

Social Cognitive Theory, or developed by Albert Bandura, is a fruitful development of classical learning theory (2). Any human behavior is socially conditioned, since behind it are the most complex skills that require special learning. So, in order to form, for example, aggressive behavior, a number of conditions must be met: there must be ways to learn an action, there must be a provocation, there must be conditions that reinforce actions - in other words, aggressive behavior is learned, since the aggressor must know what hurts, how to do it and under what conditions. The influence of psychophysiological, including hereditary, mechanisms takes place, but does not play a decisive role.

In accordance with the theory of social learning, the following main mechanisms for the formation of behavior are distinguished. through observation (vicarial learning) is the leading way. Humans learn behavior and cognitive skills primarily by watching models (other people). According to Bandura, vicarious learning is even more effective because it is safer. You can observe not only scenes from life, but also their artistic and symbolic representation, for example, through literature, cinema. Learning through observation does not necessarily require an external reward, as it is mediated and "rewarded" by the observer's cognitive processes (for example, his assessment of what is happening, his ideas about the consequences of such behavior).

Learning by doing, or learning by experience, is extremely widespread. There is a difference between knowledge and skill. Skills/actions are linked to target structures. When doing actions, people are affected by their consequences (operant conditioning). Therefore, behavior is significantly influenced by how a person perceives the consequences. Effective functioning requires that people anticipate events and evaluate the likely outcomes of various actions. For example, it is well known that children behave more defiantly in the presence of a condescending parent than in the presence of a more demanding one.

For the successful behavior of an individual, the concepts of personal effectiveness are especially important - judgments about the possibility of achieving the desired result and belief in one's own effectiveness. Initially, people motivate themselves by setting standards or levels of performance that cause imbalance, and then striving to reach those levels. The goals that a person sets for himself act as internal motivators, acting on the principle of self-satisfaction in the implementation of goals. It is especially useful to set progressively more difficult short-term intermediate goals.

The cognitive direction closely adjoins the theory of learning. According to the model of A. Beck and A. Ellis, non-adaptive thought patterns underlie disturbed behavior. Inadequate cognitions trigger inadequate feelings and actions. How people interpret stressful situations determines their behavior. For example, in depression, “normal” sadness transforms into an all-encompassing feeling of total loss and defeat. At the level of behavior, in this case, there are maladaptive reactions of withdrawal, refusal of activity. Another situation may be perceived as overly threatening, which in turn will provoke anxiety and anger, and then aggression or avoidance. Thus, the inadequacy of information processing, as well as failures in structuring life situations, can act as a separate cause of behavioral disorders.

As noted above, deviant behavior of a person can also be associated with such an individual feature as stress resistance. Currently, within the framework of the cognitive-behavioral approach, human behavior in extreme or stressful situations is being actively studied -. Coping refers to the process that mediates adaptation following a stressful event. Coping behavior is understood as conscious strategies for coping with stressful situations (coexisting with unconscious psychological defense mechanisms).

In accordance with the model of R. Lazarus, who also studies coping behavior, the interaction between the environment and the personality is regulated by two processes - cognitive assessment and coping (coping). Coping can contribute to the adaptation of the individual to a particular situation, efficiency or inefficiency. Thus, coping behavior can be flexible and passive, productive and unproductive.

Along with coping strategies (coping actions), coping resources of the individual are distinguished - a set of conditions that contribute to overcoming stress. There are the following types of coping resources:
physical (health, endurance);
social (individual social network, social support systems);
psychological (belief, stable self-esteem, sociability, intelligence, morality, humor);
material resources (money, equipment).

Adaptive variants of coping behavior include such cognitive elements as problem analysis, setting one's own value, maintaining self-control. Among the effective emotional strategies are protest, optimism; these are emotional states with active indignation and protest in relation to difficulties and confidence that there is a way out in any, even the most difficult situation. Among successful behavioral coping strategies are cooperation, conversion, altruism; these are such forms of personality behavior in which it enters into cooperation with significant (more experienced) people, seeks support in the immediate social environment or offers it to relatives in overcoming difficulties.

Among the unproductive cognitive strategies are humility, confusion, dissimulation, ignoring; these are passive forms of behavior with a refusal to overcome difficulties due to disbelief in one's own strengths and intellectual resources, or with an underestimation of troubles.

Unproductive emotional coping strategies are suppression of emotions, humility, self-accusation, aggressiveness; these are behaviors characterized by a depressed emotional state, a state of hopelessness, submissiveness and avoidance of other feelings, experiencing anger and blaming oneself and others.

Among the unproductive behavioral strategies are active avoidance, retreat; it is a behavior that involves passivity, solitude, isolation, avoidance of solving problems.

“Healthy” people are significantly more likely to resort to more adaptive forms of coping behavior and use less non-constructive forms, while individuals with problematic behavior (for example, addicted) are prone to unproductive strategies, such as avoiding problems and difficulties, denial and isolation.

Psychodynamic theories that emerged from the psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud reveal the unconscious mechanisms of human behavior. Initially, Freud's theory of personality development was biologically based and emphasized the primacy of instinctive processes - internal requirements. 3. singled out two types of instincts - life and death. The aggressive instinct was recognized as a derivative and main manifestation of the death instinct, and the tendency to aggression was recognized as the initial instinctive tendency characteristic of all people.

In accordance with another, structural theory 3. Freud, three substructures are distinguished: Id, Ego and Super-ego. The psychological well-being of the individual depends on how effectively these three substructures interact. Anxiety signals the presence of a structural conflict that underlies most behavioral and personality problems. 3. Freud defined anxiety as a specific state of displeasure, as a universal reaction to danger - real or potential. Anxiety can be realistic (caused by danger in the outside world), moral (caused by conflict with the superego), or neurotic (caused by conflict with the instinctual impulses of the id).

The later works of 3. Freud served as an impetus for the development of such a direction in psychoanalysis as considering the processes that today are united by the general concept of "protection". The idea that the main function of the ego is to protect the self from anxiety was developed by Anna Freud. Defense mechanisms work unconsciously and become part of the individual's coping style. The division of defenses into primitive (primary, archaic) and more mature (secondary) ones is accepted; both of them take an active part in the regulation of the mental life of an individual of any age.

Among the archaic defenses, there are: primitive isolation, denial, omnipotent control, primitive idealization and devaluation, projection, introjection and projective identification, splitting, dissociation. The predominant use of archaic defenses as an unconscious mechanism for relieving anxiety can lead to psychological avoidance or unproductive rejection of disturbing life factors.

Secondary, more mature ones are presumably formed at later stages of psychosexual development and are relatively more productive - contributing to better resolution of internal conflicts and better adaptation to reality: these are repression, regression, isolation, intellectualization, rationalization, moralization, separate thinking, turning against oneself, displacement , reactive formation, somatization, annulment, reversion, identification, outward reaction, sexualization, sublimation.

In general, all the phenomena that are called psychological defenses have many useful functions. They can manifest in the form of healthy adaptation and creativity. They can also protect the Self from any threat. A person whose behavior demonstrates a defensive nature unconsciously seeks to perform one of the following tasks: 1) to avoid or master some threatening powerful affect (for example, anxiety or grief); 2) maintain self-respect; 3) get away from external danger.

The important role of the ego in the process of personality development is reflected in the concept of the power of the ego. Ego Power is the ability of the individual to perceive reality, even when it is extremely unpleasant (without resorting to primitive defenses like denial). The strength of the ego is manifested, as O. Kernberg points out, in a good tolerance for anxiety, in the control of impulses and sublimatory activity. Personality problems (including behavioral ones) appear when the defenses are not adequate or not sufficient for normal adaptation. 3. Freud, in later writings, viewed psychopathology as a condition in which defenses fail when anxiety is felt despite habitual means of dealing with it, and when the behavior masking the anxiety is self-destructive in a broad sense.

Alfred's psychodynamically oriented individual psychology is one of the most popular at present.

Adler drew our attention to the fact that throughout childhood a person experiences his own weakness and helplessness, on the basis of which a feeling of inferiority is formed. The feeling of inferiority, according to Adler, first arises at 4-5 years. It is strengthened by two main factors: firstly, these are birth defects (poor health, physical defects, too small growth), and secondly, this is the wrong upbringing of the child in the family (over-indulgence or lack of love for the child). The feeling of inferiority is inversely proportional to how the child copes with the demands of the environment.

Another important factor determining the development of individuality, Adler considered the main life goal. Its specific content can be extremely diverse: the desire for power, beauty, wealth, strength, fame, education, etc. The goal of achieving superiority arises in the first years of life as a reaction to a feeling of inferiority, which, in turn, is caused by the experience of one's own weaknesses.

Any normal person is not alien to the internal conflict between the feeling of inferiority and the desire for self-affirmation (perfection, superiority) generated by it. There are two main ways to overcome the feeling of inferiority: compensation (reduction in the manifestation of disturbed properties due to the enhanced development of intact ones) and overcompensation of shortcomings (intensified training of the disturbed property to the level of superfunctioning). Innate social feeling also compensates for the weakness of man. People use different ways to compensate for feelings of inferiority. Some try to suppress others or use violence, others resort to "legal" methods - success, power, uniting in groups.

With insufficient or perverted compensation, the feeling of inferiority is experienced especially sharply and turns into a complex. This is a set of attitudes, ideas or actions that express in a disguised form a feeling of inferiority. A. Adler extended this mechanism to a wide range of anomalous and normal phenomena. An inferiority complex is both the cause of serious problems and an internal stimulus for personal development.

In the case of disturbed behavior, an inferiority complex is combined with an inadequate life attitude and an undeveloped social feeling. In an abnormal personality, the dominant life orientation is the desire to achieve superiority, which is so pronounced that it almost completely prevents the emergence and development of a sense of community. This confrontation manifests itself in an exaggerated reaction of protest against any demands of society: to respect others, to tell the truth, to study and work, to recognize the rightness of another, to be grateful. The idea of ​​superiority encourages actions to subjugate, belittle and discredit others. As a result, stable negative personality traits are formed - intolerance, envy, conceit, suspicion - which determine both the behavior of the individual and her life path as a whole.

Of particular interest is one of the later psychoanalytic concepts - the theory of object relations. In accordance with psychodynamic ideas, parents, who are the main objects in the world of the child, play a leading role in the dynamics of internal conflicts of the individual. The concept of "object" has become one of the key concepts in psychoanalysis. The term is used in two main meanings. First, it is the object of the drives through which the drive can reach its goal and satisfaction. It can be a specific person, an object or an image. The object of attraction does not have to be real, it can also be imaginary (phantasmatic). Secondly, the term “object” is used in the sense of “an object of love” (or hatred), that is, an object of the relation of the Self to something or someone. The object of love can be a person, an ideal, an essence.

In modern psychoanalysis, the concept of an internal object is widely used - a representation (image) of a real object or its individual qualities in the human psyche. The attitudes and behavior of the individual in relation to the internal object are called object relations. Object relations include partially conscious figurative representations of real objects, unconscious fantasies associated with them and the affects they generate, unconscious psychological defenses, behavioral attitudes, and habitual patterns of actions in relation to objects. In a broad sense, the object relations of an adult person are a holistic attitude of a person to the world, as a result of all his previous development and as a result of a specific perception of primary objects.

Representatives of the theory of object relations consistently develop the idea of ​​the connection between the development of an individual and his internal objects. Of great importance is how the child experiences relationships with parents, what feelings of significant objects are internalized by him, what images of parents continue to exist in his unconscious, influencing the behavior of the individual throughout her life.

The most common and pathogenic factor is infantile trauma in the form of painful experiences in the first years of life. Trauma can be associated with physical illness, with the loss of the mother or her inability to meet the needs of the child, with the incompatibility of the temperaments of mother and child, with the excessive congenital excitability of the baby, and finally with the destructive actions of the parents.

The repetition of a severe traumatic situation leads to a developmental disorder and a transition to a state of apathy and detachment. Later, trauma can be detected by fear of any affects, inability to bear them, a feeling of "insecurity" and the expectation of trouble. This feature is referred to as low affective tolerance. Such people do not know how to take care of themselves and need someone (something) to help them cope with their experiences, while experiencing a deep distrust of people.

The works of A. Freud, M. Klein, M. Mahler, J. Bowlby, R. Spitz, D. Winnicott, M. Balint convincingly indicate that the development of the child is also harmed by the inability of the mother to understand and satisfy his basic needs. In particular, the mother may care for the infant according to her own ideas, and not according to the needs of the child. When a child's signals are not responded to, the child cannot develop a healthy sense of self. Instead, the child experiences itself simply as an extension of the mother, and not as a full-fledged autonomous being.

Melanie Klein, in her treatment of young children, discovered that patients transfer to the analyst not so much their relationship to real as to their inner - imaginary - parents. She emphasized the importance for the development of the child of early internal objects - intrapsychic representatives of relationships with other people. In other words, these are unconscious fantasies about parents in the first year of life. Klein suggested that object relations exist from the very beginning of life. The first object is the mother's breast (a partial object), which the infant defensively splits into "good" (satisfying) and "bad" (frustrating). As a result, already in infancy, the child experiences love and hate. The relation to the primary object consists in the projection of these feelings onto it, as well as in the introjection (absorption) of the qualities of the object itself. For example, a bad mother's breast releases destructive impulses and the child fantasizes about attacks on it. As a result of oral-sadistic and anal-sadistic impulses, the infant develops a fear of persecution, which plays a significant role in the development of both schizophrenia and other disorders.

Donald Winnicott also attributed to the mother a special importance in the early development of the child. The role of the mother begins with the primary maternal concern. This is a special mental state that occurs before the birth of the child and persists until the first few weeks of his life, when the mother is completely absorbed by the baby. In this way, the mother responds to the needs of the fetus and provides the child with the optimal condition for "entering the world." On the contrary, if a mother, for objective or subjective reasons, does not want a child or cannot tune in to it, this is the first serious negative factor of maternal influence on the child.

D. Winnicott introduced the concept of a “good enough mother” as a mother who understands the needs of the child and provides him with optimal comfort. Such a mother responds to every call of the baby, supporting his infantile sense of omnipotence, at least up to 2-2.5 years. As the child grows and his mental abilities increase, the mother allows more and more frustrations, which a healthy child learns to cope with. Gradually, the feeling of omnipotence is replaced by a sense of reality and a healthy self, and the need for a mother decreases. According to Winnicott, in order for a child to form a mature ego (an unconditional sense of one's own existence), the mother must be attentive and caring enough, but not ideal, otherwise the child will remain dependent on her in further development.

Theodore Lidz conducted a study of fifty cases, which led him to doubt the negative influence of the mother. He rejected the hypothesis that maternal rejection is the basis of schizophrenia and other mental disorders. He noted that most often the pathogenic influence comes from the father, who is too alienated or weak. The main negative factor in this case is the lack of role reciprocity.

More recent research in the field of ego psychology has identified such an important family factor as the ability of parents to form and maintain a narcissistic balance in the child's personality. For the normal development of the child, it is necessary that parents satisfy his natural narcissistic needs: 1) for his own significance, 2) for "ideal" parents, 3) for finding similarities between himself and a significant other. If parents do not meet these needs of the child or overstimulate them, the quality of narcissistic vulnerability is very likely to develop.

The frustration of the child's basic needs is experienced by him in the form of undifferentiated anxiety, and later - as a lack of family warmth and love. If the family fails to give the child the love it needs and fails to teach him to love himself, this in turn leads to a persistent feeling of "badness", worthlessness and lack of self-confidence.

Thanks to the analysis, we were once again able to see how complex and diverse the reality we are studying is the deviant behavior of the individual. Deviant behavior can be the result of spiritual problems, it can also be associated with intrapersonal conflicts and inadequate psychological defenses, it can be the result of family dysfunction and, finally, unwanted behavior can simply be a habit - an action that has been repeatedly repeated and rewarded with external or internal benefit.

The conclusion suggests itself that individual scientific directions and theories that explain deviant behavior and consider it in any one aspect do not generally contradict each other, but mutually complement the overall picture of ideas about deviance.

Deviance and deviant behavior are multifactorial phenomena. Based on the accepted definitions and conceptual provisions, we have proposed a structural-level model for the determination of deviance and deviant behavior (Zmanovskaya E. V., 2005).

The determination of deviance and deviant behavior is a spontaneous interaction (convergence) of external conditions and internal properties of the individual, accompanied by a mismatch in the system of personality relations. The following laws are involved in this process:
1) polyetiology - any form of deviant behavior has several causes at different levels of personality organization;
2) gender, age and individual selectivity - different factors affect different people differently depending on gender, age and individual characteristics;
3) the subjective significance of the factor - only those causes that are significant for the individual, that is, affect the system of its values, actual needs and significant relationships, affect;
4) hierarchy - factors that cause deviant behavior of a particular person and form a system of determination differ in the degree of significance and influence on deviant dynamics;
5) exceeding the threshold of adaptability - specific factors cause deviant behavior if their force of influence exceeds the adaptive and protective capabilities of the individual.

It remains not entirely clear: when and why do the considered factors exceed the "threshold of acceptable", causing behavioral deviations? It should be noted that psychological difficulties are inherent in each person to one degree or another (for example, self-doubt). But for certain reasons, in one case, personal problems stimulate a person to positive activity (creativity, service to people, achievements), and in another case, they provoke deviant behavior.

In general, the accumulated clinical and experimental data suggest that there is no linear relationship between deviant actions and any one specific factor and mechanism. Deviant behavior of a person is a complex form of social behavior determined by a system of interrelated factors - biological characteristics, social conditions and psychological reasons.

Due to the complex multifactorial nature of deviant behavior at the present stage of the development of science, the so-called integrative (systemic) approach has received priority. The integrative approach consists in a comprehensive consideration of deviant behavior from the point of view of the interaction of various factors, levels and characteristics of deviation. It involves: systematization of versatile knowledge, development of an interdisciplinary theory of deviant behavior, multi-axis definition of deviance and deviant behavior, identification of the integral properties of deviance, complex diagnostics and correction of deviant behavior.

The interdisciplinary nature of the problem of deviance and deviant behavior has led to the emergence of many theories that explain these phenomena. And although the presented concepts do not contradict, but harmoniously complement each other, specialists face the difficult task of determining their own theoretical platform in this matter.

State Academic University of the Humanities

Psychology faculty

Course work

on the topic: Psychology of deviant behavior

Completed by a 2nd year student

Baryagina Ksenia

Moscow 2011

Introduction

The concept and types of deviant behavior

The concept of norm in the psychology of deviant behavior

Methods for studying deviant behavior

Theories of deviant behavior

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

It is common for the whole world, social being and every person to deviate from the axis of their existence and development. The reason for this deviation lies in the peculiarities of the relationship and interaction of a person with the outside world, the social environment and himself. The diversity arising on the basis of this property in the psychophysical, sociocultural, spiritual and moral state of people and their behavior is a condition for the flourishing of society, its improvement and the implementation of social development.

Deviation in behavior - deviant behavior - is thus a natural condition for the development of a person, the life of the whole society. In other words, deviant behavior was, is and will be, and this is the relevance of its study. The main purpose of this work is to conduct a comparative analysis of various scientific concepts of deviant behavior.

The concept and types of deviant behavior

To proceed to the analysis of concepts, it is necessary to first give a concept to the term "deviant behavior". Deviant behavior (from lat. deviation- deviation) - the commission of acts that contradict the norms of social behavior in one form or another. That is, all actions that are contrary to the rules of conduct traditionally accepted in a particular society. The main types of deviant behavior include, first of all, crime, alcoholism and drug addiction.

Numerous forms of deviant behavior indicate a state of conflict between personal and public interests. Deviant behavior is most often an attempt to leave society, to escape from everyday life problems and hardships, to overcome a state of uncertainty and tension through certain compensatory forms. However, deviant behavior is not always negative. It may be associated with the desire of the individual for something new, an attempt to overcome the conservative, which hinders moving forward. Various types of scientific, technical and artistic creativity can be attributed to deviant behavior.

The process of socialization (the process of assimilation by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and values ​​necessary for his successful functioning in a given society) reaches a certain degree of completeness when the individual reaches social maturity, which is characterized by the acquisition by the individual of an integral social status (a status that determines the position of a person in society). However, in the process of socialization failures and failures are possible. Consider types of social deviations:

1. Cultural and mental deviations.

One individual may have deviations in social behavior, another in personal organization. If these two types of deviations are combined, then the deviation from cultural norms is committed by a mentally abnormal person. People often try to associate cultural deviations with mental ones. Naturally, personal disorganization is far from the only cause of deviant behavior. Usually, mentally abnormal individuals fully comply with all the rules and norms accepted in society, and vice versa, individuals who are mentally completely normal commit very serious deviations. The question of why this happens is of interest to both sociologists and psychologists.

2. Individual and group deviations.

Individual - when an individual rejects the norms of his subculture. Such a person is usually regarded as an individual deviant. At the same time, in every society there are many deviant subcultures, the norms of which are condemned by the generally accepted, dominant morality of society. Group deviation is considered as conformal behavior of a member of a deviant group in relation to its subculture.

3. Primary and secondary deviations.

Primary deviance refers to the deviant behavior of the individual, which generally corresponds to the cultural norms accepted in society. In this case, the deviations committed by the individual are so insignificant and tolerable that he is not socially qualified as a deviant and does not consider himself as such. For him and for those around him, deviation looks like just a little prank, eccentricity, or, at worst, a mistake. Secondary deviation is a deviation from the norms existing in the group, which is socially defined as deviant.

4. Culturally acceptable deviations.

Deviant behavior is always evaluated in terms of the culture accepted in a given society. This assessment consists in the fact that some deviations are condemned, while others are approved. It is necessary to highlight the necessary qualities and ways of behavior that can lead to socially approved deviations:

· Superintelligence.

Increased intelligence can be viewed as a way of behavior that leads to socially approved deviations only when a limited number of social statuses are achieved. Exaltation on the basis of intellectuality is possible only in separate, strictly limited areas of human activity.

· special tendencies.

They allow to show unique qualities in very narrow, specific areas of activity.

· Overmotivation.

It is not clear why people become highly motivated. Obviously, one of the causes of overmotivation is group influence. The influence of external conditions, combined with group influence, contributes to the emergence of a large number of individuals with over-motivation in various fields of activity. Many sociologists believe that intense motivation often serves as a compensation for hardships or experiences suffered in childhood or adolescence.

· Personal qualities.

Personal traits and character traits that help to achieve the exaltation of personality. Personal qualities are, of course, an important factor in achieving exaltation, and often even the most important. It is no coincidence that many great personalities possessed some outstanding personal quality.

· Lucky case.

A happy occasion can contribute to the manifestation of a person's abilities in certain activities. Great achievements are not only a pronounced talent and desire, but also their manifestation in a certain place and at a certain time.

5. Culturally condemned deviations.

Most societies support and reward social deviations in the form of extraordinary achievements and activities aimed at developing the generally accepted values ​​of the culture. These societies are not strict about individual failures to achieve the deviations they approve of. As for the violation of moral norms and laws, it has always been severely condemned and punished in society.

The concept of norm in the psychology of deviant behavior

The subject of the psychology of deviant behavior was discussed above. It included those deviating from a variety of norms:

situational reactions.

mental states,

personality development, leading to maladjustment of a person in society and / or a violation of self-actualization.

Based on this, it is possible to make the most general list of normsof psychological interest:

) The norms according to which a person should (and can) direct and regulate his behavior in a given situation. Obviously, the selection of such norms can be based either on the concept adequacy, or on the concept typicality, or, finally, on the concept ideal, ideally due behavior. It should be noted that inappropriate behavior can also be typical, for example, in a situation of panic. Adequate behavior involves a rational assessment of the situation, or instinctive behavior in it. In other words, different criteria of adequacy are possible.

) Norms associated with the characteristics of certain mental states.

Mental state is understood a relatively stable level of mental activity that has been determined at a given time, which manifests itself in increased or decreased activity of the individual.

The state is the effect of mental activity and the background against which the activity takes place. States differ in relative duration (days, weeks).

Mental states are divided into:

motivational - based on needs (desires, interests, drives);

states of organization of consciousness are manifested in various levels of attentiveness, efficiency;

emotional - stress, affect, frustration;

volitional (states of initiative, purposefulness, determination, perseverance, etc.)

It should be noted that the norms associated with mental states cannot be universal. On the one hand, they are associated with the bearer of this norm (Who?), on the other hand, with the situation in which this norm is applied (Where? When? Under what circumstances?).

) Norms related to personal development. They are also conditional, that is, literally: dependent on conditions. But, strictly speaking, they also depend on who exactly evaluates compliance with this norm? On what theoretical or experimental grounds was the norm itself derived? To what categories of people does it apply?

For the most part, the norms associated with the development of personality can be defined as describing the permissible range of normativity, and not rigidly and discretely fixing the fact of this normativity.

At the same time, such norms are dynamic in the temporal aspect, but their fixation is carried out taking into account ages or certain statuses (age, family, social, professional, etc.). Looking ahead, it is appropriate to note here that Jung emphasized the need to study the personality, both from the standpoint of causes and from the standpoint of goals (why he became the way he became - what he aspires to in the future).

But besides what has been said, there are also other criteria for deriving norms.

Thus, it is possible to correlate an individual with the norms of mental health, an approach is possible that is associated with his adaptation in society, and which has as its deep foundation either the concept of homeostasis, on the one hand, or the idea of ​​an active transformation of reality, on the other.

It is important that each approach will give its own list and its own interpretation of the norms.

Yu.A. Kleiberg notes the borrowing by psychologists of the understanding of the norm and deviations from medicine, in particular from psychiatry, i.e., ultimately, from the dichotomy "norm - pathology". Analyzing the concepts of "norm" and "deviation", the specified author identifies the following understandings of the norm:

a) norm as a prescription or prohibition;

b) the norm as an ideal, as compliance with the requirements of the social environment in which a person lives and acts;

c) the norm as a range of variation inherent in the majority of members of a given population;

d) the norm as a correspondence to one or another theoretical and psychological constructs.

Methods for studying deviant behavior

sociological methods. Polls and interviews.

Among the sociological methods borrowed by deviantologists are surveys and interviews. The main stages of the survey include the compilation of the questionnaire, its pilot testing, sampling (with respect to representativeness), the survey itself, processing, analysis and interpretation of the results.

In relation to the compilation of the questionnaire, it is important to observe several fundamental requirements. Firstly, the thematic selection of questions that should best correspond to the problem under study. Secondly, an acceptable structure of questions - closed and open questions Answers to the first type of questions are easier to analyze, but the free opinion of the respondent in this case is adjusted to the template, which reduces the information content of the answers. Free responses are informative and reflect the real opinion of the respondent, but they are more difficult to analyze. It is also necessary to ensure that the questions do not push the respondent to a particular answer. Thirdly, questions should be formulated in such a way that the respondent can easily understand them.

Conducting interviews is quite difficult, but the information obtained as a result is usually much deeper and more interesting than in surveys.

Further, among the methods borrowed from sociologists, it is worth noting the method of document analysis. All documents can be conditionally divided into two large groups - personal and official. Among the latter, a special group is made up of printed publications - the press. Searching for information in official documents can be done in different ways. It is possible, for example, to compare points of view competing in print media on some issue (say, on the problem of drug addiction, or child homelessness). You can make a rating of the deviantological problems mentioned in the press, or analyze the criminal chronicle separately. Official documents also include official statistical information.

Personal documents are, first of all, diaries, letters and photographs. The study of letters and photographs allows you to reconstruct the inner world of a person. In this case, the views, habits and problems of a person appear before the researcher in clean form. Studying personal documents, the scientist gets an invaluable opportunity to look at the problems of interest to him through the eyes of the one he studies. Secondly, personal documents should include documents in the literal sense - certificates, certificates, characteristics, and so on.

Psychological methods. Questionnaires and tests.

With the help of test methods, mainly mental properties, intellectual, professional and creative abilities are diagnosed, while characterological features, personality traits, motivation structure, etc. are studied through questionnaires. There is a fundamental difference between questionnaires and tests. First of all, the test compares the results of a given subject with the existing norm, and, therefore, the possibilities of its use as a method are the less, the less certain something that is being studied with its help. The questionnaire is a tool for informing the researcher aboutsubjective opinion of the subject - even if rather "pure" psychological properties are indirectly studied with its help.

The use of test and survey methods has a number of difficulties.

Difficulties associated with the reliability of the information received:

compliance of the methodology with the problem (must measure exactly what is needed);

the adequacy of the answers of the subjects (accuracy, sincerity, the absence of a socially desirable component in those);

the subjectivity of the researcher in interpreting the results.

Experiment.

So-called " classical experiment» consists in the following: the object is exposed to any factors that (according to the hypothesis) affect the phenomenon we are studying. The danger for the researcher here is that there is a temptation to believe that the changes that he fixes occur precisely because of his influence. The researcher should take into account factors other than those introduced by him, as well as take into account the possible effect of residual, unaccounted for factors. In this sense, many comparative empirical studies cannot, strictly speaking, be called experiments.

So, if certain properties are compared in groups between which there is an obvious qualitative difference, then even if these properties also turn out to be authentically different, the question still remains unexplained, what exactly caused these differences? Sometimes they try to call such studies a “stating experiment”, but this is not true. Any experiment necessarily states some fact (even this one: “Nothing could be established”), but not every study is an experiment, and some of them can only be called measurement- no more.

observation.

Here the scientist becomes a direct participant in the processes that he studies. Plunging into the social reality under study, looking at events through the eyes of a participant, the scientist must penetrate into the specifics of the worldview of the category of people he is interested in. It is worth noting that usually such information is inaccessible to the researcher, because to penetrate into the essence of the life world of any social group, one can only becoming one's own in her. In psychology, a distinction is made between direct and indirect observation. According to the nature of contacts with the objects under study, observation is divided into direct and indirect, according to the nature of interaction - included and non-included (from outside) observation.

In general, observation is a general scientific method. It must be emphasized that it acquires and retains the status of scientificity only when it is not passive contemplation, and does not snatch out of what is seen unsystematic, random impressions, moreover, passed through the filter of interests, attitudes and prejudices.

The scientific nature of observation is ensured by the following:

strict planning of what exactly should be seen;

predetermined criteria for how to identify what you are looking for;

fixing the results of observation (according to a pre-compiled scheme).

Conversation.

The main purpose of the conversation is to obtain the necessary information about him and other persons in the process of communication with the subject. During the conversation, an opinion is formed about the individual development of a person, his intellect, mental state, about his attitude to certain events, people. And although with the help of a conversation it is far from always possible to obtain exhaustive information, nevertheless, it helps to get to know the subject better, to determine the most correct tactical line of behavior in relation to him.

Self-reports and self-descriptions.

When studying issues related to deviant behavior, the analysis of such sources can provide the researcher with invaluable information. Moreover, it can be used in three broadest aspects:

for diagnostic purposes in relation to a particular individual;

for diagnostic purposes related to identifying in such self-descriptions the most typical features inherent in this category of people;

in therapeutic terms - as a way of introspection.

Summing up the conversation about the methods of studying deviant behavior, it should be said about the difference between qualitative and quantitative methods. They are especially effective on a large scale - when you need to reflect the state of large groups of people or the most general patterns. These methods primarily include surveys, formalized interviews and the analysis of official documents.

Qualitative methods are more in-depth, and aimed at discovering special . The researcher tries to reveal the meaning that people put into their behavior and into their experiences. The processing of data collected using qualitative methods implies their meaningful interpretation. In addition, however, a statistical analysis of the occurrence of any meaningful categories can be carried out - this is how the inductive transition occurs from single , special - to general, typical .

Theories of deviant behavior

social deviation deviant behavior

Attempts at a theoretical explanation of human nature were rooted in two fundamentally different foundations: one of them is nature, the other is society. The first is the ground for theories, where the main idea is the biological determination of human behavior, the second is its social determination. The most justified would be general methodological approachtrying to take into account interactionall circumstances. Each theory brings new research opportunities, and at least this enriches knowledge.

I propose to get acquainted with the most famous theories:

Biological theories

Theory of Cesare Lombroso.Traditionally, the Italian scientist C. Lombroso is considered one of the founders of the biological direction.

Lombroso worked as a prison doctor for a number of years, which gave him the opportunity to summarize significant factual material. The main determinant of propensity to crime, according to Lombroso, were hereditary biological factors(for example, the special structure of the skull), supported by the influence of the environment. At the same time, Lombroso considered the causes of deviance in the widest possible range: from climatic, natural and hereditary factors to economic, cultural and gender. However, the primacy, nevertheless, was given to factors of a hereditary-biological nature. A significant place in his research is given to the analysis of family and kinship ties of criminals, within and between generations.

Lombroso's theory quickly gained considerable popularity, but the subsequent development of sociology and psychology was not conducive to maintaining it. First of all, because causal relationships were not traced to the end: it was not clear whether heredity determines the tendency to deviance, or other, external factors affecting, among other things, heredity.

There are many more biological theories, such as "Constitutional Theories", "Chromosomal Theory", "Endocrine Theory".

Constitutional theoriescan be considered a continuation of Lombroso's attempt to link deviance with physical and constitutional factors. The most famous work is "Personality Typologies", developed by Kretschmer (1925) and Sheldon (1954). According to the ideas of these authors, people can be divided into three types according to their psychophysical constitution: mesomorphic (athletic) type, ectomorphic (thin) and endomorphic (fat) type. Mesomorphs are more prone to dominance, activity, aggression and violence. Ectomorphs are described as timid, inhibited, and prone to loneliness and mental activity. Endomorphs are distinguished by good nature and a lively and cheerful character. But the theory was called too simplified, and Kretschmer's typology was derived mainly from mentally ill people.

Chromosomal theoryaggression and crime appeared in connection with the development of genetics. Studies were conducted on persons who committed criminal acts. These studies have confirmed a high degree of association between delinquency and the presence of an XYY chromosomal abnormality. As you know, the female chromosome set is formed by a combination of two X chromosomes. In men, this combination is represented by one X and one Y chromosome. But sometimes there is a combination of XYY - one extra male chromosome is added. Patricia Jacobs, who conducted a survey of prisoners in a number of British prisons, found that the percentage of people with this kind of anomaly among prisoners is several times higher than among the general population. However, subsequent studies have shown that there is no direct cause of a high level of aggression by the presence of an extra Y chromosome. Rather, the matter is in the lower level of intellectual development of persons with this anomaly. In fact, they are no more likely to commit crimes and acts of aggression than people with a normal chromosome set, they are only more likely to be caught at the scene of a crime and punished, which explains their high percentage among prisoners.

endocrine theorythis is another direction of biological theories of aggression, associated with the study of the role of hormonal influences on criminal and aggressive behavior. Back in 1924, the American scientist M. Schlapp, who studied the endocrine system of criminals, found that a third of the prisoners examined by him suffer from emotional instability associated with diseases of the endocrine glands. Subsequently, the stability of sex differences in the manifestations of aggressiveness, regardless of nationality and culture, led scientists to think about the possible influence of androgens (male sex hormones) on aggressiveness. It is known that the level of tetrosterone in the body of men is more than ten times higher than that of women. Since tetrosterone influences the formation of secondary sexual characteristics, it would be quite possible to assume that it contributes to the development of higher levels of male aggression and propensity to crime. Numerous experiments to test this hypothesis have given very conflicting information. On the one hand, enough evidence has been collected in favor of the main assumption (the impact of gender differences). At the same time, there are practically no direct data confirming the hypothesis about the influence of androgens on deviance. Although the level of tetrosterone may play a role in the formation of a tendency to aggression, nevertheless, most researchers are inclined to think that other factors may play a much more important role in this. Most likely, tetrosterone affects the level of aggressiveness, interacting with a whole range of individual and social factors.

In conclusion of the description of biological theories, I will add that today most serious scientists come to the conclusion that a biological predisposition to various forms of deviance manifests itself only in the presence of a favorable influence of the social environment.

Sociological theories

Speaking of sociological theories, we should first of all mention Émile Durkheim, because the first significant sociological study that touches on the problem of deviance should be considered his work Suicide . Suicide actually represents aggressive behavior directed against the subject himself. Durkheim was the first to show that a deviant act (suicide) is the result of the relationship between society and the individual. The level of suicides is determined by the specifics of social relations, and not by the personal qualities of people.

However, in addition to the actual study of suicide, this work of Durkheim is of considerable methodological interest. He carried out an extensive statistical analysis of the patterns of suicide in certain localities, at different times, for different social strata and both sexes. The analysis was accompanied by a critical analysis of some of the provisions of his contemporaries and predecessors, and often served as a very convincing refutation of the theories that were built by them. By the way, the reasoning of the aforementioned Lombroso also turned out to be a target for this.

Very important is his anomie conceptand the thesis that for modern society it is in this state that the greatest danger lurks. Anomie- this is a state of society when the former system of regulatory norms and values ​​has been destroyed, and a replacement has not yet been formed. This is closely related to Durkheim's view of normal society.

A normal society requires a "consensus of minds" - a common system of norms, beliefs and values ​​shared by members of society and regulating their lives. In a state of anomie, society is a clash of individual ambitions of its members and is governed by the law of force. This is due to the fact that each person, in the words of Durkheim, is "an abyss of desires." Only society can restrain these desires and regulate their direction, because a person does not have instinctive regulators. It is society that creates ideas about the norm and deviance, which are blurred in a state of anomie.

A similar condition is present in modern society, because. most of the crimes, mental disorders and suicides are connected with it. In this regard, Durkheim pointed to the pathological nature of the development of civilization, since it is this development that stimulates the state of anomie.

Theory of social tension.It is one of the most popular theories of deviant behavior. It was developed by R. Merton. When creating this theory, Merton used Durkheim's concept of anomie in relation to the problems of the sociology of crime.

The main idea of ​​this theory is that the main cause of crime is the contradiction between the values ​​that society aims people at and the possibilities of achieving them according to the rules established by society. The emerging social tension leads to the fact that a person who has not been able to obtain certain values ​​will react to this with one form or another of deviant behavior (including those associated with aggression and violence). Total Merton distinguished five types of reactionson the values ​​established by society and the institutionalized means of achieving them (conformism, innovation, ritualism, retreat (retreatism), rebellion). Traditionally, these five types of behavior are interpreted in relation to such a generally recognized cultural goal in modern society, which is the desire for material well-being. Education and a career are considered to be the main socially acceptable means of achieving this goal.

The only "normal" behavior would be conformism, recognizing both ends and means. One of the deviant responses to stress can be innovation. In this case, the subject recognizes social goals (eg, material well-being), but, not being able to achieve them with the help of socially approved means (successful career), uses his own means, often not approved by society (eg, criminal activity).

ritualism- this is the non-recognition of goals, using institutionalized means to achieve them. For example: the subject does not consider himself capable of achieving social success, but continues to work hard in unpromising areas, without hope of any achievement.

Retreat- this is a denial of both goals and means to achieve them, a departure from society. An example would be the behavior of a person who uses drugs and thus tries to hide behind from society. Rebeldoes not recognize social ends and replaces them with his own, as well as means. For example, instead of economic benefits, a person may seek to destroy an unjust social system through violence.

The theory of tension refers to the functional direction in sociological theorizing. It shows how some elements of the social structure can be socially dysfunctional due to the impossibility of realizing cultural goals. However, this theory is less effective in explaining the deviant behavior of privileged groups, since the social position of the representatives of the upper strata of society does not prevent, but, on the contrary, contributes to success.

Subcultural theory. The founder of this direction can be considered T. Sellin, who published in 1938 the work Cultural conflict and crime . In this work, Sellin considered the conflict between the cultural values ​​of different communities as a criminogenic factor. Based on Sellin's theory, the American sociologist A. Cohen developed his own concept of subcultures.

Cohen, on the scale of small social groups, considered the features of the cultural values ​​of criminal associations (gangs, communities, groups). In these microgroups, a kind of minicultures (views, habits, skills, stereotypes of behavior, norms of communication, rights and obligations, punishment measures for violators of norms developed by such a microgroup) - this phenomenon is called subcultures.

Subcultural theory pays special attention to the group (subculture) as a carrier of deviant ideas. There are subcultures that profess norms and values ​​that are completely different from those generally accepted. People belonging to these subcultures build their behavior in accordance with group prescriptions, but dominant social groups define this behavior as deviant.

Cohen generalized the idea that most deviant groups are a negative reflection of the culture of the majority of society.

The subcultural theory, which explains deviant behavior by the socialization of an individual in a system of deviant values ​​and norms, does not explain why deviant norms and values ​​appear in society, why some members of society accept a deviant value system, while others, being in the same conditions, deny it.

Theory of conflict.It is based on the premise that in any society there is an inequality in the distribution of resources and power. K. Marx is considered to be the ancestor of this direction. Conflict theorists highlight the principles by which society is organized to serve the interests of the rich and powerful members of society, often to the detriment of others. For many conflict theorists, the main source of deviance in Western societies is the capitalist economic system.

Although deviance is found at every level of society, the nature, extent, punishment of deviance is often related to the social class position of the individual (Burke, Linihan and Rossi, 1980; Braithwaite, 1981). Usually people from high society - rich, powerful, influential - play a major role in determining what is deviant and what is not.

Conflict theory emphasizes the inequality in the distribution of power and wealth in society. Conflict theorists of the Marxist school see inequality as a product of the capitalist economy. However, scholars of other schools noted that inequality in the distribution of power and privileges exists in all societies, regardless of the type of economy or political regime.

Psychological theories

Classical and modern psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis(German psychoanalysis) is a complex of psychological theories and methods of psychotherapy put forward by Sigmund Freud at the beginning of the 20th century. This method has become widespread in Europe (from the beginning of the 20th century), the USA (from the middle of the 20th century) and Latin America (from the second half of the 20th century). Subsequently, the ideas of Z. Freud were developed by such psychologists as A. Adler and K. Jung.

Psychoanalysis has been proposed Freudas a scientific theory about the human psyche.

The concept of psychoanalysis

The theory of human behavior, the first and one of the most influential theories of personality in psychology. Usually refers to classical psychoanalysis created by Sigmund Freud, but is also applied to any derivative (even a theory very different from it), such as Jung's analytical psychology or Adler's individual psychology, which they prefer to refer to as "neopsychoanalysis".

A set of methods for studying the main motives of a person. The fundamental subject of study of psychoanalysis is the unconscious motives of behavior, originating in latent disorders. They are revealed through free association expressed by the patient.

Method and methods of treatment of mental disorders based on the analysis of free associations, manifestations of transference and resistance, through the techniques of interpretation and elaboration. The goal of the psychoanalyst is to help the patient free himself from hidden mechanisms that create conflicts in the psyche, that is, from habitual patterns that are not suitable or create specific conflicts in the realization of desires and in adaptation to society.

Topical model of mental apparatus

Unconscious- special mental forces that lie outside of consciousness, but control human behavior.

Consciousness- one of the two parts of the psyche, realized by the individual - determines the choice of behavior in the social environment, but not entirely, since the choice of behavior itself can be initiated by the unconscious. Consciousness and the unconscious are in antagonistic relations, in an endless struggle, the unconscious always wins. The psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle, which is modified into the reality principle, and if the balance is disturbed, a reset is carried out through the unconscious sphere.

Structural model of the psyche

Freud proposed the following structure of the psyche:

Ego ("I"), Superego ("Super-I"), Id ("It")

Defense mechanisms

Sigmund Freud identified several protective mechanisms of the psyche:

substitution , Jet formation , Compensation , crowding out , Negation , Projection , Sublimation , Rationalization , Regression.

« normal"behavior will be in the event that the instinctive impulses of the "It" do not conflict with the normative requirements of the "Super-I", reflected in the consciousness ("I"), giving rise to an internal conflict. Consciousness - "I" - in an effort to prevent conflict, is forced to resort to the sublimation of aggressive and sexual impulses. Sublimationis a mechanism for translating the dark, elemental energy of instincts into a culturally acceptable framework. For example, if a person is prone to aggression, he can "let off steam" by engaging in hard physical labor or aggressive sports.

However, the pressure of subconscious drives on the "I" may be too strong to be completely sublimated. On the other hand, the immature, undeveloped "I" may be incapable of sublimation, which requires creativity. In this case, a person begins to feel anxiety, in connection with a brewing internal conflict. In these cases, consciousness, in order to mitigate the conflict between the "It" and the "Super-I" and protect itself from anxiety, uses defense mechanisms. Their action is associated with the distortion of reality and self-deception, thanks to which the consciousness is protected from traumatic and unacceptable experiences. As mentioned above, Freud described several basic defense mechanisms - this repression, projection, substitution, rationalization, reactive formation, regression and denial. Let's look at each mechanism in more detail.

crowding out- this is the suppression of subconscious drives and experiences that pose a threat to self-consciousness and their displacement into the sphere of the unconscious. In this case, a person is forced to spend a significant amount of psychic energy, but the repressed desires still periodically “break through” into reality through slips of the tongue, dreams, etc.

Projectionis attributing to others one's own unacceptable experiences.

substitution- this is the direction of the energy of attraction to a safer object.

Rationalization- this is what in everyday life is called self-justification. A person seeks to give a rational explanation for actions committed under the influence of instinctive drives.

Jet formationis a more complex defense mechanism that includes two stages. At the first stage, the unacceptable experience is suppressed, and at the second stage, the opposite feeling is formed in its place.

Regression- this is a return to childish, early forms of behavior. As a rule, immature, infantile personalities resort to this type of protective mechanisms. However, normal adults in situations of mental overload can use this defense mechanism.

A variety of "childish" reactions of the psyche can be considered negation. Let's say a person in a state of intoxication commits a crime and then refuses to believe it.

Freud argued that defense mechanisms operate on a subconscious level, and all people resort to them from time to time. In those cases when it is not possible to reduce tension with their help, neuroses arise - whiter or less noticeable disorders of normal mental activity. At the same time, people differ among themselves in their ability to sublimate and control impulses. Much depends on the degree of development, maturity of the individual, the foundations of which are laid in early childhood. The roots of many neuroses and more severe disorders - psychoses - should, according to Freud, be sought in early childhood experiences.

Individual psychology of Adler

According to Adler, a baby is born with two basic feelings - inferiority and community with their own kind. He strives for perfection as compensation for his inferiority and for the establishment of meaningful social relationships.

Compensation "on the useful side of life" (according to Adler) leads to the formation of a sense of self-worth, which implies the dominance of a sense of community over the individualistic desire for superiority. In the case of "compensation on the useless side of life", the feeling of inferiority is transformed into an inferiority complex, which is the basis of neurosis, or into a "superiority complex". At the same time, Adler saw the roots of deviations not so much in the complexes themselves, but in the inability of the individual to establish adequate contact with the environment. As an important factor in the formation of personality, Adler singles out the structure of the family. The place of the child in it and the appropriate type of upbringing have a significant impact on the occurrence of deviant behavior. For example, overprotection leads to the development of suspiciousness and an inferiority complex.

Jung's Analytical Psychology

A short list of concepts that are directly related to the study of deviant behavior:

Jung's personality structure:

Ego- conscious mind.

Personal unconscious- repressed conscious impressions, experiences at the time of appearance that were too weak to make an impression on the level of consciousness.

complexes- an organized thematic group of experiences that are attracted to the so-called core of the complex. The complex can seize power over the personality. Can be realized through associations, but not directly.

collective unconscious- hidden memories inherited phylogenetically (refuted on a rational level by modern genetics). This is the innate foundation of the personality structure. Symptoms, phobias, illusions, and other irrational phenomena may arise from the rejection of unconscious processes.

archetypes- a universal mental form containing an emotional element. The most developed archetypes can be considered as separate systems within the personality - persona, anima/animus, shadow.

A person- a mask worn in response to:

a) the requirements of social conventions;

b) internal archetypal needs.

This is a public personality, as opposed to one's own personality, hidden behind external manifestation in social behavior.

If the Ego is consciously identified with the Person, the person is aware and appreciates not his own feelings, but the accepted role.

Anima/animus- the bisexual nature of man. As an archetype, they arose with the constant coexistence of both sexes.

Shadow- the embodiment of the animal side of human nature. The projection of the Shadow outside is realized in the form of a devil or an enemy. The shadow is responsible for socially disapproved thoughts, feelings, actions.

Self- the archetype of integrity - the core of the personality, around which all systems are grouped. The goal of life is an ideal that has the property of unattainability. The archetype of the self is not evident until a person reaches middle age, when he begins to make efforts to shift the center of the personality from the conscious to a balance between it and the unconscious.

Settings- extraversion and introversion, one of which dominates, while the second is unconscious.

Functions - thinking, feeling, feeling, intuition.(Thinking is rational; feeling is an evaluative function that determines the value of things, gives subjective experiences; sensation is a perceptual realistic function; intuition is perception based on unconscious processes and contents.)

Interaction of personality systems:

Systems can: compensateeach other; resistand unite.

Compensation:

between extraversion and introversion,

between the ego and anima of men/animus of women.

Opposition

between the ego and the personal unconscious,

between ego and shadow

between persona and anima/animus,

between the persona and the personal unconscious,

between the collective unconscious and the person.

Combining allows the components to create a qualitatively new one, aimed at integrating the personality (self).

The unity of opposites is achieved through transcendent function.

Personality dynamics.

concept psychic energy- manifestation of vital energy, the energy of the body as a biological system. It is a hypothetical construct that cannot be measured, but obeys the same physical laws as energy in the ordinary sense.

mental values- the amount of energy invested in one or another element of the personality, a measure of tension (or strength in motives and behavior control). It is possible to detect only the relative value of an element (in comparison with others, but not objectively, that is, only within a given personality).

Principle of equivalence- if energy is spent on one, then it will appear in another (one value weakens, another increases).

Entropy principle- the distribution of the energy of the psyche tends to balance. The state of the ideal distribution of energy is the self.

Personal development according to Jung

The goal is self-realization, as the most complete differentiation and harmonious combination of all aspects of the personality. The new center is the self, instead of the old center - the ego.

Causality and teleology- two approaches to the study of personality, one of which considers the causes, the other - proceeds from the goals, from what the person is moving towards. Jung promoted the idea that in order to properly understand what drives a person's actions, it is necessary to use both approaches.

Stages of personality development:

Before the age of five - sexual values ​​appear, and reach a peak in adolescence.

Youth and early adulthood - the basic life instincts dominate, a person is energetic, passionate, dependent on others (even in the form of resistance to them).

Forties - a change of values ​​- from biological to more cultural (culturally determined), a person is more introverted, less impulsive. Energy yields to wisdom (both as a goal and as a tool to achieve it). Personal values ​​are sublimated into social, religious, civil and philosophical symbols.

This period is both the most significant for the individual and the most dangerous if violations are observed in the transfer of energy to new values.

The advantage of the Jungian approach to the interpretation of personality is the assertion about the internal tendency of a person to develop in the direction of harmonious unity. (Revelation of the original innate wholeness.)

Erich Fromm

The main theme of Fromm's work is human loneliness, caused by alienation from nature and from other people. Such isolation is not found in animals.

Such a theme is closely related to the theme of freedom, which Fromm, in this regard, considers as a negative category. Every liberation leads to a greater sense of loneliness and alienation.

Consequently, (according to Fromm) two ways are possible - to unite with others on the basis of love and cooperation, or to seek submission.

According to Fromm, any device (reorganization) of society is the realization of an attempt to resolve basic human contradiction. It consists in the fact that man is both a part of nature and separate from it - both an animal and a human being. That is, a person has both needs (animal) and self-consciousness, reason, human experiences (human).

Fromm identifies five basic needs:

The need to connect with others- stems from the torn out of man from the original unity with nature. Instead of the instinctive connections that animals have, man is forced to create his own relationships, and those based on productive love turn out to be the most satisfying. (Mutual care, respect, understanding.)

Need for transcendence- the desire of man to rise above his animal nature, to become not a creature, but a creator. (With obstacles, a person becomes a destroyer.)

The need for rootedness- people want to feel part of the world, to belong to it. The most healthy manifestation is in the feeling of kinship with other people.

The Need for Identity- the need for the uniqueness of their individuality. If this need is not realized in creativity, then it can be realized in belonging to a group or in identification with another person. (Not being somebody, but belonging to somebody.)

The Need for an Orientation System- a system of reference points, a stable and consistent way of perceiving and understanding the world.

According to Fromm, these needs are purely human in nature. Moreover, they are not generated by society (with one device or another), but arise evolutionarily.

The forms and methods of meeting these needs and the development of the individual are determined by a particular society. The adaptation of a person to society is a compromise between internal needs and external requirements.

Five types of social character,determining the way individuals relate to each other:

receptive - consuming,

exploitative,

accumulative,

market,

productive.

Later, he put forward another dichotomous way of classifying characters - on biophilic(aimed at the living) and necrophilic(pointing at the dead). Fromm said that the only initial force is life, and the death instinct comes into play when the vital forces are frustrated.

According to Fromm, it is important that the character of the child is brought up in accordance with the requirements of a given society, so that he wants to preserve it. This is explained by the fact that, according to Fromm, any change in the social structure leads to violations in the social character of the individual. Its former structure does not correspond to the new reality, which enhances the feeling of alienation. The latter reinforces the danger of uncritical choice (or acceptance from others) of ways to escape loneliness.

Fromm's beliefs:

1) a person has an innate essential nature,

) society must exist in order for this nature to be realized,

) so far no society has succeeded,

) but it is possible in principle.

Humanistic psychology

It proceeds from the fact that when an individual reacts to various external circumstances, a personal interpretation of the situation is essential. Depending on how exactly a person comprehends certain social interactions, he can act either “normally” or, on the contrary, “deviantly”. Attention is focused on the content of human consciousness: “How different ideas, views, attitudes, “ideas” affect human behavior. This makes us turn to the problem of a general worldview, the most important component of which is the individual's value system.

Carl Rogers - "human-centered" theory

The concept of self-concept.I-concept means: “... an organized, coherent conceptual gestalt built from perceptions of the characteristics of "I" or "me" and perceptions of the relationship of "I" or "me" to other people and various aspects of life, as well as the values ​​associated with these perceptions. This gestalt is available to consciousness, although not necessarily always conscious. It is a fluid and changeable gestalt, it is processual, but at each moment it forms a specific integrity.

organism- represents the locus of all experience - everything accessible to self-knowledge and constantly happening in the body at any moment. The individual's behavior depends on the "phenomenal field" (subjective reality) and not on the stimulus situation (external reality). The phenomenal field is formed at every moment by conscious (symbolized) and unconscious (not symbolized) experiences.

I- a part of the phenomenal field, differentiated taking into account the introduced values ​​and norms.

According to Rogers' theory, in addition to the real "I", as such, its structure, there is an ideal "I" - what a person would like to be. When the symbolized experiences that form the Self faithfully reflect the experiences of the organism, the person is said to be adapted, mature, and fully functioning. Such a person accepts the full range of organismic experiences without a sense of threat or anxiety. He is capable of realistic thinking. The incongruity between the Self and the organism makes individuals feel threatened and anxious. Their behavior becomes defensive, their thinking becomes limited and rigid. In Rogers' theory, however, two other manifestations of congruence are implied. One of them is the presence or absence of congruence between subjectively perceived reality and external reality - the world as it is. Another is the degree of correspondence between the real and the ideal "I". In the case of significant discrepancies, the person is dissatisfied and ill-adjusted.

Thus, according to Rogers, the body has a basic tendency - the desire to actualize, affirm, strengthen itself. This actualizing tendency is selective, aimed at those aspects of the environment that contribute to the constructive movement of the personality towards actualization, towards completeness and integrity. That is, self-actualization in itself is a motivating factor that encourages activity by force, since the goal of every person's life is to become a self-actualized, integral personality.

Rogers specifically puts forward two leading needs: in a positive attitude and in a self-attitude. The first develops due to the care of parents in childhood, the second is formed by receiving a positive attitude from others.

Rogers focuses on how, especially in childhood, the assessment of the individual by others increases the discrepancy between the experiences of the organism and the experiences of the "I". In the case of only a positive attitude, the self-attitude will not be conditioned by anything, and will remain in accordance with the organismic assessment. But, since assessments from others are not always positive, a dissonance arises between the organismic assessment and the experiences of the “I”. Unworthy experiences tend to be excluded from the self-concept, even if they are organismically valid. Consequently, the self-concept is excluded from the sphere of organismic experiences - the individual (child) tries to meet the expectations of others. The self-concept, over time, becomes more distorted due to other people's assessments.

The organismic experience of experiences contradicts the self-concept, and is experienced as a threat, it gives rise to anxiety. To protect the self-concept, such threatening experiences are given distorted symbolization. Rogers argues, therefore, that people often maintain and try to reinforce an image of themselves that does not correspond to reality. In this case, the mechanism is either the exclusion of negative information about oneself from consciousness, or, on the other hand, the data that contradict the negative assessment of oneself are interpreted by the individual in such a way that the possibility of this negative assessment still remains.

Behaviorism

Skinner

For a psychologist, the only real fact can only be human behavior - something that can be measured and analyzed.

Behavior always has a reason. This reason is a stimulus - something that pushes a person to action from the outside. The actions themselves are carried out according to the “stimulus-response” scheme, such behavior Skinner called respondent. However, a person, thanks to his mental abilities, is also capable of operant behavior. ( operant- spontaneous reaction without the action of the stimulus that causes it.)

All human behavior is a more or less complex set of various stable or short-term reactions. In general, a person tends to receive positive and avoid negative incentives. This is the basis of the mechanism of learning - fixing in the mind of typical reactions to typical stimuli. Reinforced behavior is reinforced and becomes "natural".

According to the behaviorist direction, all human behavior is a set of various stable or short-term reactions. A person seeks to receive positive and avoid negative incentives. This is the basis of the mechanism learning- consolidation in the mind of typical reactions to typical stimuli. Reinforced behavior is reinforced and becomes "natural", as mentioned above.

From these positions, deviance is the result of learning associated with a different set of incentives in the environment of each person. A prosperous family and a positive environment stimulate the positive development of the individual, and vice versa. Exceptions are explained by the action of secondary stimuli. Thus, deviant behavior is taught like any other behavior.

Conclusion

So, we have determined that deviant (deviant) behavior is the behavior of an individual or group that does not correspond to generally accepted norms, as a result of which these norms are violated by them. Deviant behavior is a consequence of an unsuccessful process of personality socialization: as a result of a violation of the processes of identification and individualization of a person, such an individual easily falls into a state of “social disorganization”, when cultural norms, values ​​and social relationships are absent, weaken or contradict each other. This condition is called anomie and is the main cause of deviant behavior.

It should be noted that there are also a variety of interrelated factors that determine the genesis of deviant behavior.

Namely:

individual factor.acting at the level of psychobiological prerequisites for deviant behavior that make it difficult for an individual to socially and psychologically adapt;

pedagogical factor,manifested in defects in school and family education;

psychological factor,revealing the unfavorable features of the interaction of the individual with his immediate environment in the family, on the street, in the team, and which, first of all, manifests itself in the active-selective attitude of the individual to the preferred environment of communication, to the norms and values ​​of his environment, to the psychological and pedagogical influences of the family, school , the public to self-regulation of their behavior;

social factor,determined by social, economic, political, etc. conditions for the existence of society.

Given that deviant behavior can take a variety of forms (both negative and positive), it is necessary to study this phenomenon, showing a differentiated approach.

Bibliography

1.Andreeva V.E. Deviant behavior of teenagers. Thesis project.

2.Shafranov-Kutsev G.F. Sociology.

.Khomich A.V. Psychology of deviant behavior.

.Frolov S.S. Sociology.

.Kleiberg Yu.A. Psychology of deviant (deviant) behavior.

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Deviant behavior is a special form of deviant behavior in which a person loses the concept of moral values, social norms and completely focuses on satisfying his needs. Deviant behavior implies the obligatory degradation of the personality, because it is simply impossible to progress by hurting others. A person is changing literally before our eyes: he loses a sense of reality, elementary shame and all responsibility.

The psychology of deviant behavior is such that the individual is often unaware that they are acting in a destructive manner. She does not want to delve into the needs of others, she does not care about the feelings of loved ones. Deviant behavior robs a person of the opportunity to think and reason sensibly.

The concept of deviant behavior

The concept of deviant behavior in psychological science appeared thanks to the hard work of Emile Durkheim. He became the founder of the theory of deviation in general. The very concept of deviant behavior initially meant some discrepancy with the public understanding of how one should behave in a given situation. But gradually the concept of deviant behavior became closer to understanding offenses and knowingly causing harm to others. This idea was supplemented and developed in his works by a follower of Emile Durkheim - Robert King Merton. The scientist insisted that deviant behavior in all cases is dictated by the unwillingness to develop, work on oneself and benefit those who are nearby. The concept of deviant behavior is one of those that affect the sphere of human relationships.

Reasons for deviant behavior

The reasons why a person chooses deviant behavior for himself are very diverse. These reasons sometimes subjugate a person to such an extent that she loses her will, the ability to think sensibly, to make decisions independently. Deviant behavior is always characterized by excessive touchiness, vulnerability, increased aggressiveness and intransigence. Such a person demands that his desires be immediately satisfied, no matter what the cost. Any type of deviant behavior is extremely destructive, they make a person extremely receptive and unhappy. The personality gradually begins to degrade, losing social skills, losing habitual values ​​and even its own positive qualities of character. So, what are the reasons for the formation of deviant behavior?

Unfavorable environment

Personality is greatly influenced by the environment in which it is located. If a person is placed in an environment where he is constantly humiliated and reproached, then gradually he will begin to degrade. Many people simply withdraw into themselves and stop trusting others. A dysfunctional environment makes a person experience negative feelings, and then build defensive reactions against them. Deviant behavior is the result of cruel and unfair treatment. A prosperous and happy person will never hurt others, try to prove something at any cost. The essence of deviant behavior is that it gradually destroys a person, revealing old grievances and unspoken claims to the world.

The reason for the formation of deviant behavior always indicates that it is necessary to change in life. Features of deviant behavior are such that it does not appear suddenly, not immediately, but gradually. A person, harboring aggression in himself, becomes less and less controllable and harmonious. It is very important to change the environment if there are attempts to change deviant behavior to constructive one.

Alcohol and drug use

Another reason for deviant behavior is the presence of excessively negative destructive factors in a person's life. Deviant behavior, of course, does not arise by itself, without apparent reasons. One cannot but agree that toxic substances have a negative effect on our consciousness. A person who takes drugs necessarily begins to degrade sooner or later. The drug addict cannot control himself, loses the ability to see the good in people, loses self-respect, he manifests bouts of aggression directed at others. Even a person without special education can diagnose such deviant behavior. A degrading personality produces a bright repulsive impression. People around, as a rule, try to avoid meeting with such subjects, fearing adverse consequences and simply worrying about their lives. Sometimes it is enough to look at a person to establish the cause of her inappropriate behavior. Deviant deviant behavior cannot be hidden from prying eyes. Relatives and relatives of someone who exhibits deviant behavior, as a rule, begin to feel embarrassed and ashamed of what is happening, although they themselves suffer greatly from the actions of the deviant.

A person suffering from alcohol addiction also has manifestations of aggression and uncontrollable anger. Most often, this person is disappointed first in himself, and then in the people around him. To diagnose deviant behavior, sometimes it is enough to look at the person himself, to determine his essence. The reason why people break themselves and start taking various toxic substances is simple: they cannot fulfill their potential in the world. Deviant behavior of a person always implies the presence of sharp negative manifestations that harm the life and well-being of people around.

Constant criticism

There is another reason for the formation of deviant behavior. If in childhood a child is constantly scolded for something, then manifestations of self-disappointment will not take long. From here come self-doubt, increased sensitivity to criticism, emotional and mental instability. Constant criticism can eventually lead to all forms and types of deviant behavior. All types of deviant behavior, regardless of the form of expression, nullify any efforts to become better and establish themselves in any area of ​​life: personal life, profession, creativity. It's just that at some point a person stops believing in himself and his abilities. He does not understand the causes of his condition, but seeks confirmation of negative manifestations outside. Diagnosis of deviant behavior is a rather complicated and time-consuming process that should be carried out by specialists. You need to be extremely careful with children and adolescents so as not to break their dreams, not to destroy faith in themselves and their own prospects. The reasons for deviant behavior can be completely different. It is better to prevent the development of such a deviation than to try to correct the consequences later.

Classification of deviant behavior

The classification of deviant behavior includes several important concepts. They are all interconnected and mutually condition each other. Those who are close to such a person are the first to sound the alarm. Even a child can diagnose a degrading personality. In other words, deviant forms of behavior are not difficult to recognize. The manifestation of deviant behavior, as a rule, is noticeable to others. Consider the most common forms and types of deviant behavior.

Addictive behavior

Addiction is the very first type of deviant behavior. Addictions in humans develop gradually. By forming some kind of dependence, he tries to compensate for the absence of something very significant and valuable in his life. What kind of addictions can there be and why are they so destructive to the individual? This is primarily a chemical addiction. The use of drugs and alcohol leads to the formation of a stable addiction. After some time, a person no longer imagines a comfortable existence without an addiction. So, heavy smokers say that a cigarette smoked in time helps them relax. People who are addicted to alcohol often justify themselves by saying that a glass of alcohol allows you to discover new possibilities in yourself. Of course, such prospects are imaginary. In fact, a person gradually loses control over himself and his emotional state.

There is also a psychological addiction. It manifests itself depending on the opinions of others, as well as painful focus on another person. There are unrequited loves that take away a lot of vitality. Such a person also destroys himself: endless experiences do not add health and strength. Often the desire to live, set goals and strive to achieve them disappears. Diagnosis of deviant behavior implies timely detection of pathological signs and prevention of their development. The manifestation of deviant behavior always, in all cases, without exception, needs to be corrected. Any addiction is a type of deviant behavior that sooner or later will lead a person to complete destruction.

Delinquent behavior

Criminal or illegal behavior is another type of deviant behavior that can be considered dangerous not only for the individual, but also for society as a whole. A delinquent - one who commits criminal acts - is a person who has completely lost any norms of morality. For him, there are only his own needs of a lower order, which he seeks to satisfy in any way. You can diagnose such a person at a glance. Most people are seized with natural fear as soon as there is a suspicion that a criminal is near them. Some types of citizens tend to immediately apply to law enforcement agencies.

Delinquent will not stop at any obstacles. He is only interested in obtaining his own momentary benefit, and in order to achieve such a goal, he is sometimes ready to take unjustified risks. The main signs that you have an offender are the following. The offender rarely looks straight in the eye, tells a lie in order to get out of a difficult situation himself. It will not be difficult for such a person to substitute even a close relative. Diagnosis of offenders, as a rule, is carried out by the relevant authorities.

antimoral behavior

Antimoral behavior is a special type of deviant behavior, which is expressed in defiant or ugly behavior in public. In addition, in each individual society, different actions and actions will be considered anti-moral. General violations of morality are: prostitution, public insult of other people, obscene language. Individuals who do not have any ideas about how one should behave in a given situation are prone to anti-moral behavior. Often they come into conflict with the law, have problems with the police. Diagnosing such behavior is quite simple: it catches the eye immediately, at the first manifestation.

Suicide

This type of deviant behavior is one of the mental disorders. Suicide attempts are made by those individuals who do not see further prospects and opportunities for the continuation of their existence. Everything seems to them meaningless and devoid of any joy. If a person is only thinking about suicide, it means that his life can still be corrected. He just went to the dangerous line. It is necessary that someone be next to him at the right time and warn against this rash step. Suicide has not yet helped anyone solve pressing problems. Parting with life, a person punishes, first of all, himself. Even close relatives someday are consoled and with all the strength of their souls continue to live on. Diagnosing suicidal tendencies is difficult enough because such people learn to be secretive and succeed significantly in this activity. However, potential suicides are in dire need of timely assistance. Unfortunately, not everyone gets it.

Signs of deviant behavior

The tendency to deviant behavior by psychologists is determined by a number of essential features. These signs directly or indirectly indicate that a person is in an inadequate state, which means that he may be involved in the commission of crimes or be involved in addiction. What are the signs of deviant behavior? By what parameters can you understand that there is a deviant in front of you? There are several forms of negative expression. You can diagnose them simply by observing people and drawing the appropriate conclusions.

Aggressiveness

Any person who does something illegal will show his worst qualities of character. The problem is that even the good personality traits of a deviant are lost over time, as if they go into the void and dissolve into thin air. Deviant behavior is characterized by increased aggressiveness, intransigence and assertiveness. A criminal or any other violator will try to defend his position in everything and do it quite harshly. Such a person will not take into account the needs of other people, recognize alternatives, for her there is only her own individual truth. Aggression repels other people and allows the deviant to go unnoticed by society for a long time. With the help of aggressiveness, a person goes to his goals, avoids effective interaction with other people.

Aggression is always a sign of the presence of fear. Only a confident person can afford to be calm and balanced. Someone whose daily activities involve risk will always be nervous. Every minute he has to be on the alert so as not to inadvertently give himself away, and sometimes not to reveal his presence.

Uncontrollability

The deviant seeks to control everything, but in fact he becomes uncontrollable and nervous. From constant stress, he loses the ability to reason logically, sensibly, and make responsible decisions. Sometimes he begins to get confused in his own reasoning and make significant mistakes. Such mistakes gradually undermine strength, contribute to the formation of terrible self-doubt. Uncontrollability in the end can do him a disservice, make a person aggressive and withdrawn at the same time. And since all social ties by that time are broken, there is no one to ask for help.

No one can convince a deviant that he is wrong. By his own uncontrollability, he discovers the need to constantly be in a state of danger. By defending himself, a person actually loses control over the situation more and more, as he wastes precious energy in vain. As a result, an emotional break with one's own personality occurs, and a person ceases to understand where he should move on.

Sudden change of mood

The deviant has jerky mood swings in the process of life. If someone does not act according to the established pattern, then the offender begins to take an aggressive approach. The most interesting thing is that he can not control his emotions in any way. At one moment he is cheerful, and in a minute he is already screaming with indignation. A sharp change in mood is dictated by the tension of the nervous system, emotional fatigue, depletion of all important internal resources.

Deviant behavior is always aimed at destruction, even if at the very beginning of illegal actions it seems to a person that he has found an easy and carefree way to live. The deception is revealed very soon, bringing with it a deafening force of disappointment. Deliberate gaiety is just an illusion, for the time being, carefully hidden even from the deviant himself. A sharp change in mood always negatively affects the further development of events: a person becomes uncontrollable, loses peace, self-confidence and tomorrow. It is not difficult to diagnose a sharp change in mood, even the person himself is able to notice it in himself.

stealth

Any violator always has to make considerable efforts to remain unnoticed for as long as possible. As a result, the deviant develops secrecy, aimed at deliberately withholding the necessary and necessary information. Secrecy breeds suspicion, unwillingness to share one's thoughts and feelings with anyone. This emotional vacuum contributes to the development of serious emotional exhaustion. When a person cannot trust anyone in this life, he loses everything: he actually has nothing to live for, the most necessary meaning is lost. Human nature is so arranged that you need to constantly have certain ideals in your head for a comfortable existence. The formed outlook leads us forward, to new achievements. In the absence of visible prospects, a person immediately begins to destroy himself and degrade.

Stealth breeds a tendency to deceive. The deviant cannot tell the truth, because he lives according to different laws than the society around him. Over time, deception becomes the norm and completely ceases to be noticed by them.

Thus, deviant behavior is a serious problem that exists in modern society. Such a phenomenon necessarily needs to be corrected as soon as possible, but it seems to be much difficult, almost impossible, to correct it.

- this, on the one hand, is an act, actions of a person that do not correspond to the norms or standards officially established or actually established in a given society, and on the other hand, a social phenomenon expressed in mass forms of human activity that do not correspond to officially established or actually established in a given society norms or standards. Social control is a mechanism of social regulation, a set of means and methods of social influence, as well as the social practice of their use.

The concept of deviant behavior

Under deviant(from lat. deviatio - deviation) behavior modern sociology implies, on the one hand, an act, actions of a person that do not correspond to officially established or actually established norms or standards in a given society, and on the other hand, a social phenomenon expressed in mass forms of human activity that do not correspond to officially established or actually established standards. within a given society, norms or standards.

The starting point for understanding deviant behavior is the concept of a social norm, which is understood as a limit, a measure of what is permissible (permitted or obligatory) in the behavior or activities of people, ensuring the preservation of the social system. Deviations from social norms can be:

• positive, aimed at overcoming obsolete norms or standards and associated with social creativity, contributing to qualitative changes in the social system;
• negative - dysfunctional, disorganizing the social system and leading it to destruction, leading to deviant behavior.

Deviant behavior is a kind of social choice: when the goals of social behavior are incommensurable with the real possibilities of achieving them, individuals can use other means to achieve their goals. For example, some individuals, in pursuit of illusory success, wealth or power, choose socially prohibited means, and sometimes illegal ones, and become either delinquents or criminals. Another type of deviation from the norms is open defiance and protest, a demonstrative rejection of the values ​​and standards accepted in society, characteristic of revolutionaries, terrorists, religious extremists and other similar groups of people who are actively fighting against the society in which they are.

In all these cases, deviation is the result of the inability or unwillingness of individuals to adapt to society and its requirements, in other words, it indicates a complete or relative failure of socialization.

Forms of deviant behavior

Deviant behavior is relative, because it is commensurate only with the cultural norms of this group. For example, criminals consider extortion to be a normal type of income, but most of the population considers such behavior to be deviant. This also applies to certain types of social behavior: in some societies they are considered deviant, in others they are not. In general, the forms of deviant behavior usually include criminality, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, gambling, mental disorder, and suicide.

One of the recognized in modern sociology is the typology of deviant behavior developed by R. Merton in line with the ideas of deviation as a result of anomie, i.e. the process of destruction of the basic elements of culture, primarily in the aspect of ethical norms.

Typology of deviant behavior Merton is based on the concept of deviation as a gap between cultural goals and socially approved ways to achieve them. Accordingly, he distinguishes four possible types of deviation:

• innovation, which implies agreement with the goals of society and the denial of generally accepted ways to achieve them (the “innovators” include prostitutes, blackmailers, creators of “financial pyramids”, great scientists);
• ritualism associated with the denial of the goals of a given society and an absurd exaggeration of the significance of the ways to achieve them, for example, a bureaucrat requires that each document be carefully completed, double checked, filed in four copies, but the main thing is forgotten - the goal;
• retreatism(or flight from reality), expressed in the rejection of both socially approved goals and ways to achieve them (drunkards, drug addicts, homeless people, etc.);
• rebellion, denying both goals and methods, but striving to replace them with new ones (revolutionaries striving for a radical breakdown of all social relations).

Merton considers the only type of non-deviant behavior to be conformal, expressed in agreement with the goals and means of achieving them. Merton's typology focuses on the fact that deviation is not the product of an absolutely negative attitude towards generally accepted norms and standards. For example, a thief does not reject a socially approved goal - material well-being, he can strive for it with the same zeal as a young man who is preoccupied with a career in the service. The bureaucrat does not abandon the generally accepted rules of work, but he executes them too literally, reaching the point of absurdity. At the same time, both the thief and the bureaucrat are deviants.

Some causes of deviant behavior are not social in nature, but biopsychological. For example, a tendency to alcoholism, drug addiction, mental disorders can be transmitted from parents to children. In the sociology of deviant behavior, there are several areas that explain the reasons for its occurrence. So, Merton, using the concept of "anomie" (the state of society in which the old norms and values ​​no longer correspond to real relations, and the new ones have not yet been established), considered the cause of deviant behavior to be the inconsistency of the goals put forward by society and the means that it offers for them. achievements. Within the direction based on the theory of conflict, it is argued that social patterns of behavior are deviant if they are based on the norms of another culture. For example, a criminal is considered as a bearer of a certain subculture that is in conflict with the type of culture that dominates in a given society. A number of modern domestic sociologists believe that the sources of deviation are social inequality in society, differences in the ability to meet the needs of different social groups.

There are interconnections between various forms of deviant behavior, with one negative phenomenon reinforcing the other. For example, alcoholism contributes to increased bullying.

Marginalization is one of the causes of deviations. The main sign of marginalization is the rupture of social ties, and in the "classic" version, economic and social ties are first torn, and then spiritual ones. As a characteristic feature of the social behavior of the marginalized, one can name a decrease in the level of social expectations and social needs. The consequence of marginalization is the primitivization of certain segments of society, manifested in production, everyday life, and spiritual life.

Another group of causes of deviant behavior is associated with the spread of various kinds social pathologies, in particular, the growth of mental illness, alcoholism, drug addiction, the deterioration of the genetic fund of the population.

Vagrancy and begging, representing a special way of life (refusal to participate in socially useful work, focusing only on unearned income), have recently become widespread among various types of social deviations. The social danger of social deviations of this kind lies in the fact that vagabonds and beggars often act as intermediaries in the distribution of drugs, commit theft and other crimes.

Deviant behavior in modern society has some features. This behavior is becoming more and more risky and rational. The main difference between deviants who consciously take risks and adventurers is their reliance on professionalism, faith not in fate and chance, but in knowledge and a conscious choice. Deviant risky behavior contributes to self-actualization, self-realization and self-affirmation of the personality.

Often deviant behavior is associated with addiction, i.e. with the desire to avoid internal socio-psychological discomfort, to change their socio-psychological state, characterized by internal struggle, intrapersonal conflict. Therefore, the deviant path is chosen primarily by those who do not have a legal opportunity for self-realization in the conditions of the established social hierarchy, whose individuality is suppressed, personal aspirations are blocked. Such people cannot make a career, change their social status, using legitimate channels of social mobility, which is why they consider generally accepted norms of order to be unnatural and unfair.

If one or another type of deviation acquires a stable character, becomes the norm of behavior for many, society is obliged to reconsider the principles that stimulate deviant behavior, or to reassess social norms. Otherwise, behavior that was considered deviant may become normal. To prevent destructive deviation from becoming widespread, it is necessary:

• expand access to legitimate ways to achieve success and move up the social ladder;
• observe social equality before the law;
• improve legislation, bringing it into line with new social realities;
• strive for the adequacy of crime and punishment.

Deviant and delinquent behavior

In social life, as in real traffic, people often deviate from the rules they are supposed to follow.

Behavior that does not meet the requirements is called deviant(or deviant).

Illegal actions, misdemeanors and offenses are commonly called delinquent behaviour. For example, hooliganism, obscene language in a public place, participation in a fight and other actions that violate legal norms, but are not yet a serious criminal offense, can be classified as delinquent. Delinquent behavior is a type of deviant behavior.

Positive and negative deviations

Deviations (deviations), as a rule, are negative. For example, crime, alcoholism, drug addiction, suicide, prostitution, terrorism, etc. However, in some cases it is possible positive deviations, for example, sharply individualized behavior, characteristic of original creative thinking, which can be assessed by society as “eccentricity”, a deviation from the norm, but at the same time be socially useful. Asceticism, holiness, genius, innovation are signs of positive deviations.

Negative deviations are divided into two types:

• deviations that are aimed at causing harm to others (various aggressive, illegal, criminal actions);
• deviations that harm the personality itself (alcoholism, suicide, drug addiction, etc.).

Reasons for deviant behavior

Previously, attempts were made to explain the causes of deviant behavior on the basis of the biological characteristics of the violators of the norms - specific physical traits, genetic abnormalities; on the basis of psychological characteristics - mental retardation, various mental problems. At the same time, addictive behavior was declared to be the psychological mechanism for the formation of most deviations ( addiction- addiction), when a person seeks to escape from the complexities of real life, using alcohol, drugs, gambling for this. The result of addiction is the destruction of personality.

Biological and psychological interpretations of the causes of deviation have not been unambiguously confirmed in science. More reliable conclusions sociological theories that consider the origin of deviation in a broad social context.

According to the concept disorientation, proposed by the French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), social crises are the breeding ground for deviations, when there is a mismatch between accepted norms and human life experience and a state of anomie sets in - the absence of norms.

The American sociologist Robert Merton (1910-2003) believed that the cause of deviations is not the absence of norms, but the inability to follow them. Anomie - it is the gap between culturally prescribed ends and the availability of socially approved means to achieve them.

In modern culture, success and wealth are considered the leading goals. But society does not provide all people with legal means to achieve these goals. Therefore, a person has to either choose illegal means, or abandon the goal, replacing it with illusions of well-being (drugs, alcohol, etc.). Another variant of deviant behavior in such a situation is a rebellion against, and established goals and means.

According to the theory stigmatization(or labeling) all people are prone to breaking the rules, but deviants are those who are labeled deviant. For example, a former criminal may renounce his criminal past, but others will perceive him as a criminal, avoid communication with him, refuse to hire him, etc. As a result, he has only one option - to return to the criminal path.

Note that in the modern world, deviant behavior is most characteristic of both the unstable and the most vulnerable. In our country, youth alcoholism, drug addiction, and crime are of particular concern. Comprehensive measures are required to combat these and other deviations.

Reasons for explaining deviant behavior

Deviance arises already in the process of primary socialization of a person. It is associated with the formation of motivation, social roles and statuses of a person in the past and present, which contradict each other. For example, the role of a schoolboy does not coincide with the role of a child. The motivational structure of a person is ambivalent, it contains both positive (conformal) and negative (deviant) motives for actions.

Social roles are constantly changing in the course of a person's life, reinforcing either conformal or deviant motivations. The reason for this is the development of society, its values ​​and norms. What was deviant becomes normal (conformal), and vice versa. For example, socialism, revolution, the Bolsheviks, etc., motives and norms were deviant for tsarist Russia, and their carriers were punished with exile and prison. After the victory of the Bolsheviks, the former deviant norms were recognized as normal. The collapse of the Soviet society turned its norms and values ​​back into deviant ones, which became the reason for the new deviant behavior of people in post-Soviet Russia.

Several versions have been proposed to explain deviant behavior. At the end of the 19th century, the theory of the Italian doctor Lambroso arose about genetic prerequisites for deviant behavior. The "criminal type", in his opinion, is the result of the degradation of people in the early stages of development. External signs of a deviant person: a protruding lower jaw, reduced sensitivity to pain, etc. Nowadays, the biological causes of deviant behavior include anomalies of the sex chromosomes or additional chromosomes.

psychological the causes of deviation are called "dementia", "degenerativeness", "psychopathy", etc. For example, Freud discovered a type of person with an innate mental drive to destroy. Sexual deviation is allegedly associated with a deep fear of castration, etc.

Infection The "bad" norms of the spiritual culture of representatives of the middle and upper strata from the lower strata are also considered the cause of deviant behavior. "Infection" occurs during communication "on the street", as a result of casual acquaintances. Some sociologists (Miller, Sellin) believe that the lower social strata have an increased readiness for risk, thrills, etc.

Simultaneously influential groups treat people of the lower stratum as deviant, extending to them individual cases of their deviant behavior. For example, in modern Russia, "persons of Caucasian nationality" are considered potential merchants, thieves, and criminals. Here we can also mention the influence of television, the annoying demonstration of scenes of deviant behavior.

Nebula of normative formulas of motivation, which guide people in difficult situations - is also the cause of deviant behavior. For example, the formulas “do the best you can”, “put the interests of society above your own”, etc., do not allow you to sufficiently adequately motivate your actions in a particular situation. An active conformist will strive for ambitious motives and action projects, a passive one will reduce his efforts to the limits of his own calmness, and a person with a conformist-deviant motivation will always find a loophole to justify his deviant behavior.

Social inequality - another major cause of deviant behavior. The fundamental needs of people are quite similar, and the ability to satisfy them in different social strata (rich and poor) is different. Under such conditions, the poor receive a "moral right" to deviant behavior towards the rich, expressed in various forms of expropriation of property. This theory, in particular, formed the ideological foundation of the revolutionary deviation of the Bolsheviks against the propertied classes: “rob the loot”, arrests of the propertied, forced labor, executions, the Gulag. In this deviation, there is a discrepancy between unrighteous goals (complete social equality) and unrighteous means (total violence).

Conflict between cultural norms of a given social group and society is also the cause of deviant behavior. The subculture of a student or army group, the lower stratum, a gang differ significantly in their interests, goals, values, on the one hand, and possible means of their implementation, on the other hand. In the event of their collision in a given place and at a given time - for example, on vacation - deviant behavior arises in relation to the cultural norms accepted in society.

The class essence of the state, which supposedly expresses the interests of the economically dominant class, is an important reason for the deviant behavior of both the state in relation to the oppressed classes and the latter in relation to it. From the point of view of this conflictological theory, the laws issued in the state protect, first of all, not the working people, but the bourgeoisie. The communists justified their negative attitude towards the bourgeois state by its oppressive nature.

Anomie - the reason for the deviation proposed by E. Durkheim in the analysis of the causes of suicide. It represents the devaluation of the cultural norms of a person, his worldview, mentality, conscience as a result of the revolutionary development of society. People, on the one hand, lose their orientation, and on the other hand, following the old cultural norms does not lead to the realization of their needs. This is what happened to Soviet norms after the collapse of Soviet society. Overnight, millions of Soviet people became Russians, living in the "jungle of wild capitalism", where "man is a wolf to man", where there is competition, explained by social Darwinism. In such conditions, some (conformists) adapt, others become deviants, up to criminals and suicides.

An important cause of deviant behavior is social (including warriors), man-made and natural disasters. They violate the psyche of people, increase social inequality, cause disorganization of law enforcement agencies, which becomes the objective reason for the deviant behavior of many people. For example, we can recall the consequences of our protracted armed conflict in Chechnya, Chernobyl, and the earthquake.

In every society there are people - outstanding and "simple" - who violate the norms existing in it - moral, legal, aesthetic. (Deviant) behavior is social behavior that deviates in its motives, value orientations and results from those accepted in a given society, social stratum, group of norms, values, ideals, i.e. normative standards. In other words, deviant behavior has deviant motivation. Examples of such behavior are the lack of a greeting at a meeting, hooliganism, innovative or revolutionary actions, etc. Deviant subjects are young ascetics, hedonists, revolutionaries, the mentally ill, saints, geniuses, etc.

Human actions are included in social relationships and systems (family, street, team, work, etc.) with general normative regulation. So deviant is behavior that violates the stability of processes. Equilibrium(stability) of social interaction involves the integration of the actions of many, which is violated by the deviant behavior of one or more people. In a situation of deviant behavior, a person, as a rule, focuses on a situation that includes (1) other people and (2) general norms and expectations. Deviant behavior is caused both by dissatisfaction with others and by norms of relationships.

For example, consider the social connection of a student with parents while studying at a university. Parents expect from him a good study, which is difficult to combine with the roles of an athlete, lover, worker, etc. The student begins to study unsatisfactorily, that is. deviant. To overcome this deviance, there are several possibilities. First of all, you can change your needs, which will affect the assessment of other people and regulations. So, a student can give up the motivation for excellent studies and limit himself to satisfactory. Further, you can change the object of your need and thereby alleviate the tension in the social connection. For example, he can convince his parents that his work alleviates the burden of the family's expenses for his studies at the university. And finally, the student can leave home, stop being oriented towards his parents and start being oriented towards his friends and girlfriends.

Deviation and - two opposite types of behavior, one of which is focused only on the actor, and the other also on the society in which he lives. Between conformal and deviant motivation of people's actions is indifferent. It is distinguished by the absence of both conformal and alienated orientation to objects and situations, which in this case turn into neutral ones.

Deviation includes three elements: 1) a person with values ​​(orientation to others) and norms (moral, political, legal); 2) evaluating a person, group or organization; 3) human behavior. The criterion for deviant behavior is moral and legal norms. They are different in different types of societies, so behavior that is deviant in one society will not be so in another.

For example, in a bourgeois society focused on personal success, actions such as the exploits of Pavka Korchagin or Alexander Matrosov are considered deviant. And in Soviet society, focused on the interests of the state, they were officially considered heroic. The contradiction between the orientation towards the individual and the orientation towards society is characteristic of the entire history of mankind; it has found its expression in two opposite types of personalities: collectivist and individualist.

Depending on the relationship with people identifies two types of deviant behavior:

1. Personality cares about establishing and maintaining relationships with others. She may seek to dominate the other, to put him in a subordinate position. This is often due to deviant motivation and behavior. This is often done by members of criminal groups.

2. Personality inferior others, subject to them. In these cases, it can take the path of deviant motivation and behavior, especially in relation to an active and strong personality. Thus, in the Bolshevik leadership, passive adaptation to Stalin and the Stalinist hierarchy became the reason for the deviance of many people.

Classification of deviant behavior depending on attitude to standards(needs, values, norms) in society was developed by Merton (in 1910), who identified the following types of deviant behavior:

Total conformism(normality) of behavior, acceptance of cultural norms. This is the behavior of a person who has received a good education, has a prestigious job, is moving up the career ladder, etc. Such behavior fulfills both one's own needs and is focused on others (standards are observed). This, strictly speaking, is just the only type of non-deviant behavior, in relation to which different types of deviation are distinguished.

Innovative behavior, on the one hand, means agreement with the goals of one's life, approved in a given society (culture), but, on the other hand, does not follow the socially approved means of achieving them. Innovators use new, non-standard, deviant means to achieve socially useful goals. In post-Soviet Russia, many innovators engaged in the privatization of state property, the construction of financial "pyramids", extortion ("racketeering"), etc.

ritualism brings the principles and norms of this society to the point of absurdity. Ritualists are a bureaucrat who demands all formalities from the petitioner, and strikers who work "by the rules", which leads to a halt in the work itself.

Retreatism(escape from reality) is a type of deviant behavior in which a person rejects both goals approved by society and ways (means, time, costs) to achieve them. Such deviant behavior is inherent in homeless people, drunkards, drug addicts, monks, etc.

The revolution(rebellion) is a form of deviant behavior that not only denies outdated goals and behaviors, but also replaces them with new ones. The Russian Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, rejected the goals and means of the bourgeois-democratic society that was taking shape in Russia in 1917 after the overthrow of the autocracy, and restored the latter on a new ideological, political, economic and social basis.

From what has been said, it is clear that conformism and deviation are two opposite types of behavior that mutually presuppose and exclude one another. From the description of the types of deviation it follows that it is not an exclusively negative type of human behavior, as it might seem at first glance. Yuri Detochki in the film "Beware of the Car" for the sake of noble goals - the fight against speculators and "shadow companies" - stole cars from them, and transferred the proceeds from the sale to orphanages.

The formation of deviant behavior goes through several stages: 1) the emergence of a cultural norm (for example, orientation towards enrichment in post-Soviet Russia); 2) the emergence of a social stratum that follows this norm (for example, entrepreneurs); 3) the transformation into deviant forms of activity that do not lead to enrichment (for example, in our case, the miserable life of many workers and employees); 4) recognition of a person (and social stratum) as deviant by others; 5) reassessment of this cultural norm, recognition of its relativity.

The concept, theories and forms of deviant behavior

Under (deviant) behavior in a broad sense understand any actions or actions of people that do not correspond to written and unwritten norms, both positive and negative. These can be culturally approved deviations, such as super-genius, heroism, self-sacrifice, altruism, workaholism, etc., as well as culturally unapproved deviations, ranging from stowaways to murders and other serious crimes.

In a narrow sense, deviant behavior refers to such deviations from the norm (from the law), which entail criminal punishment. The totality of unlawful acts has received a name in sociology - delinquent behavior. Deviant behavior is relative, since it is related to the moral norms, values ​​of this group, delinquent behavior is absolute, since it violates the absolute norm expressed in the legal laws of society.

It is customary to distinguish between primary and secondary deviation. Primary call it deviation, which generally corresponds to the norms accepted in society and is so insignificant and tolerable that the environment of the individual does not qualify him as a deviant, and he does not consider himself as such. Under secondary deviation understand behavior that deviates to a large extent from the norms existing in the group and therefore is defined as deviant, and the person is already identified as a deviant.

What are the reasons for the deviation?

More than a hundred years ago, biological and psychological interpretations of the causes of deviation were widespread. Yes, italian doctor C. Lombroso(1835-1909) proposed phrenological theory of deviation, trying to identify a direct link between the criminal behavior of a person and his biological characteristics. In his opinion, the "criminal type" is the result of degradation in the earlier stages of human evolution. In 1940, a follower of Lombroso, an American psychologist and physician W.H. Sheldon emphasized the importance of body structure. In his typology - endomorph(a person of moderate fullness with a soft and somewhat rounded body) is sociable, knows how to get along with people; mesomorph(whose body is distinguished by strength and harmony) shows a tendency to restlessness, he is active and not too sensitive: ectomorph distinguished by the subtlety and fragility of the body, prone to introspection, endowed with increased sensitivity and nervousness. Based on the research, Sheldon comes to the conclusion that mesomorphs are most prone to deviation.

The psychological theory of deviation develops 3. Freud. He explains it by an underdeveloped "Super-Ego" and substantiates it with "mental defects", "degenerativeness", "dementia" and "psychopathy", as if programmed deviations.

Basics sociological theory of deviation were put E. Durkheim. According to him, the main reason for the deviation is anomie - a state of disorganization of society, when values, norms, social ties are absent, weaken or contradict each other. All this violates the stability of society, disorganizes people, and as a result, various types of deviations appear.

Further development anomie theory receives from R. Merton. He considered the main reason for the deviation to be the gap between cultural goals of society and socially approved means of achieving them. Based on the dilemma "end - means" R. Merton identified five types of behavior, four of which are related to deviation (Appendix, scheme 18):

• conformity - the type of behavior that implies compliance with the goals and means of their implementation accepted in society;
• innovation- an individual shares the socially approved goals of society, but chooses unapproved means of achieving them, and the means do not have to be criminal, they are simply unusual at a given moment in time for a given society;
• ritualism - involves the negation of the goals proclaimed by society, with conditional agreement with the approved means of achieving them (for example, in the Brezhnev era, when no one believed in communism, but the rituals associated with it became something of a habit and were still preserved in society);
• retricism - rejection of the goals and means accepted by society as "escape from reality", a kind of social nihilism (tramps, drug addicts, alcoholics living in society, but not belonging to it);
• rebellion, rebellion denial of old socially accepted goals and means while simultaneously replacing them with new ones (revolutionaries, radical extremists).

When using this typology, it must be remembered that people living in a society can never be completely conforming to a normative culture or be completely innovators.

In each personality, all of the listed types are present to one degree or another, but some one prevails.

We note another interesting phenomenon of the manifestation of deviant (deviant) behavior - norms-justifications. These are cultural patterns by which people justify the implementation of any forbidden desire and action without an open challenge to existing moral norms.

Other theories explaining the origin of deviations include:

• imitation theory French sociologist G. Tarda. In his opinion, people become criminals because from an early age they fall into a criminal environment, and it is this environment that is the reference group for them;
• E. Sutherland's theory of differential association. Developing the idea of ​​G. Tarde, he emphasized that much in the deviant behavior of an individual depends on his environment, i.e. from who exactly teaches him and what. Therefore, the longer an individual stays in a criminal environment, the more likely it is that in the future he will become a deviant. These two theories are combined under the heading "the theory of cultural transfer of deviation";
• stigmatization theory(from Greek, stigma- brand), or labeling, sponsored by American sociologists E. Lemert, G. Becker. According to this theory, deviation is determined not so much by the behavior or content of specific actions, but by a group assessment, "hanging" a label on a person as a "violator" of established norms and applying sanctions against him.

These are the main research approaches to studying the causes of the emergence and spread of deviant behavior.

Types and forms of deviation

The main forms of deviant behavior in a broad sense include:

• drunkenness and;
• drug use;
• crime;
• suicide;
• prostitution.

According to experts, the existence of deviant behavior in modern society is inevitable for some people, it is simply impossible to eradicate it. At the same time, they note that deviations naturally arise in societies undergoing transformation, where, against the background of intensifying crisis phenomena, people are growing dissatisfied with their position, which causes a feeling of social dissatisfaction, lack of demand and alienation from society. This feeling deprivation in some cases, it can lead to the emergence of pessimistic moods among the population and its demoralization (low spirits, confusion).

According to sociologists, today 85% of the country's population is characterized by demoralization to one degree or another. Typical reactions to anomie are indifference to the means to achieve the goal, corruption, cynicism, extremism. The mechanism of deviant behavior is revealed through an analysis of the interaction of normative regulation, personality characteristics, its relationship to the norm and a real life conflict situation.