In times of mass unrest caused by the feudal system, the misunderstood concept of who would be next in power led to the struggle for their inheritance of the king and princes. Prince Vasily I gone to another world 1425 left a will, suggesting the reign of his heir - his son Vasily. But since the child was only nine years old, he could not independently rule Great Russia. His guardians were the prince and princess - Vitovn and daughter Sophia. They were originally from Lithuania. Additionally, they played the role of "nannies" of the little prince - Peter and Andrei Dmitrievich.
But it was impossible for the new ruler to take the throne, as his rival, Yuri Dmitrievich, immediately appears. He was a Galician prince, a true military commander, who at that time possessed the cities of Ruza, Galich, Zvenigorod, Vyatka. The commander defended his rights, referring to the letter of Donskoy, which spoke of the accession to the head of state to the eldest in the family, and not to the direct heir. This was the reason for the dynastic war in the Moscow principality. In addition, the following circumstance gave the advantage of the need for the reign of Yuri Dmitrievich: Vasily II began to inherit the throne without the approval of the khans from the Horde.
The war in the Moscow principality began. Military actions were directed against Prince Yuri, to which he did not react, and chose a more thorough preparation for the conflict - reinforcement by the decrees of the Horde. In order to prevent civil strife, Metropolitan Photius managed to achieve a truce in every possible way. In the same year, a bilateral agreement was signed, which stated that Yuri would not look for ways to lead the Moscow principality, and this dispute was supposed to be resolved through the Horde rulers. AT 1431 year, two rivals claiming the throne visited the Horde, where preference for the post was given to Vasily.
But Yuri was not going to accept defeat and began to quickly and carefully prepare for the war that began two years later. An attack on the Moscow principality began, led by the prince himself and his two sons, Dmitry Shemyaki and Vasily Kosoy. The first bloodshed was an armed battle on the Vyazma River. However, the prince did not become a winner, as he was immediately defeated, which subsequently forced him to flee. He was hiding with his family initially in the city of Tver, and then in Kostroma. A little later, Yuri nevertheless enters Moscow. According to traditional conditions, the winner was given Kostroma in gratitude. Everyone who served Prince Yuri, based on the considerations that their leader is a very warlike and merciless person, began to gradually go under the wing of Vasily. The Galician prince was indignant at the fact that the people were leaving him, he came up with various plans for their return, but nothing worked out. In the end, I had to come to terms with this fact and give the reign to my nephew, according to a certified agreement, the essence of which is to recognize the current ruler as his oldest brother.
But the dynastic war did not end at this stage. It was actively laid by the sons of their father who aspired to power. AT 1433 The troops near Moscow were suddenly defeated. Prince Vasily, having gathered new troops, organized a campaign against Galician opponents. One of the most important battles took place in 34 year in Rostov and ended not in favor of Vasily, he was amazed. Yuri could not calm down, striving for power, and once again stepped on Moscow. They set a goal - the establishment of autocracy in Russia and an uncompromising struggle against the Horde. Attempts by the Grand Duke about a different system of relations between relatives and friends, as well as allies, severely severed friendly relations. The monetary reform carried out by the prince can be called reflecting military conflicts, since snakes and George the Victorious were depicted on the coins. Against Vasily, he gathered his coalition and sent his sons to Novgorod. And at the beginning June 1934 In the year Yuri suddenly dies and this fact did not make him better, but on the contrary, the current situation is heating up. The principality, according to the rules, now belongs again to Vasily, but now as the eldest in the dynasty. But again, bad luck, because now Vasily Kosoy wants to become the heir, but nothing happens, since the brothers were already on the side of Prince Vasily and he leaves Moscow. Two years later, armed soldiers from the side of the prince defeated the Galicians, Yuri's heir, who claimed power, is captured, where he loses his sight. An agreement is signed that Shemyaka is the younger brother of the prince. The legitimate ruler receives the lands of Kosoy - the city: Dmitrov and Zvenigorod. However, this was only temporary, the war was revived again. AT 40 year, the lands of the Bezhetsky Verkh were given to Vasily, and Shemyaka also lost many judicial advantages.
The events that took place in the Horde showed their method of fighting for a single power. The Horde Khan, who was defeated, settled in the Middle Volga region, defeated the Russian army and took Vasily prisoner. Thus, in the Moscow principality, Dmitry Shemyaka became the ruler. But after a short time, Vasily was released for a ransom, and the dynastic war began again. Shemyaki was supported by many boyars and jointly prepared a conspiracy against the legitimate prince. Soon Vasily is blinded in the Trinity-Sergeev monastery, later they give him a nickname - Vasily the Dark. But Shemyaka only ruined his reputation by this action, after which he took an oath that he did not pretend to take the princely throne. AT 47 In the year Vasily's troops won a victory near Uglich, and the prince again took his place in the reign of the Moscow principality.

FIRST PUBLICATIONS

Kssin V.N.

FEUDAL WAR 1425-1453: HISTORIOGRAPHICAL TRADITION AND ATTEMPT OF A NEW APPROACH

XIV-XV centuries - this is the time of unification of the lands of northeastern Russia. Floor. territories that were once part of Kievan Rus, the western and southern parts of which remained part of Lithuania, gathered as a single supreme power. Several principalities were not averse to becoming the center of the unification of the lands at once: Tver, Suzdal-Nizhny-City, Ryazan and Moscow. They fought for the right to be them. In a grueling rivalry, Moscow was able to become a center for collecting Russian lands. The incorporation of new regions proceeded gradually. The territorial unification of the lands of northeastern Russia was completed by Ivan III in the second half of the 15th century. The period that largely determined the events of the reign of this prince was the war of 1425-1453.

In Russian historiography, two approaches to the problem of the feudal war can be distinguished. What they have in common is the division of the opposing sides into two camps: the first, led by Vasily II the Dark, the son of Vasily I, the second, led by Yuri Dmitrievich, after whose death his sons took over. He was the son of Dmitry Donskoy and the brother of the deceased Grand Duke. There was an irreconcilable struggle with Vasily II the Dark, which subsided from time to time, but ended only with the death of the sons of Yuri Dmitrievich

The first approach shows the progressive role of the first camp and the conservative role of the second. Vasily is presented in a more favorable light than Yuri Dmitrievich and his sons. The son of Vasily II is largely forced to take tough measures. This direction is represented by S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky. In the future, lo ¡> arp-easier developed by LV Cherepnpp.

Supporters of the second approach 1a believe that both 1agers are carriers of a progressive role, but the second one is designated as more radical. This direction is represented by A A Zimin.

S. M. Solovyov will present the course of Russian history as an evolution from company relations to state relations. Yuri Dmitrievich was a supporter of the first, and Vasily II was the guide of the second. The time of the specific period was coming to an end. “Clan princely relations should give way to autocracy.”1 A characteristic feature of SM Solovyov's approach is the predetermination of the outcome of the feudal struggle. ". The young nephew wins, and the whole strength of the new order of things, which no longer depends on personal means, is revealed all the more sharply. S. M. Solovyov does not express his assessments in relation to the “characters” of history, but nevertheless he gives justification to some participants in the struggle. Basil II is forced to act cruel

1 Solovyov S \\ Works -Book II.- T 4 History of Russia from ancient times -M ¡98® -S 639

2 Ibid - C 382

methods For example, the blinding of Vasily Kosoy, “... the claims of their father involved them in enmity with Vasily of Moscow, from which they had no way out. When their father took possession of Moscow for the first time, they demanded violent measures against Vasily, realizing that it was a matter of who should be the prince of Moscow and who should be the servant of the prince of Moscow, but the means used by the Yurievichs cause similar ones on the part of their rival "3

In O Klyuchevsky was a representative of the same direction as S. M. Solovyov. He believed that it was necessary to unite the lands into a single state. “As soon as the population of Northern Russia felt that Moscow was capable of becoming a political center, ... a turning point that decided the essence of the specific order, all the previously hidden or dormant national and political expectations and sympathies of the Great Russian tribe, then converged with the dynastic efforts of the Grand Duke of Moscow and carried him to the height of the national sovereign of Great Russia "4 The unification occurred as a result of the merger of two strivings first, the people - to this state, the second, Moscow princes - to the concentration of greater power in their hands. Speaking about the feudal war of 1425-1453, Kzyuchevsky notes that the victory went to Vasily II as a result of fortunate circumstances, thanks to the previous development of events, when “forces are directed, funds are prepared, tools are adapted and

installed - and the machine could already work automatically, regardless of the chief mechanic. The development of events is predetermined. Unlike S. M. Solovyov, who made it possible for Vasily II to justify himself, Klyuchevsky gives a negative assessment to all Moscow princes (the only exception is Dmitry Donskoy). "Looking at "them, it is easy to notice that we are not seeing peculiar personalities, but a monotonous repetition of the same family type." , is fidelity to the precepts of the father and the memory of the parental home L. V. Cherepnin, considering the feudal struggle, singled out two trends. The bearer of one is the grand ducal power, which, “pursuing a policy of unification of Russia, sought to restrict the state rights of the appanage princes”7 Vasily was its head II The bearer of the other is the forces that oppose the infringement of their "1 \\ rights by the Grand Duke, the forces that provide "opposition from the princes of the specific centers" 8 The victory of Vasily II \ L V Cherep-nin is represented by an unusual outcome of strife

The reviewed authors have some common features. Firstly, only Moscow should become the center of the unification. Secondly, the determinism of the unification process. Thirdly, the emphasis on progressive roti centralization. The distinctive point of the discussion

3 Ibid - С 3&8

4 Klyuchevsky V O Works -12 K \ rs Russian historian - Ch 2 - M 10 "" - C 46

T V same - C 46

0 Ibid -C -G

"Cherepnin L V Ogratovapae of the Russian centralized state \ gift-stna in the XIV-XV centuries - M 1960 - C 744

3 Ibid - C 745

Deny V. O. Klyuchevsky is that he expresses his negative assessment of the Moscow princes.

A. A. Zimin believed that the main aspect of the struggle was the question of the attitude of the princes to the methods that carry out centralization. Yuri Dmitrievich is presented as a prince who is trying to "take a more decisive step towards the establishment of autocracy than Vasily II"9. A. A. Zimin’s sympathies are on the side of the Zvenigorod prince “Prince Yuri Dmitrievich belonged to the number of outstanding political figures of the first third of the 15th century”10 Possessing a sober political mind, he knew how to “compromise when it was caused by pressing political necessity”11 To match the father also had sons “Prince Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka was the most brilliant son of that gloomy era. Unusual energy, passion in the fight against opponents. Broad government plans. Prince Dmitry looked further than was supposed to be according to the unwritten laws of history.

A. Yu. Dvornichenko and Yu V Krivoshey focused on the nature of their movements. People are represented not by a passively led force, not by an "amorphous mass", but by active participants with their own interests. Therefore, the events of the 2nd quarter of the 15th century themselves are assessed differently. (They) “cannot be regarded as a feudal struggle. This is one of the outbursts of ancient Russian democracy” 13, the forces participating

in strife, are also represented by two camps. One reflects the "democratic traditions of the Russian north" and. Yuri Dmitrievich relied on him. The second camp, called "imperial", was headed by the Moscow prince Vasily II. Summing up, the authors note that it is difficult to say (what would be the statehood that could have arisen here in the 15th century. It is clear that it would be more democratic than the one that crushed it” 15.

Presnyakov, considering the history of Russia in the XIV-XV centuries, believed that centralization is not a simple unification of territories, but the extension of the Grand Duke's property rights to all the lands of the state. The ruler was the sovereign for the entire population of the state, including members of his family. This process ended in the reign of Ivan III.

Thus, the difference between the two approaches, in essence, lies in what is the orientation of the camps participating in the strife (conservative, or progressive, or radical) In S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky, L. V. Cherepnin, the victory of Vasily II is natural, predetermined by the entire previous course of development of history. Only with Zimin A.A. the outcome of the struggle is not a foregone conclusion.

The reason for the war was that the two sides interpreted the will of Dmitry Donskoy differently: “God will take away the sons of my prince Vasily, and whoever will be under that son of mine, otherwise that son of mine

9 Zimin ^ \ Knight at the crossroads Feudal war in Russia XV century - M, 11901 -C 67

10 Ibid - C 68

12 Zimin A A The Knight on the crucifix Feudal cry in Russia XV century, - M, 1991 - C 203

13 Dvoripchstko A Yu, Krivosheee 10 V. "Feudal war" or democratic alternative "ativye / / Bulletin of the Leningrad University - Ser 2 - 1993 - No. 3 - C 9

14 Ibid - C 8

"5 Same - From 9

Prince Vasiliev destiny "16. When the will was written, Vasily I had no children, and the throne was to pass to Yuri Dmitrievich. But, a new moment appeared in resolving the issue of heritage - the Grand Duke had children. This circumstance was a "stumbling block". Who will get the grand-ducal table, how will the line of inheritance go further

S.M. Solovyov believes that the custom of transferring the great reign by tribal law to elders was previously in effect. Noting violations of this order, he emphasizes “Until now, when nephews rebelled against uncles, it was usually an uprising of a more gifted, stronger personality”; “but all these were rebellions against the order of things, which, although apparently weakening, still held on, was generally recognized by everyone as legitimately existing” 17. On the issue of the inheritance of the table in 1425, he writes, “Both orders, both customs, old and new , collide tpvr with a friend in all purity "18 Pot the new order S. M. Solovyov means violation of the ancestral rights of seniority, "hostile phenomena to him were only exceptions, there was not yet a full-time prince who would dare to make this exception the rule" nineteen

Klyuchevsky V. O. has a different point of view. Ort believes that by 1425 the situation in the order of succession had changed - the custom was to transfer the right of inheritance from father to son<и

childhood”, a custom sanctified by the examples of fathers and grandfathers, which society began to look at as the correct order, forgetting about the former order of succession in seniority”20

Let's see how the inheritance went in the genus of "Moscow princes" kind By coincidence, by the time of the succession to the throne by the new younger tribe of Danilovichep, all the brothers of the Grand Duke, who were the grandfathers of the heir, "left" from the stage, the Danilovich family did not grow into lateral branches. Therefore, in the new tribe, the elder brother becomes the Grand Duke - let's designate this as the second tradition (T2) When it appeared, none of the contemporaries could foresee what it could lead to

Yuri Danilovich, having received the great reign, having the right to it as the eldest in the Danilovich family, one of the branches of Alexander Nevsky At the same time he was the eldest among the brothers He died childless The great reign went to the only living brother - Ivan Kalita The new prince had four heirs (Simeon, Daniel, Ivan, Andrey) He could pass the table in a straight line down

The situation was repeated in the following tribes, the Grand Duke was the eldest in the family and the eldest among the brothers (Yuri Danilovich, Simeon the Proud, Dmitry Donskoy). Umi-

16 spiritual m contractual ^emotions of the re1iki\ n of specific princes of the XIV-XV centuries - M L 1950 - S ¿Ъ

1 Solozyech S \\ U k<и соч -С "}&!

20 Klyuchevsky V O Vnaj op - C 12-43 60

paradise for the childless (Yuri, Simeon), he left the table to his brother, who had children (Ivan Kalita, Ivan II); the throne passed again to the eldest in the family (T1) and to the eldest among the brothers (Tg).

As you can see, during the XIV century. the two traditions mentioned above coexisted, “reinforcing each other.

The above course of inheritance was shaken by Dmitry Donskoy. Firstly, the eldest among the brothers, usually dying childless, left the table to the next brother. Dmitry Donskoy had children (Danila, Vasily, Yuri, Simeon, Ivan, Andrey, Peter, Konstantin). However, his younger brother Ivan died without issue. In the usual chain of inheritance (elder brother - brother - eldest son), the second element fell out, inheritance took place in a shortened version in a straight line (the eldest among the brothers - the eldest son). On this side, the two traditions coexisted peacefully. Secondly, when Dmitry Donskoy transferred table to his eldest son, the eldest in the Danilovich family, was his cousin Vladimir Andreevich. The latter could not take the throne, because "firstly, a cousin, and secondly, he could not take the senior table on his father's side; his father was not never a grand prince of Moscow and Vladimir.”21 He was the eldest son of a prince who had never been grand and was a side branch in the family.

When deciding on the heir, Dmitry Donskoy made one more exception (in order of succession). The Grand Duke was not the eldest in the family, but the eldest son, the second tradition was leading. The strength and authority of Dmitry Donskoy were the arguments that "substantiated" seniority in

21 Solovyov S. M. Decree op. C 381.

the family of Vasily I. Vladimir Andreevich refused the table and he rightfully went to his eldest son. Both traditions are observed, in fact, preference is given to the second. Although the first is not rejected.

In 1425 T] and Tg came into conflict. Vasily I "broke" the usual course of affairs by the fact that he, the eldest among the brothers, had direct heirs, while another brother, Yuri, also had children. More precisely, one of the above-mentioned disturbed the peace. The dilemma arose as to which tradition to give preference to. According to the first, the table was supposed to go to the eldest in the family, which was Yuri Dmitrievich. On the second, the right to led. some reign would be transferred to the eldest son, Vasily II. Dmitry Doiskoy created a precedent that Vasily I took advantage of. The latter rejected the first tradition altogether. Both camps had the strength, means, and supporters to defend their cause. The feudal war of 1425-1453 was an expression of the confrontation not only between the two camps, but also between the two traditions that stood behind them as groups. The result of the struggle was not a foregone conclusion. Its outcome depended on many factors (let's name some of them): the personalities who were at the head; the people around them; the participation of the masses of the people and, finally, which of the traditions in the minds of the people was lawful and leading.

The results of the war of 1425-1453 were:

1. By the victory of Basil II, the primacy of the second tradition (Ta) was approved; the senior son of the Grand Duke should inherit the throne.

2. As a result of the rejection of the first tradition (TO that has been going on since the time of Kievan Rus, in the Danilovich family there were

about 150 years old, there was no compromise that allowed the coexistence of T[ and Tr.

3. The question of heritage "and turned from a tribal into a dynastic matter. The Danilovichs finally secured the right to the Grand Duchy for their branch.

4. Now the Grand Duke could appoint a successor for himself and be sure that no one would encroach on the right of the heir to occupy the table.

5. The victory strengthened the position of the Grand Duke. All destinies were liquidated (with the exception of the one that previously existed). The authority of the family of the Grand Duke rose.

6. After the elimination of rivals and envious people, it was possible to purposefully educate bu-

the future ruler, the sovereign of all Russia, the successor of his father's work. Until the time when it was impossible to know exactly who would get the table, “selection work” was impossible. The main obstacle was removed. Even before birth, it was known that if a boy appeared, he would be a Grand Duke. It can be “subjected” from the cradle to the appropriate “ideological processing” This moment is important in the future formation of autocracy

7. There was a merger of the rights of the prince, as an patrimony and the supreme ruler of the state, by usurpation. Great reign finally becomes a fiefdom

Kotyshev D. M.

THE INSTITUTE OF THE GRAND PRINCIPAL AND THE EVOLUTION OF INTER-PRINCE RELATIONS (XII-XIV centuries)

The question of relations among the princely corporation as a specific social group in Russian medieval society is by no means new. The problem of organizing power and ruling in this environment has a fairly extensive historiographical tradition. But despite this circumstance, we believe that power structures (the form of organization of power) determine the nature of the entire social organism as a whole. Consequently, the change in the forms of organization of power in this period allows us to come close to studying the transformation of the entire system of social relations in Russian society in the 12th-14th centuries. Names about in this

time lie, in our opinion, the causes of the phenomenon, which modern researchers define as despotic autocracy. An analysis of inter-princely relations, together with a change in the role and significance of such an institution as a great reign, will allow us to catch the moment that marks the transition from relations of vassalage to relations of allegiance, to those relations that formed the basis of future Russian despotism.

Let's define the terms right away. By vassalage we mean

1 Solovyov S M History of relations between the princes Ryur ¡kovl la ma -M, 1897, Presnyakov A E Prince's right in ancient Russia - St. Petersburg, 1910, Tolochko A P Prince in ancient Russia power, property, idea of ​​loggia - Kiev, 1996

1 Kobrin V B, Yurgakav A L A hundred years of despotic samodsr-zhadaiya in medieval Ruyi//History of the USSR -1991 - .V» 4

The collapse of the Golden Horde

1304-1368 – Second empire- a federation of Mongolian states headed by Emperor Yuan.

1359-1380 – Great zamyatnya in the Golden Horde - more than 25 kings were replaced on the throne. Mamai - beklarbek and temnik (1361-1380).

1370-1405 - the reign of the great emir of Maverannahr Timur (Tamerlane) – empire of Tamerlane.

1380-1387 - the unification of the Golden Horde by Tokhtamysh, the restoration of Tengrism.

1391-1395 - the defeat of Tokhtamysh by Tamerlane.

1428-1598 - The Uzbek kingdom - the capitals of Chingi-Tur (until 1446), Sygnak (1446-1468), Kazhi-Tarkhan (1468-1501), Samarkand (1501-1560), Bukhara (since 1560).

1433-1502 - Large horde - the capital Saray.

1438-1552 - Kazan kingdom - the capital of Kazan.

1440-1556 - Nogai Horde - the capital of Saraichik.

1441-1783 - Crimean kingdom - the capital of Bakhchisarai.

1459-1556 - Astrakhan kingdom - the capital of Astrakhan.

1465-1729 - Cossack kingdom - the capitals of Sozak (until 1469, 1511-1521), Sygnak (1469-1511, 1521-1599), Turkestan (1599-1729).

1468-1495 - the Tyumen kingdom - the capital of Tyumen.

1495-1598 - Siberian kingdom - the capital of Siberia.

Feudal War- armed struggle between Vasily Vasilyevich the Dark and the union of his uncle, the Zvenigorod-Galician prince Georgy Dmitrievich Zvenigorodsky, and his sons, Vasily Kosy, Dmitry Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny, for the Great Moscow reign.

The main reasons for the war were the intensification of contradictions in the grand ducal elite in connection with the choice of which of the princes to be the Grand Duke of Moscow and how relations between the Grand Duke of Moscow and the appanage princes should be built.

Back in 1389, Dmitry Donskoy made a will, according to which, in the event of the death of his eldest son Vasily Dmitrievich, his youngest son Georgy Zvenigorodsky was appointed heir to the throne. Vasily Dmitrievich died in 1425, passing the throne to his 10-year-old son Vasily the Dark, who until 1432 was under the care of his mother, Sophia Vitovtovna of Lithuania.

Georgy Zvenigorodsky, began to challenge his right to the throne. Metropolitan Photius urged George not to claim the throne, and in 1428 he agreed, recognizing his nephew as his "elder brother."

Nevertheless, in 1431, George Zvenigorodsky began to fight for power again, deciding to receive a label for a great reign in the Golden Horde, since Vasily the Dark ascended the throne only according to his father's will, without the Golden Horde label. However, the label, according to the decision of the Golden Horde king, was retained by Vasily the Dark, and he had to allocate Georgy Zvenigorodsky to Dmitrov, which, however, was not done.

In 1433, at the wedding of Vasily the Dark, Sofya Vitovtovna publicly tore off the precious belt from the son of George Zvenigorodsky Vasily Kosoy, which, according to her, was allegedly previously intended for Dmitry Donskoy and replaced. The offended Yurievichs immediately went to their father in Galich; along the way, they plundered Yaroslavl, whose prince supported Vasily the Dark. In the same year, Georgy Zvenigorodsky defeated Vasily the Dark on the banks of the Klyazma, occupied Moscow and became the Grand Duke, giving Kostroma to his nephew.

But the Moscow boyars and service people did not want to "be under the Galician princes." Therefore, George returned the throne to Basil, and the princes swore to help each other. However, the subsequent persecution of former opponents by Vasily led to a speech in 1434 against him, first by the Yurievichs, who defeated the Muscovites in the battle on the Kus River, and, after the defeat of Galich by the Muscovites, by himself. Vasily was defeated near Veliky Rostov, on the Ustye River, George again occupied Moscow, but died soon after, bequeathing the throne to his nephew.

Despite this, his son Vasily Kosoy declared himself the Grand Duke, but his younger brothers did not support him, making peace with Vasily the Dark, according to which Dmitry Shemyaka received Uglich and Rzhev, and Dmitry Krasny - Galich and Bezhetsk. When the united princes approached Moscow, Vasily Kosoy fled Veliky Novgorod. From there, he, through Zavolochye and Kostroma, went on a campaign against Moscow. He was defeated in 1435 on the banks of the Korotorosl River near Yaroslavl, fled to Vologda, from where he appeared with new troops and went to Great Rostov, taking Nerekhta along the way. In 1436, near Veliky Rostov, Vasily Kosoy was taken prisoner, blinded by Vasily the Dark, and died in 1448.

In 1440, Dmitry the Red died, and all his possessions, by order of Vasily the Dark, were attached to the possessions of Dmitry Shemyaka.

In 1445, in the battle of Suzdal, the Kazanians defeated Moscow, and Vasily the Dark was captured by them. The great reign passed to Dmitry Shemyaka. But Vasily the Dark, having promised the Kazan Tsar a ransom, received an army from him and returned to Moscow, and Shemyaka was forced to leave the capital and retire to Uglich.

However, many boyars, priests and merchants, outraged by the "Horde commandery" of the Dark One, went over to the side of the latter, and in 1446, with their support, Dmitry Shemyaka became the Grand Duke of Moscow. Then he captured Vasily the Dark in the Holy Trinity Lavra, blinded him and sent him to Uglich, and then to Vologda. But again, dissatisfied with Dmitry Shemyaka began to come to Vasily the Dark.

In 1447, the Dark One triumphantly entered Moscow, which had been occupied the day before by his troops. Shemyaka went to Galich, and then to Chukhloma.

In 1449, the Dark concluded a peace treaty with Poland and Lithuania, confirming the Moscow-Lithuanian borders and a promise not to support the internal political opponents of the other side, as well as Lithuania's renunciation of claims to Veliky Novgorod.

In 1450, Shemyaka, in alliance with the Novgorodians, wanted to take Galich, but was defeated. In the same year, Vasily the Dark appointed his son John the Great as co-ruler. In 1452, Shemyaka was surrounded by the Dark under Veliky Ustyug, defeated and fled to Veliky Novgorod, where he died in 1453.

In 1462, Vasily the Dark also died.

1472 Marriage of Ivan the Great to the niece of the last Eastern Roman Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos, Sophia Palaiologos.

1456 – I Moscow-Novgorod war – Yazhelbitsky treaty between the Grand Duchy of Moscow and Veliky Novgorod, according to which the Novgorodians recognized the vassalage of Moscow.

1471 – II Moscow-Novgorod war - because of the connection of Novgorodians with Lithuania, Battle of Shelon.

In 1471, the pro-Lithuanian part of the Novgorod aristocracy, headed by Martha Boretskaya, concluded an agreement with the Lithuanian prince Casimir IV: Veliky Novgorod recognized Casimir IV as its prince, accepted his governor, and the king promised help to Novgorod in the fight against the Grand Duke of Moscow. Ivan the Great organized a well-planned campaign against Novgorod. The main battle took place on the Shelon River. And although the Novgorodians had a huge superiority in forces (about 40,000 against 5,000), they suffered a crushing defeat. The pro-Lithuanian party in Veliky Novgorod was defeated: some were executed, others were sent to Moscow and Kaluga and imprisoned.

1477-1478 – III Moscow-Novgorod War - because of the connection of Novgorodians with Lithuania.

In 1477 Veliky Novgorod was blocked from all sides. The negotiations lasted a whole month and ended with the capitulation of Veliky Novgorod.

1478 - the annexation of Veliky Novgorod to the Moscow Grand Duchy, the abolition of the Novgorod veche, the mutual resettlement of Moscow and Novgorod feudal lords.

1472 - annexation of the Perm land.

1474 - annexation of the Rostov principality.

1476 The Grand Duchy of Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde.

1480 – standing on the Ugra. Defeat of the Great Horde.

During the internecine war of 1425-53. Between Vasily II and his uncle Yuri Dmitrievich, and then the sons of the latter, Vasily Kosy and Dmitry Shemyaka, Moscow changed hands several times. During the wedding of Vasily II with the Serpukhov Princess Maria Yaroslavna in February 1433, a quarrel between Vasily II and the Galician princes broke out; the army of Basil II was defeated in the battle on the river. Klyazma (April 25, 1433), Vasily II fled from Moscow, which was occupied by Prince Yuri Dmitrievich. Dissatisfaction with the policy of Yuri Dmitrievich led to the departure of many service people from the city to Vasily II, who was in Kolomna. Soon Yuri Dmitrievich was forced to leave Moscow. After a new defeat of Vasily II in the battle on March 20, 1434 and a week-long siege of Moscow on March 31, the city was again occupied by supporters of Prince Yuri Dmitrievich, but after his imminent death (June 5, 1434), Vasily Kosoy declared himself heir to the Moscow throne. A month later, "having taken gold and silver, his father's treasury and the whole city reserve," Vasily Kosoy went to Kostroma. Vasily II again entered Moscow and in January 1435 defeated the army of Vasily Kosoy. In 1436, on the orders of Vasily II, Dmitry Shemyaka, who arrived in Moscow, was captured, and the army of Vasily Kosoy was defeated on the river. Cherekhe, Vasily Kosoy himself was brought to Moscow and blinded on May 21, 1436. In 1439, when the army of Khan Ulu-Mukhammed appeared “unknown” under the walls of Moscow, Vasily II left the city, leaving Yuri Patrikeev as governor, and went to the Volga; Ulu-Muhammed burned the Moscow settlements and after a ten-day siege of the city retreated, taking full. During the campaign against Kazan in July 1445, the wounded Vasily II was taken prisoner; power in Moscow passed to Dmitry Shemyaka. Soon after, a fire broke out in the city, destroying almost all the wooden buildings; about 2 thousand people died, the unrest of the townspeople began. In October 1445, Vasily II was released from captivity and arrived in Moscow, accompanied by the Tatars; Dmitry Shemyaka fled to Uglich, where he gathered an army, and on February 12, 1446 captured Moscow; Vasily II was captured in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, taken to Moscow, blinded (hence the nickname Dark) and exiled to Uglich. But already in December 1446, Vasily II again occupied Moscow, and at the beginning of 1450 he inflicted a decisive defeat on Dmitry Shemyaka.

THE TRAGEDY "VASILY II"

If we were writing not another chapter of a popular study of Russian PR, but a tragedy in the spirit of Shakespeare - under a completely Shakespearean name - then we should start it with the characters ...

Vasily II the Dark - Grand Duke of Moscow (1425-1462, intermittently). He lost his throne several times, and then was blinded by Shemyaka (1446). After that, he was called the Dark One. This nickname is tragic and respectful. The people saw him as a legitimate sovereign.

Sofya Vitovtovna is his mother. Lithuanian by nationality. Determined woman.

Yuri Galitsky - Grand Duke of Moscow (1433-1434), uncle of Vasily II.

Vasily Kosoy - Grand Duke of Moscow (1434, one month), son of Yuri Galitsky, respectively, cousin of Vasily II. Was blinded by Vasily II (1436), for which he received his unsympathetic nickname. The people did not like him.

Dmitry Shemyaka - Grand Duke of Moscow (1446-1447), also the son of Yuri Galitsky. Blinded in retaliation for the brother of Vasily II himself. Was poisoned.

The circle is closed. Blinding, poisoning. Quite gloomy. But it all started with a somewhat comical episode. Shakespeare liked to insert such interludes into his tragedies. Unfortunately, Russian history was not familiar to him, otherwise, instead of King Lear, we would now go to Vasily II.

Medinsky V. R. Features of national PR. True history of Russia from Rurik to Peter. M., 2010

TEXTBOOK EPISODE

But while Ivan Dimitrievich was inciting Yuri to renew his old claims, in Moscow Yuri's sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dimitri Shemyaka - were feasting at the wedding of the Grand Duke. Vasily Kosoy arrived in a rich golden belt studded with precious stones. The old boyar Pyotr Konstantinovich told the story of this belt to the mother of the Grand Duke, Sofya Vitovtovna, a curious story: this belt was given by the Suzdal prince Dimitri Konstantinovich as a dowry for his daughter Evdokia, who was going to marry Dimitri Donskoy; the last thousand Vasily Velyaminov, who was of great importance at the prince's wedding, replaced this belt with another, of a lower price, and gave the real one to his son Nikolai, behind whom was another daughter of Prince Dimitri of Suzdal, Marya. Nikolai Velyaminov also gave the belt as a dowry for his daughter, who married our boyar, Ivan Dimitrievich; Ivan gave it as a dowry for his daughter to Prince Andrei, the son of Vladimir Andreevich, and after the death of Andreeva, having betrothed his daughter, and his granddaughter to Vasily Kosoy, presented the groom with a belt in which he appeared at the wedding of the Grand Duke. Sofya Vitovtovna, having learned that he was wearing Kosoy by the belt, removed it from the prince in front of everyone as the property of her family, which illegally passed into someone else's. The Yurievichs, offended by such a disgrace, immediately left Moscow, and this served as a pretext for war.

SHEMYAKIN COURT

Shemyakin court (treacherous court, dishonest).

This is Sidorova's truth and Shemyakin's judgment.

Wed The case of these martyrs was raised, reviewed; Shemyakin's sentences were annulled and the good name and honor of these innocent victims of falsehood ... were restored ...

N. Makarov. Memories. Preface.

Dmitry Shemyaka (1446) blinded Vasily the Dark and seized the throne (overthrown in 1450).

Wed From this time on, in great Russia, every judge and admirer in reproach has been nicknamed Shemyakin's court.

Collection of figurative words and parables. 1904

THE RETURN OF THE STATE

On July 7, 1445, in the battle near Suzdal with the sons of Ulug-Muhammad, the Grand Duke suffered an unexpected defeat, was wounded and captured. Oct 1 In 1445, he was released from captivity with the obligation to pay a huge ransom, along with him, Horde tribute collectors arrived in North-Eastern Russia.

The incident dealt a strong blow to the authority of Vasily Vasilyevich. Part of Russian society - representatives of the nobility, Moscow merchants and even some monks of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery - began to lean towards the fact that Dmitry Shemyaka could become the best bearer of the grand duke's dignity. The organizers of the conspiracy against the Grand Duke were Dmitry Shemyaka and John Mozhaisky. During a pilgrimage trip to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Vasily Vasilyevich was captured by conspirators and on February 16, 1446, he was blinded (hence his nickname - Dark) in Moscow, in the Shemyaki courtyard in the Kremlin. The Grand Duke's table was occupied by Dmitry Shemyaka, the former Grand Duke was imprisoned in Uglich.

Faced with considerable resistance and ecclesiastical disapproval of his actions, Shemyaka was forced to release Vasily Vasilyevich and his family from prison. At the Council of the Clergy, which met in the autumn of 1446, the reconciliation of the princes took place. Soon, however, the abbot of the Cyril Monastery Tryphon released Vasily Vasilyevich from the oath. After that, the Grand Duke began to patronize the disciples of the Monk Kirill Belozersky.

From Vologda, not wanting to obey Shemyaka, Vasily Vasilyevich went to Tver to the Grand Duke Boris Alexandrovich, who offered him help. The union was sealed by the marriage of the daughter of the Prince of Tver Maria and the eldest son of Vasily Vasilyevich - John III Vasilyevich. Boyars and boyar children who refused to serve Shemyaka began to come to Tver. Vasily Vasilyevich was offered his services by the Horde princes Kasim and Yakub, the sons of Ulug-Muhammad, expelled by their brother. On the night of Christmas 1446, the Moscow-Tver army under the command of the Moscow boyar M. B. Pleshcheev captured Moscow with a sudden arrival. A new war has begun. In order to attract the appanage princes to his side, the Grand Duke made them new awards: the brother of the wife of the Grand Duke Vasily Yaroslavich Serpukhovskoy received Dmitrov, John Mozhaisky - Bezhetsky Verkh and half of the Zaozerye, the other half of the Zaozerye was received by his younger brother Mikhail Andreevich Vereisky.

After the return of Vasily Vasilyevich to Moscow, the Russian clergy actively contributed to strengthening the power of the Grand Duke for the speedy end of the feudal war. An important step in this direction was a letter sent on December 29, 1447 to Dmitry Shemyaka by Russian bishops and abbots of monasteries. Shemyaka was given an ultimatum: to “correct” before the Grand Duke in a short time, otherwise he would be excommunicated from the Church. At the beginning of 1448, Shemyaka and his ally John of Mozhaisky were forced to give the Grand Duke "cursed letters", which indicated that on those who violated their obligations of loyalty to the Grand Duke "do not awaken the mercy of God and His Most Pure Mother of God, and the prayers of the great miracle workers our land”, and “blessings of all the Bishop of the land of Russia”.

When this agreement was violated, the clergy of the Moscow Metropolis began to consider Shemyaka as an excommunicated from the Church, with whom Christians were forbidden to communicate. In the campaign against Galich, the specific capital of Shemyaki, undertaken by Vasily Vasilyevich in the spring of 1449, the Grand Duke was accompanied by the recently installed Metropolitan Jonah and the bishops. In January of the following year, the troops of Vasily Vasilyevich took the city, Shemyaka fled to Veliky Novgorod, where he found help and support, military operations moved to the lands of the Russian North. Captured by Shemyaka, Bishop of Perm, St. Pitirim refused to lift his excommunication. When the inhabitants of Vyatka, together with the Galich prince, began to attack the lands of Vasily Vasilyevich, Metropolitan. Jonah threatened to excommunicate them from the Church, and promised the priests to deprive them of their dignity if they did not stop acting together “with the excommunicated Church of God with Prince Dmitry Shemyaka.” At the same time, the saint sent a message to the Archbishop of Novgorod Euthymius II and the residents of Veliky Novgorod demanding not only to refuse support to Shemyaka, but also “neither eat nor drink” with him, since he “excommunicated himself from Christianity by his fratricide, their betrayals." After the death of Dmitry Shemyaka, who was poisoned in 1453 on the orders of Vasily Vasilyevich in Veliky Novgorod, Metropolitan Jonah forbade the memory of the Galich prince at funeral services.

Chistyakov P.P. At the wedding of Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich the Dark, Grand Duchess Sofya Vitovtovna takes from Prince Vasily Kosoy, Shemyaka's brother, a belt with precious stones that once belonged to which the Yurievichs took possession of incorrectly (fragment). 1861

The unification of Russia was slowed down by the conflict that arose within the Moscow grand-ducal family. The dynastic war, which dragged on for a quarter of a century, was caused by a number of reasons (Scheme 53). In the feudal law of that time, there were two principles of inheritance of princely power: direct (from father to son) and indirect (by seniority in the clan). The difference between these principles often served as the basis for dynastic conflicts. In ancient Russia, both principles could operate, in the future Muscovy - only direct inheritance. The text of Dmitry Donskoy's will was also contradictory. It could be interpreted from various hereditary positions. The rivalry between the descendants of Prince Dmitry Donskoy began in 1425 after the death of Vasily I (Scheme 54).

There were two pretenders to the throne: the young son of the deceased prince Vasily II and the younger brother of Vasily I Yuri, who reigned in Zvenigorod and Galich. Yuri Zvenigorodsky determined his claims to Moscow by the fact that his nephew took the throne without the khan's label. The receipt of a label by Vasily Vasilyevich in 1431 did not clarify the situation. Two years later, a loud scandal erupted at the wedding of the Moscow prince: his cousin and namesake Vasily Yuryevich put on a golden belt - a symbol of grand ducal power. This incident led to the outbreak of armed conflicts.

Scheme 53

Twice (in 1433 and 1434) the troops of Yuri Dmitrievich captured Moscow. For the first time, Yuri was forced to leave the city due to a conflict with the Moscow boyars. For the second time, he was prevented from enjoying the fruits of victory by death. After that, the sons of Yuri Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka entered the struggle for power. The first of the brothers proclaimed himself the Grand Duke. Both Shemyaka and Dmitry Krasny did not support their brother and took the side of their cousin. In 1436, Vasily Yurievich was arrested, brought to Moscow and blinded. The throne again passed to Vasily Vasilyevich.

Scheme 54

Nine years later, the Tatar Khan Ullug-Mukhammed raided Russia. The Moscow army was defeated, and the Grand Duke himself was captured. Taking advantage of his absence, Dmitry Shemyaka seized power. Having promised the khan a huge ransom, Vasily was released from the Horde captivity and returned to Moscow with a label for a great reign. Together with him, a detachment of Tatars arrived in the city to receive a ransom.

Taking advantage of the dissatisfaction of the townspeople with Dmitry, Vasily again established himself on the Moscow throne. But their confrontation continued. In 1446, Vasily 11 was blinded and exiled by Dmitry to Vologda. After that, Vasily received the nickname Dark, which meant blind. The blinding of a close relative (this barbaric means of reprisal was not used for the first time in princely strife) undermined the authority of Dmitry Yuryevich in society.

A year later, Vasily regained his reign, and Dmitry Shemyaka was forced to flee from Moscow. In 1450, his troops were defeated near Galich. The unsuccessful pretender to the great reign died in Novgorod in 1453. The dynastic war ended in victory for the direct descendants of Dmitry Donskoy. After that, the unification of individual principalities into a single state became inevitable.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands. Liberation of Russia from Horde dependence

By the middle of the XV century. after the end of the dynastic war, there were already all the prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands into a single state (Scheme 55). These prerequisites can be divided into three large groups: socio-economic, political and spiritual. Socio-economic factors reduced to the development of feudal landownership. Once the emergence of large boyar estates was one of the main reasons for the collapse of the early feudal Kievan Rus. By the 15th century the situation has changed radically. The representatives of the boyars, which had been formed and strengthened by that time, become profitable in acquiring lands outside their principality. To the number political background can be attributed to the strengthening of the Russian lands of power and leadership of the Moscow princes. This trend is clearly demonstrated by the dynastic war of the second third of the 15th century. It was not the rulers of individual lands who fought for the political leadership of their principality, but the closest descendants of Dmitry Donskoy for the possession of the Moscow throne. An important role was played by the factor of struggle with an external adversary. Liberation from the centuries-old domination of the Horde required a strong centralized authority. Finally, among spiritual background should include the presence in all Russian lands of a common religion - Orthodoxy and awareness of the unity of Russia in cultural terms. All these indicated reasons led to the formation of a single Muscovite state.

Scheme 55

The leading role in the political unification of Russia was played by the son of Vasily the Dark Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462–1505) (Scheme 56). Its final stage includes the annexation of Rostov, Yaroslavl, Tver and some other principalities, as well as the Novgorod Republic. The subjugation of these territories took place in different ways. Yaroslavl and Rostov princes swore allegiance to Ivan III voluntarily. He inherited the cities of Dmitrov, Vologda and Uglich. The most difficult task was the elimination of the independence of Veliky Novgorod. His boyars, led by the posadnik Marfa Boretskaya, fearing to lose their privileges, put up stubborn resistance. The boyars concluded an agreement with the Lithuanian prince, agreeing to transfer Novgorod to vassal dependence on Lithuania. Accusing the Novgorodians of apostasy from Orthodoxy, Ivan III organized a campaign against them in 1471. The Novgorod army was defeated by the Moscow prince on the river. Sheloni. In 1478 the Novgorod Republic finally capitulated. Marfa Boretskaya was arrested, the boyars were resettled in the center of the country, and the veche bell was taken to Moscow. The principality of Tver was also annexed by military means.

The growth of the political influence of the Grand Duke was facilitated by his marriage to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Palaiologos. By that time, Byzantium, conquered by the Turks, had already ceased to exist. Marriage to Sophia raised the status of Ivan III as the sovereign of all Russia.

An important achievement of the foreign policy of Ivan III was the elimination of the Horde yoke. By this time, the Golden Horde had weakened and almost disintegrated. Kazan, Crimean and Astrakhan khanates stood out from its composition. In 1476, the Moscow prince refused to obey the Khan of the Horde. Preparing for the inevitable clash with the Horde, Ivan III made an alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli Giray. In the summer of 1480, the Khan of the Horde Akhmat set out on a campaign against Russia. Akhmat's ally was the Lithuanian prince Casimir. The Horde army met with the main Russian forces on the river. Ugra (tributary of the Oka). Internal strife in the Principality of Lithuania prevented Casimir from coming to the rescue of Akhmat. In addition, the ally of Ivan III, Khan Mengli-Girey, attacked the possessions of Casimir. The attempts of the Horde to force the Morning ended in failure, the khan's troops were driven back. Because of the snow that fell in early November, the Tatar horses were threatened with complete starvation. Not daring to give a big battle, Akhmat withdrew his troops. Thus, Russia was delivered from the Mongol-Tatar rule that lasted 240 years. Since the foreign yoke was eliminated without a major battle or military campaign, the events of the autumn of 1480 went down in history as "standing on the Ugra". Departing from the borders of Russia, Akhmat promised to return with an army the next year. His plans were not destined to come true, since soon the khan was killed by the ruler of another Tatar state. At the very beginning of the XVI century. The Golden Horde finally ceased to exist. Its last remnants were defeated by Mengli Giray.

Scheme 56

Relations between Muscovite Rus and the Principality of Lithuania were difficult. A series of minor military clashes on the border led to the conclusion of an agreement in 1494, according to which the Moscow prince received a number of possessions along the upper reaches of the Oka. According to the same treaty, Ivan III was recognized as the title "sovereign of all Russia." Lithuanian prince Alexander married the daughter of Ivan III Elena. However, in 1500-1503. between Moscow and Lithuania again there was a military conflict. Ivan III managed to win back a number of Western Russian lands. A truce took place, as a result of which all the conquered territories were recognized as the Muscovite state.

An important milestone in the formation of statehood was the adoption in 1497 of a set of all-Russian laws - the Sudebnik of Ivan III, which is often called the Grand Duke. The Code of Laws contains articles on the central and local courts, as well as articles defining the basic norms of criminal and civil law. The code of law consolidated the foundations of the central boyar and local legal proceedings and determined the range of issues to be considered by the court of the Grand Duke. The code of laws clearly shows the desire for the centralization of the court, which in this period corresponded to the interests of further strengthening the feudal state. The articles established the functions of the boyar court, provided for control over its activities through the participation of clerks.

The ruling feudal class of the Moscow kingdom was formed from the descendants of the specific princes, their boyars, representatives of the old Moscow boyars, and service people. There were two forms of feudal ownership of land (Scheme 57). The patrimonial hereditary form constituted the economic base of the upper layer of the feudal aristocracy - the boyars. Another form of ownership was called local. Such land ownership provided for the receipt of land not by inheritance from ancestors, but from the Grand Duke for service. The feudal lords granted land in this way were called nobles.

Scheme 57

Large landowners since the XIV century. become Orthodox monasteries. The question of the expediency of church land ownership and its compatibility with Christian morality caused at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries. many ideological disputes. The right of the church to be a land owner was defended by hegumen of the Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky. The followers of his views were called Josephites, or money-grubbers, while their ideological opponents were called non-possessors. This direction was headed by the founder of the Trans-Volga Sorsky monastery Nil Sorsky. He urged the monks to refuse to acquire material goods, to live in poverty and to take care, first of all, of spiritual perfection.

In the XV century. the number of dependent peasantry increases (Scheme 58). Peasants who fell into dependence on the feudal lord and were obliged to give half of their crops were called ladles, and those deprived of arable land and unable to pay taxes were called beans. Bonded serfs were also dependent people, working off their debt from the master. And yet, the majority of Russian peasants at that time were not yet in complete serfdom. Once a year, a peasant could leave his feudal lord and move on to another. The Sudebnik of 1497 set the deadline for the peasant transition: a week before and a week after St. George's Day (November 26).

However, during the XV-XVI centuries. serfdom steadily increased. The peasants, who did not want to put up with feudal oppression, fled to the southern and eastern outskirts of the country. This is how the free Cossacks began to form - an estate that was to play an important role in the history of Russia. A significant part of the population was made up of "black", or black-skinned, peasants, united in the so-called "black" volosts. These peasants did not have a feudal lord over them and were exploited directly by the state. The nature of land ownership in such volosts causes a lot of controversy in historical science. Some researchers believe that "black" volosts are the property of peasant communities, while others see them as an element of state feudalism.

Scheme 58

The urban population played a significant role in the social and economic life of the country (see Diagram 58). By the beginning of the 16th century, according to the famous historian A.A. Zimin, there were already at least 140 cities, the largest of which was Moscow. The population of the Russian capital was several tens of thousands of people. City dwellers were divided into draft and non-draught people. Non-draught people are a privileged stratum of the population, exempt from state taxes and taxes. It included representatives of the administration and large landowners. In turn, the draft population was divided into two groups. Most artisans and merchants were considered residents of the "black" settlements and carried burdensome duties in favor of the state. In the best position were those who lived in the "white", i.e. privately owned, settlements. Belomestsy had a number of significant tax benefits.

By the beginning of the XVI century. In most European countries, a political system has developed, which is commonly called estate-representative monarchy. The monarch shared power with estate-representative assemblies. Such bodies were formed from representatives of the ruling and politically active estates, and primarily from the nobility and clergy. Close to the class-representative monarchy in the XV-XVI centuries. there was also the political system of the Muscovite state (Scheme 59). At the head of the country was the Grand Duke (from 1547 - the king). The monarch shared his powers with the Boyar Duma, which consisted of representatives of the highest aristocracy. There were two Duma ranks: boyar and roundabout. Later, the Duma began to be replenished with people of less noble origin: nobles and clerks (officials). The basis of the state apparatus was the palace and the treasury. The highest officials were treasurers and printers (custodians of the seal). The local government system was built on the principle of "feeding". Grand princely governors received the right to part of the court fees and taxes collected in the territories they ruled. "Feeding" led to numerous bribes and abuses of officials.

Scheme 59

Ivan III was succeeded by his son Vasily III Ivanovich (1505–1533) (Scheme 60). Continuing the policy of his father, in 1510 he liquidated the independence of the Pskov Republic. During his reign, there was a war with Lithuania, as a result of which Smolensk was annexed to the Russian state in 1514. In 1521, the Ryazan Principality, which was actually subordinate to Moscow, became part of the state. Thus, the unification of the Russian lands was completed, the remnants of feudal fragmentation were a thing of the past. Only one large inheritance remained in the state, belonging to the younger branch of the grand-ducal family - the princes of Staritsky.