Compatibility rules are violated in the case. Lexical word compatibility

Dictionary of compatibility -- a dictionary containing material on lexical compatibility.

Semantic errors

Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic.

Logical errors are associated with not distinguishing between concepts that are close in any respect. Often people do not distinguish between areas of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena.

So, in the sentence "Residents of the seaside city witnessed a large theatrical performance", an error is found in the phrase "witnesses of the performance". The word "witness" means "eyewitness" - this is the name of a person who finds himself at the scene of an incident. This word is associated with the sphere of judicial and legal activity. In the field of theatrical and concert activity, which is referred to in the proposal, the word "spectator" is used. This error is associated with a lack of distinction between areas of activity.

The erroneous combination “prices have risen in price” is associated with a lack of distinction between the related concepts of “prices” and “goods”: goods rise in price, and prices rise. Examples of similar errors in the sentences can be given: “The timely start-up of the plant causes concern”; “52 trees have been planted in the park”; "As a result of the plague, people left the city." All these errors are not explained by a distinction between related phenomena: they fear not that the combine will be launched, but that it will not be launched at the scheduled time; lay not trees, but a park; people leave the city not as a result, but because of the plague. Possible corrections in these cases: “There is concern that the plant will not be launched at the scheduled time”; “52 trees planted in the park”; "As a result of the plague, the city was deserted."

Linguistic errors are associated with not distinguishing denoting words that are in any semantic relationship. These are mostly synonyms and paronyms.

Not distinguishing between synonyms, words that are close or coinciding in meaning, leads to errors in use. For example, the words "role" and "function" in the sense of "work, circle of activity" are synonymous, but genetically they are associated with different designations: the role - with the sphere of theater and cinema, and the function - with logic. Hence the established lexical compatibility: the role is played (played), and the function is performed (performed). The words “brave” and “brave” are synonyms, but “brave” is associated with the external manifestation of the called quality, and “brave” is associated with both external and internal, so a thought, decision, idea can only be bold, but not brave.

Not distinguishing between paronyms, i.e. words that partially coincide in sound also lead to errors in use; most of the paronyms are single-root words that differ in suffixes or prefixes and, as a result, shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloring. For example, a misdemeanor (offense) is an act (action committed by someone); guilty (who committed a crime) - guilty (guilty of something, violating the rules of morality, politeness, etc.); pay (for something) - pay (for something).

Paronyms can be associated with different variants of a common root. For example, short (small in size, the opposite of long) - short (stated briefly, in a few words). Therefore, they say a short text, but a brief retelling of the text. Borrowed words may also appear in paronymic relations: parity (equality) - priority (primacy, advantage), dequalification (loss of qualification) - disqualification (deprivation of qualification), etc. To distinguish between paronyms of foreign origin, it is necessary to refer to dictionaries of foreign words.

The following are frequency pairs of paronyms:

- fulfill - fulfill have the general meaning "to carry out, put into practice", for example, to fulfill (fulfill) an order, but the second verb has a book character;
- long - long coincide in the meaning of "ongoing, long", for example, a long (long) conversation, a long (long) pause, but "long" indicates the length in time, and "long" emphasizes the procedural meaning of the noun; "long" is usually combined with the names of periods of time (long night, long winter), and "long" - with the names of actions and states calculated for a long time (long flight, long treatment);
- agreement - agreement differ in that "agreement" means a written or oral agreement, a condition on mutual obligations (friendship and cooperation agreement), and "agreement" - an agreement reached through negotiations (an agreement to include an issue on the agenda);
- truth (truth, the actual state of affairs) - truth (correspondence to the truth). For example, the desire for truth is the truth of the assumptions put forward;
- ordinary - ordinary differ in that in the first word unremarkable, unremarkable is emphasized, and in the second - typicality. For example, an ordinary person is an ordinary day.

To identify the specifics of words related by paronymic relations, it is necessary to correctly represent the morphological composition of the word and the method of its formation. For example, in pairs to learn - to master, to complicate - to complicate, to make heavier - to make heavier words with the prefix o- have the meaning of a higher degree of manifestation of the action. In pairs hygienic - hygienic, logical - logical, practical - practical, economic - economical, differing in suffixes -ichesk- / -n-, the second adjective denotes a sign that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent (qualitative adjective). This implies compatibility: a hygienic norm - a hygienic fabric, logical laws - a logical conclusion, practical application - practical clothing, economic policy - an economical device.

Stylistic mistakes

Stylistic errors are a violation of the requirements of the unity of the functional style, the unjustified use of emotionally colored, stylistically marked means. Stylistic errors are associated with ignoring the restrictions that its stylistic coloring imposes on the use of a word.

The most common stylistic mistakes include:

1. The use of clericalism - words and phrases characteristic of the official business style. For example, "As the revenue side of my budget increased, I decided to buy a new car for permanent use" - "I began to receive a lot of money, so I decided to buy a new car."
2. The use of words (expressions) of inappropriate stylistic coloring. So, in a literary context, the use of jargon, vernacular, abusive vocabulary is inappropriate; in a business text, colloquial and expressively colored words should be avoided. For example, "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor" - "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor."
3. Mixture of styles - unjustified use in one text of words, syntactic constructions, characteristic of different styles of the Russian language. For example, a mixture of scientific and colloquial styles.
4. Mixing vocabulary from different historical eras. For example, "On the heroes of chain mail, trousers, mittens" - "On the heroes of chain mail, armor, mittens."
5. Incorrect sentence construction. For example, "Despite his youth, he is a good person." There are several ways to correct these errors. Firstly, change the word order in the sentence: "There are many works that tell about the author's childhood in world literature" - "In world literature there are many works that tell about the author's childhood."
6. Secondly, redo the sentence: “From other sporting events, let's talk about the bar” - “From other sporting events, barbell competitions should be highlighted.”
7. Pleonasm - verbal excess, the use of words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view. In order to avoid pleonasm, you must do the following:
- - replace the word with a single root, for example, a monumental monument - a monument;
- - remove the word from the phrase, for example, the main essence - the essence, valuable treasures - treasures;
- - remove a word from the text without reducing the quality. For example, "Operation is the way in which an action is performed" - "Operation is a way of performing an action"; "Building a model in accordance with known rules" - "Building a model according to the rules."
8. Tautology - the use of single-root words within the boundaries of one sentence. For example, "Tell a story"; "Ask a question." Ways to correct tautologies are:
- - replace one of the words with a synonym. For example, “Torrential downpour did not stop all day” - “Torrential rain did not stop all day”;
- - delete one of the words. For example, "Along with these signs, there are a number of others" - "Along with these signs, there are others."

The tautology is easily detected when reading the text aloud. Overused words usually include which, so that and can.

9. Lexical repetitions in the text. For example, "In order to study well, students must pay more attention to learning." Words that are repeated should be replaced with synonyms, nouns can be replaced with pronouns, or a repeating word can be removed altogether, if possible - "To achieve success, students must pay more attention to classes."
10. Substitution of the concept. This error occurs as a result of missing a word. For example, “Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive” (we are talking about patient cards, and from the text of the proposal it follows that the patients themselves were handed over to the outpatient clinic).
11. This error, which arose as a result of the author's stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: it is necessary to insert an accidentally omitted word or phrase. For example, "Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm" - "Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm."
12. Choice of singular or plural forms. Often there are problems with the use of the singular or plural. Examples of correct use are combinations: two or more options, three or more forms, there are several options, there are some options.

For correct use, agreement in meaning is increasingly used: if a single whole is meant, then the singular is used, and if it is necessary to emphasize individual objects, the plural is used.

13. Agreement of words in a sentence. Often there are errors in the agreement of words in a sentence, especially with regard to the control of verbs. For example, "This section talks about opening, working and saving a document" - "This section describes the procedures for opening and saving documents, as well as working with them."
14. Creation of verbal nouns. You should be careful to create verbal nouns, because. many of the created words are not in the dictionary, and their use is considered illiterate (order - ordering, not ordering; collapse - folding, not folding).
15. Stringing the same forms. You should avoid stringing the same case forms, for example, using the words “to” and “which”. For example, "In order to avoid the possibility of danger" - "To avoid the occurrence of danger."
16. Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions. For example, “The man was wearing a burnt padded jacket. The quilted jacket was roughly darned. The boots were almost new. Moth-eaten socks” - “The man was dressed in a roughly darned burnt padded jacket. Although the boots were almost new, the socks were moth-eaten.

Stylistically unjustified use of tropes. The use of tropes can cause a variety of speech errors. Unsuccessful imagery of speech is a fairly common flaw in the style of authors who have poor pen skills.

For example, “The judge was just as simple and humble.

For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning; it is also necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the lexical compatibility of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. So, "similar" adjectives long, long, long, long, long are "attracted" to nouns in different ways: long period, long period (but not long, long, long period); long way, long way; long-term fees, long-term credit. Often words with the same meaning can have different lexical compatibility (cf .: a true friend is a genuine document).

The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad. V.V. Vinogradov about phraseologically related meanings of words that have single compatibility (bosom friend) or limited compatibility possibilities (stale bread, long loaf; stale person, but you can’t say “stale candy” (chocolate), “stale comrade” (father, son).

For the development of the theory of lexical compatibility, Vinogradov's selection of phraseological combinations and the establishment of the main types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language were of great importance. Phraseology deals with phraseological combinations, the subject of lexical stylistics is the study of the combination in speech of words that have free meanings, and the definition of those restrictions that are imposed by the language on their lexical compatibility.

Many linguists emphasize that the lexical compatibility of a word is inseparable from its meaning. Some scientists, studying the problems of lexical compatibility, come to the conclusion that there are no absolutely free combinations of lexemes in the language, there are only groups of words with different possibilities of compatibility. With such a formulation of the question, the difference between free combinations and phraseologically connected ones is destroyed.

Combining words into phrases can run into various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility (purple orange, leaned back, water is on fire); secondly, the combination of words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature (mine - swim, close - cheerful); thirdly, their lexical features can prevent the unification of words (words denoting seemingly connected concepts do not combine; they say to cause grief, trouble, but one cannot say to cause joy, pleasure).

Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, there are three types of compatibility: semantic (from the term "semantics" - the meaning of the word), grammatical (more precisely, syntactic) and lexical.

Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in such cases: By today, there is no information yet; It is necessary to speed up the settlement of the bloodshed; My father's maiden name was Sobakin; After the death of Lensky, no duel, Olga married a hussar ... Funny combinations of words, isn't it? But if you think about it, in other cases a very undesirable underlying meaning arises: not to stop, but only to settle the bloodshed? ..

A parodic example of a violation of grammatical compatibility is known: My yours does not understand (possessive adjectives cannot be combined with verbs in the personal form). More examples: Our leader is healthy inside and out; Most of the time deputies spend on discussions.

The most drastic violation of the laws of "attraction of words" is lexical inconsistency: The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past, we all had our tongues clamped down. The bright effect of "deceived expectation" is played by comedians in caustic jokes: We have won and no longer have the right to delay; Reached the yawning peaks.

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the incorrect use of polysemantic words. So, in its basic meaning, the word deep can be freely combined with any other, suitable in meaning: deep (that is, having great depth) well, bay, reservoir, lake, river. However, in the meaning of "reached the limit, complete, perfect", this word is combined with a few (deep autumn, winter, but not summer, not spring, deep night, silence, but not morning, not day, not noise; deep old age, but not youth). Therefore, the statement makes us laugh: In deep childhood, he was like his mother.

The word to take place is interpreted in dictionaries by means of synonyms to happen, to come true, however, unlike them, this verb is appropriate if the planned events were being prepared, planned (A meeting was held; A meeting of the candidate for the Duma with voters took place). And if the correspondent writes: Armed clashes took place on the streets of the city, one might think that armed clashes were being prepared, planned by someone. As you can see, a violation of lexical compatibility can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.

Lexical stylistics should focus on the assessment of lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between different types of compatibility are very fuzzy, therefore, in the stylistic analysis of the text, one has to talk not only about "pure" lexical compatibility, but also take into account various transitional cases.

All significant words that have free meanings can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within their subject-logical connections; such, for example, are adjectives that characterize the physical properties of objects - color, volume, weight, temperature (red, black, large, small, light, heavy, hot, cold), many nouns (table, house, person, tree), verbs ( live, see, work, know). Another group is formed by words that have limited lexical compatibility (and in the case of polysemy of words, this restriction can only apply to their individual meanings). This group of words is of particular interest.

Lexical compatibility restrictions are usually inherent in words that rarely occur in speech. Words with the maximum frequency of use (they are included in the 2500 most frequent words of the Russian language) easily enter into lexical relationships. For example, when comparing the compatibility of the words fear and fear, it turned out that the word fear is more actively combined with various verbs.

For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning, it is also necessary to take into account the features lexical combination of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. So, "similar" adjectives long, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy are "attracted" to nouns in different ways: a long period, extended period(but not long, long, long period); long way, a long way; long fees, long-term loan. Often words with the same meaning can have different lexical compatibility (cf.: true friend - original document).

The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad. V.V. Vinogradov about the phraseologically related meanings of words that have a single compatibility ( bosom friend) or limited compatibility options ( stale bread, loaf; a callous person, but you can't say "stale candy" ( chocolate bar), "calous comrade" ( father, son).

Combining words into phrases can run into various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility ( purple orange, leaned back, the water is on fire); secondly, the combination of words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature ( mine is to swim, close - cheerful); thirdly, the combination of words may be hindered by their lexical features (words denoting seemingly connected concepts do not combine; they say cause grief, trouble but you can't say bring joy, pleasure).

Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, there are three types of compatibility: semantic(from the term "semantics" - the meaning of the word), grammatical(more precisely, syntactic) and lexical.

Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in such cases: To date, there is no information yet; It is necessary to speed up the settlement of the bloodshed; My father's maiden name was Sobakin; After the death of Lensky and the duel, Olga married a hussar... Funny combinations of words, isn't it? But if you think about it, in other cases there is a very undesirable underlying meaning: not stop, but only settle bloodshed?..

A parodic example of a violation of grammatical compatibility is known: Mine doesn't understand yours(possessive adjectives cannot be combined with personal verbs). More examples: Our leader is healthy inside and out; Most of the time deputies spend on discussions.

The most drastic violation of the laws of “attraction of words” is lexical incompatibility: The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past, we all had our tongues clamped down. The bright effect of “deceived expectation” is played by comedians in caustic jokes: We have won and no longer have the right to delay; Reached the yawning peaks.

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the incorrect use of polysemantic words. So, in its basic meaning, the word deep can be freely combined with any other, suitable in meaning: deep(i.e. having great depth) well, bay, body of water, lake, river. However, in the meaning of "reached the limit, complete, perfect", this word is combined with a few ( deep autumn, winter, but not summer, not Spring, deep night silence, but not morning, not day, not noise; deep old age, but not youth). Therefore, we are amused by the statement: In deep childhood, he was like his mother.

Word take place interpreted in dictionaries by means of synonyms happen, come true, however, unlike them, this verb is appropriate if the planned activities were prepared, planned ( A meeting was held; Duma candidate meets with voters). And if the correspondent writes: Armed clashes took place on the streets of the city, - you might think that armed clashes were being prepared, planned by someone. As you can see, a violation of lexical compatibility can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.

Lexical stylistics should focus on the evaluation lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between different types of compatibility are very fuzzy, therefore, in the stylistic analysis of the text, one has to talk not only about “pure” lexical compatibility, but also take into account various transitional cases.

All significant words that have free meanings can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within their subject-logical connections; such, for example, are adjectives that characterize the physical properties of objects - color, volume, weight, temperature ( red, black, big, small, light, heavy, hot, cold), many nouns ( table, house, man, tree), Verbs ( live, see, work, know). Another group is formed by words that have limited lexical compatibility (and in the case of polysemy of words, this restriction can only apply to their individual meanings). This group of words is of particular interest.

Lexical compatibility restrictions are usually inherent in words that rarely occur in speech. Words with the maximum frequency of use (they are included in the 2500 most frequent words of the Russian language) easily enter into lexical relationships. For example, when comparing word combinations fear and fear it turned out that the word is more actively combined with various verbs fear.

The lexical compatibility of words has an intralinguistic character. In our native language, we usually “predict” possible variants of lexical connections of words (mostly by intuition). Marks of lexical compatibility in explanatory dictionaries are rare and inconsistent. Of practical importance is the "Dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language" ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkina (2nd ed. M., 1983).

The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached with the usual yardstick, here the laws of “attraction” of words to each other are special. In fiction and journalistic works, the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. For example, it has been noted that the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if the words that make them up are understood in a literal sense ( the sunset is ablaze, years fly by, black thoughts). The semantic incompatibility of words is not an obstacle to the creation of artistic images. It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images that have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, metonyms: gray winter threat(P.); The bell cries loudly, and laughs, and squeals(Elm.); Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness ...(L.); pot-bellied nut bureau(G.); mental and moral neckline, bald syllogism(S.-SH.).

Violation of lexical compatibility can be an effective means of creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: From that day, glory befell Evstigneyka(M. G.); an apple with a mole, an ebullient lazybones(I. and P.); on the basis of a comprehensive and double-edged squabble(I. Ilf); single fox terrier(L. Lench). Violation of lexical compatibility as a vivid stylistic device for creating a comic effect underlies various jokes, aphorisms, which are usually published on the humorous pages of magazines and newspapers. For example: Genius recognized alive("LG"); It is difficult to forgive other people's shortcomings, but it is even more difficult to forgive other people's virtues.; our sworn friends; inveterate leader; Finally, the government has achieved a significant deterioration in the life of the people; With perestroika, another event befell us: humanitarian aid from the West(from gas).

Incompatibility makes headlines catchy: “ Genre destined for success"(about the parody); " Memories of the future"(movie title); " Alone with everyone"(play by A. Gelman); " Lifetime friend"(about the "friendship" of V. Zhirinovsky with Saddam Hussein); " Sky stalkers”(about helicopter pilots who worked in areas of high radiation); " Turn on the silence»; « What was silent on the subway»; « Long, multi-part life»; « A bouquet of stars"(stages). Often poets violate lexical compatibility. Unusual combinations of words in the songs of Vl. Vysotsky: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their bare souls into blood. In a non-expressive, prosaic speech, the phrases “walk on your heels”, “barefoot souls” would seem impossible, absurd, but, in a poetic context, they amaze with their artistic power. Another example from a song by the same author: By morning they shot the silent mountain echo ... And the stones splashed like tears from the wounded rocks.

If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, the violation of lexical compatibility becomes a speech error. This reflects a characteristic feature of the dialectical nature of the language: in one case, the phenomenon, which is a deviation from the linguistic norm, turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in the other, it is evidence of the author’s carelessness, inattentive attitude to the word. Involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.

« Although our favorite skaters lost in these competitions, the audience greets them with a standing ovation."says the sportscaster (but: win, fail). « Maybe insomnia has come to you, and you are lying, not closing your eyes blue", - the poet writes (but: you can close your eyes, but not sight). In the essay, the journalist remarks: The basin made a cozy impression» (can be produced pleasant impression, but not cozy). Some words are often used in speech in the wrong combinations ( the meeting is convened, the conversation is read, increase attention, give importance, increase one's horizons and etc.).

Lexical mismatch can be caused by contamination superficially similar phrases. For example, they say: meet modern needs, mixing combinations satisfy the requirements of and meet the needs; He was charged with material damages in favor of the victims (material damage may be reimbursed; recovered can be money); Improved the artistic level of expositions of folk museums (level maybe rise, rise; improve can quality). More examples of word combinations: take action(take action - take steps); deserved fame(gained fame - earned respect); unflagging help(constant help - unflagging attention); does not matter (does not matter - does not matter). The confusion of phrases was the reason for the joke:

Tastes could not be discussed:

Some respect apricots in brine,

Others like jam with mustard.

But all this is not has a role

And besides, not plays the role.

(E. Svistunov)

When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, a violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech. For example: Serious problems hit young entrepreneurs by surprise; The leaders paid serious attention to the shortcomings achieved; They worked like the most notorious specialists; People came to us dejected by the experience. Comic in such cases arises because words that have limited lexical compatibility suggest variants of phrases with often directly opposite meanings (cf .: achieved successes, notorious scammers, dejected with grief).

Consider examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:

As you can see, stylistic editing basically comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.

Careless attitude to the language can cause speech insufficiency- random omission of words necessary for the exact expression of thought: Management should strive from this indifference(omitted get rid of); Oil paintings are placed in frames(omitted written). Speech deficiency often occurs in oral speech when the speaker is in a hurry and does not follow the correctness of the statement. In this case, comic situations arise if the “speaker” addresses the audience using a microphone. So, at the dog show you can hear appeals to the owners of thoroughbred dogs:

- Dear participants, sort out the breeds and get ready for the parade!

- Comrade participants, carefully wipe the muzzle from saliva to facilitate the examination of the dental system!

- Prize-winners, urgently come for rewarding. Owners without muzzles will not be awarded.

From such appeals of the administrator it follows that all these tests await not dogs, but their owners, because it is to them that the speech is addressed. With speech insufficiency, ambiguity very often occurs, here are examples of such errors that have fallen into protocols and other business documents: Gr. Kalinovsky L.L. followed the street without a license plate; Set the date of delivery of insurance agents to the accounting department before the 10th day of each month; We will send the persons you are interested in by mail; Class teachers to ensure the attendance of their parents.

Due to speech insufficiency, the grammatical and logical connections of words in a sentence are violated, its meaning is obscured. The omission of words can completely distort the author's thought: To improve production performance, it is necessary to unite all workers involved in economic issues(necessary: unite the efforts of all employees); Due to the cold in the room, we make only urgent fractures- an announcement on the door of the X-ray room (meaning urgent x-rays of fractures).

Due to the omission of a word, various logical errors can occur. So, the absence of the necessary link in the expression of thought leads to alogism: The language of Sholokhov's heroes differs sharply from the heroes of other writers.(can be compared the language of the heroes of Sholokhov only with the language of the heroes of other writers); The conditions of the city are different from the village(permissible comparison living conditions in the city only with living conditions in the countryside).

Often, as a result of the omission of a word, substitution of the concept. For example: Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive- this is about patient cards, and from the text it follows that "the patients are handed over to the archive." Such speech insufficiency gives rise to the comic and absurdity of the statement [ Kuibyshev river port produces men for permanent and temporary work as port workers("Cr."); She took second place in gymnastics among girls of the 2nd category.("Cr."); The State Insurance Inspectorate invites you to the State Insurance on any Thursday to receive an injury(announcement)].

Speech deficiency, which occurs as a result of the author's stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: you need to insert an accidentally missed word or phrase. For example:

1. Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm.	1. Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm.
2. Competitions have shown that in our city there are strong drafts players on the 100-cell board.	2. The competitions showed that strong checkers players appeared in our city, playing on a hundred-cell board.
3. Isochrones - lines on geographical maps passing through points on the earth's surface in which a particular phenomenon occurs at the same moment.	3. Isochrones - lines on geographical maps passing through points corresponding to points on the earth's surface at which one or another natural phenomenon occurs at the same moment.

If the speaker "does not find words" for the correct expression of thought and builds a sentence somehow, omitting certain links in the chain of logically connected concepts, the phrase becomes insufficiently informative, chaotic, and the editor who corrects such a statement has to work hard to achieve clarity. For example, in the manuscript of an article about the restoration of a printing company, we read: At first, equipment was installed in the format of a half-printed sheet.. From this "truncated" information it is not easy to guess that when the work of the printing plant was resumed, at first they installed equipment only for the manufacture of products with a format of half a printed sheet. Insufficient information content a sentence that omits important words and phrases especially often leads to the absurdity of the statement, which could be observed in the "stagnation times", when our newspapers printed numerous reports on "victories and conquests" in the fulfillment of five-year plans. For example: On this shift, between 16 and 20 hours, the thousandth billion of Soviet power engineers were worked out. It is not easy to recover the truth from such a message; in fact, it is about Soviet power engineers, who worked the evening shift, gave the country a thousandth billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.

Speech deficiency as a common mistake should be distinguished from ellipse- a stylistic figure based on the conscious omission of one or another member of the sentence to create special expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a verb-predicate, which convey the dynamism of movement ( I'm for a candle, a candle - in the stove! I am for a book, that one - to run and jump under the bed.- Chuk.). With an ellipsis, there is no need to “restore” the missing members of the sentence, since the meaning of elliptical constructions is clear, and the introduction of clarifying words into them will deprive them of their expression, their inherent ease. In case of speech insufficiency, on the contrary, the restoration of missing words is necessary; without them, the sentence is stylistically unacceptable.

The ability to find exact words for naming certain concepts helps to achieve brevity in expressing thoughts, and, on the contrary, the author’s stylistic helplessness often leads to speech redundancy- verbosity. Verbosity as a great evil was repeatedly pointed out by scientists, writers A.P. Chekhov remarked: "Brevity is the sister of talent." A.M. Gorky wrote that laconism, as well as accuracy of presentation, are not easy for the writer: "... It is extremely difficult to find the exact words and put them in such a way that a lot is said to a few," so that the words are cramped, the thoughts are spacious "".

Verbosity comes in various forms. Often one can observe an obsessive explanation of well-known truths: Milk consumption is a good tradition, not only children eat milk, the need for milk, the habit of milk persists until old age. Is this a bad habit? Should it be abandoned? - Not! Similar idle talk, of course, is suppressed by the editor: reasoning that is not of informative value is excluded during literary editing. However, such an edit-abbreviation is not directly related to the lexical style, since it affects not the lexical side of the text, but its content.

The subject of lexical stylistics is speech redundancy that occurs when the same thought is retransmitted, for example: They were shocked by the spectacle of the fire they were witnessing; Our athletes arrived at international competitions in order to take part in competitions in which not only ours, but also foreign athletes will participate; He could not remain aloof from family conflicts, as the husband of a woman and the father of children; The machine park was updated with new machines(highlighted words are superfluous).

Sometimes the manifestation of speech redundancy borders on the absurd: The corpse was dead and did not hide it. Such examples of verbosity stylists call lapalissiades. The origin of this term is not without interest: it is formed on behalf of the French marshal Marquise La Palisa, who died in 1525. The soldiers composed a song about him, in which were the words: Our commander was alive 25 minutes before his death. The absurdity of the lapalissiada lies in the assertion of a self-evident truth.

Lapalissiades give speech an inappropriate comedy, often in situations that arose as a result of tragic circumstances. For example: Since the responsible editor of the collection has died, it is necessary to introduce a new living editor to the editorial board; The dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life..

Speech redundancy can take the form of pleonasm. Pleonasm(from Gr. pleonasmos - excess) is the use in speech of similar in meaning and therefore unnecessary words ( the main essence, everyday routine, uselessly disappears, anticipate in advance, valuable treasures, dark darkness etc.). Often pleonasms appear when synonyms are combined kissed and kissed; long and lengthy; courageous and bold; only; nevertheless, however; for example.

More A.S. Pushkin, considering brevity as one of the merits of the work, reproached P.A. Vyazemsky in a letter to him for the fact that in his fairy tale "Local Line" the speech of one of the characters is "stretched", and the phrase " Doubly painful. almost pleonasm."

Pleonasms usually arise due to the stylistic negligence of the author. For example: Local forest workers are not limited only to the protection of the taiga, but they also do not allow the richest gifts of nature to be wasted in vain.. When stylistic editing, the highlighted words must be excluded. However, such a manifestation of speech redundancy should be distinguished from "imaginary pleonasm", to which the author refers consciously as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. In this case, pleonasm becomes a striking stylistic device. Let's remember F. Tyutchev: The vault of heaven, burning with star glory. Mysteriously looks from the depths, And we are swimming, surrounded on all sides by a flaming abyss; S. Yesenina: Give me a paw, Jim, for luck. I have never seen such a paw. Let's bark with you in the moonlight on quiet, noiseless weather ... Another example: The time when the history of our country was rewritten for the sake of a false ideology will not return back(from gas).

The use of pleonastic combinations is also characteristic of folklore: Where are you going, Volga? Where are you heading? To give you a place by name, by patronymic ... Expressively colored pleonastic combinations were traditionally used in oral folk art. sadness-longing, sea-okiya, path-path and under.

Pleonasm is a type tautology(from Gr. tauto - the same thing, logos - a word). Tautology as a phenomenon of lexical stylistics can arise when repeating words with the same root ( tell a story, multiply many times, ask a question, resume again), as well as when combining a foreign and Russian word that duplicates its meaning ( commemorative souvenirs, first debuted, unusual phenomenon, driving leitmotif). In the latter case, one sometimes speaks of hidden tautology.

The repetition of cognate words, which creates a tautology, is a very common mistake ( The plaintiff proves his case with unsubstantiated evidence; The rise in crime has grown; Citizens pedestrians! Cross the street only at pedestrian crossings!). The use of cognate words creates unnecessary "marking time", for example: ... It follows quite naturally that the productivity of labor at certain stages of the development of technology is determined by completely definite laws. In order to comprehend such a statement, it is necessary, first of all, to get rid of the tautology. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: A well-founded conclusion follows that labor productivity at various stages of technological development is determined by objective laws..

However, the repetition of cognate words should not always be regarded as a stylistic error. Many stylists rightly believe that it is not always necessary to exclude single-root words from sentences, replacing them with synonyms: in some cases this is impossible, in others it can lead to impoverishment, discoloration of speech. Several cognates in a close context are stylistically justified if related words are the only carriers of the corresponding meanings and cannot be replaced by synonyms ( trainer - to train; elections, voters - to choose; habit - wean; close - cover; cook - jam and etc.). How to avoid, say, the use of single-root words when you need to say: White flowers bloomed on the bushes; Book edited by editor-in-chief?

There are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary ( dictionary of foreign words, link fifth link, foreman of the first brigade etc.). We have to put up with such, for example, word usage: investigating authorities ... investigated; suffer from Graves' disease; the seam is cut by a cutting machine etc.

Many related words from an etymological point of view in the modern language have lost word-formation connections (cf.: take off - raise - understand - hug - accept, song - cock, morning - tomorrow). Such words that have a common etymological root do not form tautological phrases ( black ink, red paint, white linen).

The tautology that occurs when a Russian word and a foreign word are combined, which coincide in meaning, usually indicates that the speaker does not understand the exact meaning of the borrowed word. This is how combinations young child prodigy, meager little things, interior design, leading leader, break interval etc. Tautological combinations of this type sometimes become acceptable and are fixed in speech, which is associated with a change in the meanings of words. An example of the loss of tautology would be the combination time period. In the past, linguists considered this expression tautological, since the word is Greek in origin. period means "time". However, the word period gradually acquired the meaning of "a period of time", and therefore the expression period of time became possible. Combinations are also fixed in speech monumental monument, reality, exhibits, used book and some others, because in them the definitions ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature already contained in the word being defined. The tautology that occurs when using abbreviations in scientific and official business styles does not require stylistic editing, for example: SI system[those. "System International System" (about physical units)]; Institute BelNIISH(Institute Belarusian Research Institute of Agriculture).

Tautology, like pleonasm, can be a stylistic device that enhances the effectiveness of speech. In colloquial speech, tautological combinations such as serve a service, all sorts of things, bitter grief and others, bringing a special expression. Tautology underlies many phraseological units ( to eat, to see the views, to walk with a shaker, to sit in a seat, packed to the brim, to go to waste). Especially important stylistic significance is acquired by tautological repetitions in artistic speech, mainly in poetic speech.

There are tautological combinations of several types: combinations with a tautological epithet ( And new was not old, but new new and victorious.- Sl.), with a tautological instrumental case ( And suddenly a white-white birch in a gloomy spruce forest is alone.- Sol.). Tautological combinations in the text stand out against the background of other words; this makes it possible, resorting to tautology, to pay attention to especially important concepts ( So, iniquity was legitimized; There are fewer and fewer unsolved mysteries left in nature.). An important semantic function is played by tautology in the headlines of newspaper articles ( "Green shield asks for protection"; “Extremes of the Far North”, “Is it an accident?”, “Is the old bicycle outdated?”).

Tautological repetition can give the statement a special significance, aphorism ( To the winning student from the defeated teacher.- Bug.; Luckily, the fashion circle is out of fashion now.- P.; And the antiquity is outdated, and the old is delirious with newness.- P.). As a source of speech expression, tautology is especially effective if cognate words are compared as synonyms ( It was as if they had not seen each other for two years, their kiss was long, long.- Ch.), antonyms ( When did we learn to be strangers? When did we learn to speak?- Evt.).

Like any repetitions, tautological combinations increase the emotionality of journalistic speech [ The Seventh Symphony (by Shostakovich) is dedicated to the triumph of the human in man... The composer responded to the threat of fascism - to dehumanize man - with a symphony about the victorious triumph of everything lofty and beautiful.- A. T.].

The stringing of single-root words is used in gradations(from Latin gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure based on a consistent increase or decrease in emotional and expressive significance ( O! for the sake of our past days of lost, ruined happiness, do not destroy in my soul to the past the last lot!- Og.).

In expressively colored speech, tautological repetitions, like the repetition of sounds, can become an expressive means of phonics ( Then tractors with guns pulled up, the field kitchen drove past, then the infantry went.- Shol.). Poets often combine both techniques - the repetition of roots and the repetition of sounds ( All is well: the poet sings, the critic criticizes.- Lighthouse.).

The possibility of a punning clash of cognate words makes it possible to use tautology as a means of creating comedy, satirical coloring. This technique was brilliantly mastered by N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin ( Let you not allow it; The writer pees and the reader reads). As a means of comedy, tautology is also used by modern authors of humorous stories, feuilletons, jokes ( Efficiency: Do not do it, but you can’t redo all the cases; The cow, nicknamed the ladybug, shamelessly destroys potato plantings.- "LG").

The repetition of words should be distinguished from tautology, although it is often a manifestation of speech redundancy. Unjustified lexical repetitions, which are often accompanied by tautology and pleonasms, usually indicate the author's inability to clearly and concisely formulate an idea. For example, in the minutes of the meeting of the pedagogical council we read: The essay has been copied off, and the one who copied it does not deny that he copied the essay, and the one who allowed it to be copied even wrote that he allowed the essay to be copied. So the fact is established. Was it not possible to formulate this idea briefly? It was only necessary to indicate the names of the perpetrators of what happened: Ivanov does not deny that he copied the essay from Petrov, who allowed him to do this..

To avoid lexical repetitions, literary editing often has to significantly change the author's text:

1. Results were obtained close to the results obtained on the ship model. The results showed...	1. Results were obtained close to those given by the test of the ship model. This indicates that...
2. It is good to add a small amount of bleach to the water for washing the floor - this is a good disinfectant and, in addition, it freshens the air in the room well.	2. It is recommended to add a little bleach to the water for washing the floor: it disinfects and freshens the air well.
3. Always be well dressed and you can be fashionable if you sew for yourself.	3. Sew yourself, and you will always be dressed fashionably and beautifully.

However, the repetition of words does not always indicate the stylistic helplessness of the author: it can become a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Lexical repetitions help to highlight an important concept in the text ( Live and learn.- last; They pay good for good.- pogov.). This stylistic device was skillfully used by L.N. Tolstoy: She [Anna] was charming in her simple black dress, her full arms with bracelets were charming, her firm neck with a string of pearls was charming, curly hair of an upset hairstyle was charming, graceful light movements of small legs and hands were charming, this beautiful face was charming in its animation; but there was something terrible and cruel in her charms. Publicists turn to the repetition of words as a means of logical selection of concepts. Interesting, for example, are the headlines of newspaper articles: Mighty powers of a mighty land"(about Siberia)," Opera about opera"(about a musical theater performance)," Be a man, man!»

The repetition of words is usually characteristic of emotionally colored speech. Therefore, lexical repetitions are often found in poetry. Let's remember Pushkin's lines: The novel is classic, old, remarkably long, long, long...

In poetic speech, lexical repetitions are often combined with various techniques of poetic syntax that enhance emphatic intonation. For example: You hear: the drum rumbles. Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her, the platoon goes into the fog, fog, fog, and the past is clearer, clearer, clearer ...(Ok.) One of the researchers wittily remarked that repetition does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice; it can mean: “soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, the platoon is already leaving”, or “soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever, you will never see her again”, or “soldier, say goodbye to her, to your only one”, etc. . Thus, the "doubling" of the word does not mean a simple repetition of the concept, but becomes a means of creating a poetic "subtext" that deepens the content of the statement.

By stringing identical words, one can reflect the nature of visual impressions ( But the infantry goes on, past the pines, pines, pines without end.- Meadow). Lexical repetitions sometimes, like a gesture, enhance the expressiveness of speech:

The battle thundered for the crossing,

And below, a little to the south -

Germans from left to right,

Late, they made their way. (...)

And on the left on the go, on the go

Rippled bayonets.

They were pushed into the water, into the water,

And the water is flowing...

(A.T. Tvardovsky)

Lexical repetitions can also be used as a means of humor. In a parodic text, a pile of identical words and expressions reflects the comic nature of the described situation:

It is very important to know how to behave in society. If, when inviting a lady to dance, you stepped on her foot and she pretended not to notice it, then you must pretend not to notice, as she noticed, but pretended not to notice. - "LG".

Thus, in artistic speech, verbal repetitions can perform a variety of stylistic functions. This must be taken into account when giving a stylistic assessment of the use of the word in the text.

2. Coordination of applications - geographical names.

Applications - geographical names The names of cities expressed by a declinable noun, as a rule, agree in case with the word being defined, for example: in the city of Moscow, near the city of Smolensk, above the city of Saratov. The same with foreign names: in the city of Barcelona, near the city of Venice. Rarely occurring names are usually not reconciled in order to maintain the necessary clarity; cf. in the periodical press: Negotiations took place in the city of Mina(Saudi Arabia; with the combination “in the city of Mina”, the initial form of an unfamiliar word could also be perceived as Min, And How Mine); to the stay in Russia of the mayor of the Greek city of Volos; the train approaches the city of Caltanisetta; near the city of Nis; in the Romanian resort town of Sinaia. Often the names of cities retain their original form, inconsistent with generic names, in geographical and military literature, in official messages and documents, for example: fighting took place near the cities of Merseburg and Wuppertal; 400th anniversary of the city of Cheboksary. City names for -about sometimes they do not agree in the presence of masculine names similar in sound: in the city of Kirovo, in the city of Pushkino(corresponding masculine names agree: in the city of Kirov, in the city of Pushkin). Compound names usually do not agree: in the city of Mineralnye Vody, near the city of Naberezhnye Chelny; in the city of New Orleans. Names of cities enclosed in brackets and not syntactically related to the previous generic designation do not agree, for example: In the west of the Right Bank, this high density is explained by the strong development of industry and cities (Nizhny Novgorod, Pavlov, Murom). The names of villages, villages, farms are usually consistent with generic names, for example: was born in the village of Goryukhino(Pushkin); to the village of Dyuevka(Chekhov); behind the farm Sestrakov(Sholokhov). Deviations are observed in those names, the gender and number of which diverge from the grammatical gender and number of words. village, village etc., for example: near the village of Mestechko; behind the village of Berezniki; in the village of Pogrebets, in the village of Ugljanets. The same with compound names: in the village of Malye Mytishchi. River names are usually consistent with the generic name, for example: on the Dnieper river(also: on the Moscow River); between the rivers Ob and Yenisei. Little-known river names, especially foreign ones, usually do not agree: on the river Ros; near the river Ptich; the Argun river basin; in the valley of the Helmand River; on the Mekong river. The same is often with compound names: tributary of the river Golaya Dolina; on the Black Volta River(but according to the rule: on the river Northern Dvina). The names of places, a catches, slags, outposts do not agree with the generic name, for example: in the town of Yelsk, not far from the village of Arysypay, in the village of Gilan, at the Zhalanashkol outpost. The names of foreign republics usually agree with the word republic if they have a feminine form, and do not agree if they have a masculine form ; compare: a) trade between Russia and the Republic of India; in the Republic of Switzerland; Government of the Republic of Bolivia; in the South American Republic of Colombia; b) in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; capital of the Republic of Sudan; Ambassador of the Republic of Lebanon. The names of foreign administrative units do not agree with generic names, for example: in the state of Texas, in the state of Hyderabad, in the province of Tuscany, in the provinces of Khorasan and Isfahan, in the department of Seine, in the principality of Liechtenstein, in Schleswig-Holstein, in the county of Sussex. Names of lakes, bays, straits, canals, bays, islands, peninsulas islands, mountains, mountain ranges, deserts, etc., as a rule, do not agree with generic names, for example: on Lake Baikal(also: on Ilmen-lake); near the Gulf of Alaska; in the Skagerrak and Kattegat straits; in the Golden Horn Bay; behind the island of Novaya Zemlya; on the island of Java; on the Florida peninsula; at Cape Chelyuskin; on Mount Elbrus; over the Kuen-Lun ridge; in the Karakum desert; at the Sharabad oasis; near the lunar crater Archimedes; over Mount Etna; volcanic eruption Vesuvius. Possible variants with agreement refer to a few well-known names that are often used on their own, without a generic name, for example: past the island of Sumatra; the northern half of Sakhalin Island; on the island of Sicily; in the Sahara Desert. Names that have the form of a full adjective tend to agree: near Mount Magnitnaya, on Lake Ladoga. However, in this case, fluctuations are observed. Wed in the same article: The length of Damansky Island is one and a half kilometers. – Provocations took place near Damansky Island, and thirty kilometers from there. Astronomical names do not agree: rocket movement to the planet Venus; orbit of the planet Jupiter; the bright light of the star Sirius. The names of stations and ports do not match, for example: at Orel station, near Boyarka station; regular flights between the ports of Odessa and Alexandria; from the Polish port of Gdynia. The names of the streets and ts usually agree if they are in the feminine form, and disagree if they are in the masculine form or are a compound name; compare: a) on Sretenka street; on the corner of Petrovka street; this passage is called Stromynka street; b) on Balchug street; on the corner of Bolshaya Polyanka street; on the streets of Deer Val, Cow Ford, Kashenkin Meadow; on Krakow Suburb Street(in Warsaw).

3. Stylistic analysis of the text.

“Although our favorite skaters lost in this competition, the audience gives them a standing cheer,” says the sportscaster (but: they win, they lose). “Maybe insomnia has come to you, and you are lying without closing your blue eyes,” the poet writes (but: you can close your eyes, not your eyes). In the essay, the journalist remarks: “ The hollow made a cozy impression"(You can make a pleasant impression, but not a cozy one). Some words are often used in speech in the wrong combinations (meeting convened, conversation read, increase attention, give importance, increase horizons, etc.).

Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination of outwardly similar phrases. For example, they say: meet modern needs, mixing combinations to meet requirements and meet needs; He was charged with material damage in favor of the victims (material damage can be compensated; money can be recovered); The artistic level of the expositions of the folk museums has been improved (the level can increase, increase; the quality can be improved). More examples of word combinations contamination: take measures (take measures - take steps); deserved fame (acquired fame - deserved respect); unflagging help (constant help - unflagging attention); does not matter (does not matter - does not matter). The confusion of phrases was the reason for the joke:

Tastes could not be discussed:

Some respect apricots in brine,

Others like jam with mustard.

But all this is irrelevant

And besides, it doesn't matter.

(E. Svistunov)

When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, a violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech. For example: Serious problems hit young entrepreneurs by surprise; Leaders paid serious attention to the shortcomings achieved; They worked like the most notorious specialists; People came to us dejected by the experience. Comic in such cases arises because words that have limited lexical compatibility suggest variants of phrases with often directly opposite meanings (cf .: successes achieved, notorious scammers, dejected by grief).

Consider examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:

2. The museum exhibits relics presented by delegations. - Gifts presented by delegations are exhibited in the museum.

3. The main strength of Siberia is in its abundant mineral resource base. - The strength of Siberia lies in its richest mineral resource base.

As you can see, stylistic editing basically comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.

Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language - M., 1997

Introduction

There are many such words in the Russian language that seem to be “attracted” to each other. For example, they say: “herd of cows”, “herd of horses”, “flock of sheep”. Therefore, an unsuccessful combination of words makes laugh: "A flock of ducks and hares appeared in the distance." In this case, the words are connected incorrectly, i.e. lexical compatibility is broken.

Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. Indeed, in speech, words are used not one at a time, not in isolation, but in phrases. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very similar definitions - long, long, long, long - are attracted to nouns in different ways: you can say a long (long) period, but not a long (long) period.

The limitations of lexical compatibility for certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings. For example, the word round in its main meaning - “one that resembles the shape of a circle, ring, ball” - freely connects with the words of the corresponding subject-thematic group: round table, round box; round window. But, speaking in the meaning of “whole, whole, without interruption” (about time), the word round is combined only with nouns year, day, and in the meaning of “full, perfect” - with such as an excellent student, an ignoramus.

In other cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the assignment of a word to set expressions. For example, the velvet season is "the autumn months (September, October) in the south." This expression has a stable character and it is impossible to replace the word "season" with any other, even the closest in meaning, for example, "velvet autumn".

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the association of similar phrases. For example, they write: “meet modern requirements”, mixing combinations “meet requirements” and “meet needs”; “the conversation was read” (“a lecture was given” and “a conversation was held”); "improve the level" ("improve the quality" and "raise the level").

lexical compatibility error

1. Violation of lexical compatibility

Semantic errors

Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic.

Linguistic errors are associated with not distinguishing denoting words that are in any semantic relationship. These are mostly synonyms and paronyms.

Not distinguishing between paronyms, i.e. words that partially coincide in sound also lead to errors in use; most paronyms are single-root words that differ in suffixes or prefixes and, as a result, shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloring. For example, a misdemeanor (offense) is an act (action committed by someone); guilty (who committed a crime) - guilty (guilty of something, violating the rules of morality, politeness, etc.); to pay (for something) - to pay (for something).

Borrowed words may also appear in paronymic relations: parity (equality) - priority (primacy, advantage), dequalification (loss of qualification) - disqualification (deprivation of qualification), etc. To distinguish between paronyms of foreign origin, it is necessary to refer to dictionaries of foreign words.

The following are frequency pairs of paronyms:

Fulfill - fulfill have the general meaning "to carry out, put into practice", for example, to fulfill (fulfill) an order, but the second verb has a book character;

Long - long coincide in the meaning of “ongoing, long”, for example, a long (long) conversation, a long (long) pause, but “long” indicates the length in time, and “long” emphasizes the procedural meaning of the noun; “long” is usually combined with the names of periods of time (long night, long winter), and “long” with the names of actions and states calculated for a long time (long flight, long treatment);

Agreement - agreement differ in that "agreement" means a written or oral agreement, a condition of mutual obligations (friendship and cooperation agreement), and "agreement" - an agreement reached through negotiations (an agreement to include an issue on the agenda);

Truth (truth, actual state of affairs) - truth (correspondence to truth). For example, the desire for truth is the truth of the assumptions put forward;

Ordinary - ordinary are distinguished by the fact that in the first word unremarkable, unremarkable is emphasized, and in the second - typicality. For example, an ordinary person is an ordinary day.

To identify the specifics of words related by paronymic relations, it is necessary to correctly represent the morphological composition of the word and the method of its formation. For example, in pairs to learn - to master, to complicate - to complicate, to make heavier - to make heavier words with the prefix o- have the meaning of a higher degree of manifestation of the action. In pairs hygienic - hygienic, logical - logical, practical - practical, economic - economical, differing in suffixes -ichesk- / -n-, the second adjective denotes a feature that can manifest itself to a greater or lesser extent (qualitative adjective). This implies compatibility: hygienic norm - hygienic fabric, logical laws - a logical conclusion, practical application - practical clothing, economic policy - an economical device.

Stylistic mistakes

The most common stylistic mistakes include:

1. The use of clericalism - words and phrases characteristic of the official business style. For example, "As the revenue side of my budget increased, I decided to buy a new car for permanent use" - "I began to receive a lot of money, so I decided to buy a new car."

2. The use of words (expressions) of inappropriate stylistic coloring. So, in a literary context, the use of jargon, vernacular, abusive vocabulary is inappropriate; in a business text, colloquial and expressively colored words should be avoided. For example, "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor" - "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor."

3. Mixture of styles - unjustified use in one text of words, syntactic constructions, characteristic of different styles of the Russian language. For example, a mixture of scientific and colloquial styles.

4. Mixing vocabulary from different historical eras. For example, “On the heroes of chain mail, trousers, mittens” - “On the heroes of chain mail, armor, mittens.”

5. Incorrect sentence construction. For example, "Despite his youth, he is a good person." There are several ways to correct these errors. First, change the word order in the sentence: “There are many works that tell about the author’s childhood in world literature” - “In world literature there are many works that tell about the author’s childhood.”

6. Secondly, redo the sentence: “From other sporting events, let's talk about the barbell” - “From other sporting events, barbell competitions should be highlighted.”

7. Pleonasm - verbal excess, the use of words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view. In order to avoid pleonasm, you must do the following:

Replace the word with a single root, for example, a monumental monument - a monument;

Remove the word from the phrase, for example, the main essence is the essence, valuable treasures are treasures;

Remove a word from the text without reducing the quality. For example, "Operation is the way in which an action is performed" - "Operation is a way of performing an action"; "Building a model in accordance with known rules" - "Building a model according to the rules."

8. Tautology - the use of single-root words within the boundaries of one sentence. For example, "Tell a story"; "Ask a question." Ways to correct tautologies are:

Replace one of the words with a synonym. For example, "Torrential downpour did not stop all day" - "Torrential rain did not stop all day";

Remove one of the words. For example, "Along with these signs, there are a number of others" - "Along with these signs, there are others."

The tautology is easily detected when reading the text aloud. Overused words usually include which, so that and can.

9. Lexical repetitions in the text. For example, "In order to study well, students must pay more attention to learning." Words that are repeated should be replaced with synonyms, nouns should be replaced with pronouns, or a repeating word should be removed altogether, if possible - "To achieve success, students must pay more attention to classes."

10. Substitution of the concept. This error occurs as a result of missing a word. For example, “Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive” (we are talking about patient cards, and from the text of the proposal it follows that the patients themselves were handed over to the outpatient clinic).

11. This error, which arose as a result of the author's stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: it is necessary to insert an accidentally omitted word or phrase. For example, "Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm" - "Farmers strive to increase the number of sheep on the farm."

12. Choice of singular or plural forms. Often there are problems with the use of the singular or plural. Examples of correct use are combinations: two or more options, three or more forms, there are several options, there are some options.

For correct use, agreement on meaning is increasingly used: if a single whole is meant, then the singular is used, and if it is necessary to emphasize individual objects, the plural.

13. Agreement of words in a sentence. Often there are errors in the agreement of words in a sentence, especially with regard to the control of verbs. For example, "This section talks about opening, working and saving a document" - "This section describes the procedures for opening and saving documents, as well as working with them."

14. Creation of verbal nouns. You should be careful to create verbal nouns, because. many of the created words are not in the dictionary, and their use is considered illiterate (order - ordering, not ordering; collapse - folding, not folding).

15. Stringing the same forms. You should avoid stringing the same case forms, for example, using the words “to” and “which”. For example, "In order to avoid the possibility of danger" - "To avoid the occurrence of danger."

16. Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions. For example, “The man was wearing a burnt padded jacket. The quilted jacket was roughly darned. The boots were almost new. Moth-eaten socks" - "The man was dressed in a roughly darned burnt padded jacket. Although the boots were almost new, the socks were moth-eaten.

For example, “The judge was just as simple and humble.

2. Errors in the use of borrowed words

In recent years, the Russian language has been intensively replenished with borrowed words. This is because the country has entered a new socio-political formation, as well as free market relations. Language always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. It can be said without exaggeration that there was a linguistic explosion. However, there is nothing wrong with this, because borrowed words are the result of contacts, relationships between peoples and states.

The presence in one language of words from other languages and their use in speech is an objective reality. The number of such words is constantly increasing due to the penetration of new words and the expansion of the scope of old ones, used in a narrow sense.

Unfortunately, when using borrowed words, many mistakes are made (spelling, orthoepic, grammatical, lexical), which are explained by the special position of foreign words: in a new language for themselves, they have weak family ties (or do not have them at all), so their root for most native speakers is confusing, the meaning is unclear, but their modernity is felt in comparison with familiar Russian or borrowed words that have long been mastered.

The most common type of error is associated with the unreasonable use of a foreign word, which does not introduce anything new in comparison with its Russian or a borrowed synonym that has long been mastered. For example, “The presentation of the perfume took place last Friday; The perfume sold well." If the word "perfume" has the meaning of a particular type of perfume, or denotes some class of perfumery, which includes the perfume in question, a comment should be made; if the word "perfume" is used in its direct meaning of "perfume", then the need for its use in this text is highly doubtful.

Another type of error is the stringing of borrowed words, which can “stun” the reader with the scientific presentation. For example, "There should be a selection of property profitability." The difficulty of understanding is associated with the use of two borrowed words in a row, and each of them is used incorrectly. The word "breeding" means "a section of agronomy and livestock science that deals with the breeding of new varieties and breeds (selection method)". The word "profitability" means "the property to be cost-effective (profitable, profitable)." Apparently, the word “selection” is used here, in its direct translation from English as “selection”, but such a meaning has not yet been formed in Russian, in addition, it is not combined with the word denoting “property”, therefore, such a use is perceived like a logical fallacy. It should be written: "There should be a selection of the most cost-effective (profitable) types of property."

Very often ignorance of the exact meaning of a borrowed word leads to errors. For example, "Crime and Punishment" is a cult novel by Dostoevsky. The word "cult" has two meanings:

1. an adjective to the word "cult" in the sense of "service to a deity and related actions, rituals" (cult objects);

2. widely known, popular; causing the worship of his adherents (cult film).

It is obvious that in the above phrase the word "cult" is used in the sense of the word "popular", which is incorrect. It should be written: "Crime and Punishment" is a popular novel.

Most pleonastic combinations occur precisely when borrowed words are used. For example: “short briefing” (“short” is included in the meaning of the word “briefing”, therefore it is superfluous), “landscape” (the word “locality” is superfluous), “top priority” (the word “main” is superfluous).

The borrowed word, which has a Russian synonym, is usually higher in style (somewhat more official), so it is not well suited for interpersonal confidential communication, for describing the inner world of a person, his feelings, moods. Foreign words are more suitable for information about political events, scientific phenomena, for communication between organizations and states. For example, an alliance is an alliance: an alliance of liberals and democrats, an alliance of the governments of Moscow and the Moscow region, but an alliance of hearts, an alliance of friends. Thus, borrowed words have a stylistically more limited use than their Russian synonyms. Ignoring this feature of borrowed words leads to stylistic errors. For example, “Literature itself as a total value is under threat”, where instead of the word “total” one should use the words “universal” or “eternal”.

Among borrowings there is a special group of words denoting concepts that are characteristic of a completely specific country (a number of countries) or people. Such borrowings are called exoticisms. For example, prairies are flat steppe spaces in North America, and savannas are plains in South America and Africa covered with grassy vegetation, among which groups of trees and shrubs are scattered. Exoticisms are quite appropriate in texts describing the reality with which these words are correlated (here it is necessary to ensure that the prairies do not end up in South America, and the savannas - in North).

The Russian text also contains foreign inclusions and barbarisms. Foreign inclusions are words, phrases, sentences in a foreign language of one-time use. Acquiring a regular character and taking shape in Cyrillic, they become barbarisms, for example: happy end (happy end), weekend (week end), shop (from shop - shop). For many foreign words, barbarism is the first stage of entry into the language (show, marketing). But a word or expression can be fixed in the language precisely as barbarism, while having a Russian synonym, for example: nihil - nothing, tête-à-tête - alone. It is necessary to distinguish between the use of barbarisms to describe non-Russian reality, when they act as a characterological means, similar in function to exoticisms, and to describe Russian reality. The first, if they are not widely known, are accompanied by explanations. When describing Russian reality, barbarisms are used exclusively as an expressive means (Vivat, Russia!) and are not allowed in strictly informative texts.

I would also like to note that the incorrect use of borrowed words leads to the following errors:

1. Violation of orthoepic norms.

This section includes errors in the pronunciation of borrowings, as well as incorrect placement of stress in foreign words. For example, "expert instead of expert, kv" artal instead of quart "al, cat" alog instead of catal "og", kilo "meters instead of kilo" meters.

2. Violation of spelling norms. For example, the word "billiard" instead of "billiards".

3. Violation of grammatical norms. For example, "two shampoos", "two shoes" is the wrong gender.

4. Violation of the norms of word compatibility. For example, "Only here there were interesting nuances."

Conclusion

Analyzing the above, we can distinguish a number of features of the violation of lexical compatibility, namely:

1. Errors are predominant in relation to grammatical and stylistic norms proper. The leading types of violations in the field of vocabulary are the use of words in an unusual meaning, the indistinguishability of the meanings of synonyms and paronyms;

2. Are characterized by "genre stability";

3. Possess "quality stability". This is a misnomer and combination.

4. To a greater extent, words of certain parts of speech are subject to misuse (primarily verbs that have specific features of lexical meaning, as a rule, the presence of a differential feature that specifies compatibility), words that are in certain systemic relationships (a significant number of synonyms, a branched semantic structure etc.).

The compatibility of words plays a particularly important role in artistic speech. The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many classic images of great masters of artistic speech: “a gray winter threat” (A.S. Pushkin), “pot-bellied walnut bureau” (N.V. Gogol), “rubber thought” (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). As a striking stylistic device, the violation of lexical compatibility is also used by modern writers. For example, “We lost hope of crushing his regiment” (K. Simonov). Many such combinations are fixed in the language, become stable, which indicates their approval by the linguistic taste of the time.

Humorists often resort to violation of lexical compatibility to give speech a comic connotation. For example, "The population of the circulation ark fell asleep"; "an apple with a mole" (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). This stylistic device underlies various jokes: “The genius was recognized alive; "He was appointed director of his own free will."

In search of unexpected images, vivid speech expression, poets especially often expand their lexical compatibility. Suffice it to recall the classic lines of M.Yu. Lermontov: “Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness”; A.A. Feta: “September has died. And the dahlias burned with the breath of the night "; B. Pasternak: “February. Get ink and cry! Write about February sobbing. This stylistic device is also appreciated by contemporary poets: “A small forest asked for snow from greedy or impoverished skies” (B. Akhmadulina).

However, in colloquial speech, a violation of lexical compatibility can become an annoying speech error. For example, "The hollow made a cozy impression on us." After all, an “impression” can be pleasant, and a “corner” can be cozy.

When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, the violation of compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech: “Students worked on their experimental site as the most notorious specialists”; “Children, dejected by experience, came to the circle of young naturalists.” Lexical errors in such cases cause damage not only to the style, but also to the content of the phrase, because the associations that arise in this case suggest the opposite meaning.

In conclusion, we can say that an attentive attitude to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical compatibility in the Russian language will help to avoid such errors in speech, and in other cases it will allow using unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.

Bibliography

1. Bragina A.A. Neologisms in Russian. M. - 1995.

2. Fomenko Yu.V. Types of speech errors. Novosibirsk - 1994.

3. Zeitlin S.N. Speech errors and their prevention. M. - 1982.

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