Augustus Octavian, Roman emperor (63 BC-14 AD). Augustus is an honorific given by the Senate in 27 BC. Gaius Octavius is the name given at birth. From 44 BC known as Gaius Julius Caesar, after his adoptive father. For the period 44-27 years. BC. in English historical scholarship it is customary to call him Octavian, although he himself never used the name Octavian. The name Augustus (Greek Sebastos) was in fact borne by all the subsequent emperors of Rome, but historians have never used this name to single out anyone in particular.
Octavius was born in Rome on September 23, 63 BC. and came from a wealthy and respected, but closed family from the city of Velitra, region of Latium. His father, Gaius Octavius (d. 58 BC), the first member of the family to become a senator, was praetor in 61 and successfully ruled Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the daughter of Julia, sister of the great Julius Caesar. And this relationship determined the career of Octavius. Caesar singled out the young Octavius from among his relatives, placing special hopes on him: he presented him with military distinctions at his African triumph, took him with him to the Spanish campaign of 45, made him a patrician and ensured his election as pontiff. Finally, due to the absence of a legitimate son, Caesar in his will declared Octavius his adopted son and heir to three-quarters of the property.
Elevation period.
When Caesar was assassinated in 44, Octavius was educated in Apollonia Illyria. He went to Italy and, learning that he had become the son and heir of Caesar, he decided to seek a dangerous inheritance. His position was very weak. Caesar's heir was a withdrawn eighteen-year-old youth, without experience and influential connections. The anti-Caesarian party reacted to him with natural suspicion, and the recognized leader of the Caesarians, Mark Antony, having seized Caesar's money and archive, refused him. Having only the fact of adoption by Caesar in his assets, Octavius immediately appropriated the name of Caesar for himself, distributed the money that was due to the people, according to Caesar's will, and from his own pocket, and arranged at his own expense ludi Victoriae Caesaris (games in honor of Caesar's victories).
In order to intimidate the opposition and provide themselves with means, the triumvirs proscribed three hundred senators and two thousand of the equites. Antony and Octavian then moved into Macedonia to crush Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius (Caesar's assassins). After the victory at Philippi (42), Antony took over the eastern provinces, and Octavian returned to Italy, where, having carried out ruthless confiscations, he provided the veterans with land allotments. In 41, he was forced to wage war in Perusia (Perugia), suppressing the rebellion raised by Antony's brother Lucius Antony, who was supported by Fulvia, Antony's wife. Antony painfully accepted Octavian's actions, but in 40 in Brundisium (Brindisi) a reconciliation was reached between them, according to which all eastern provinces departed for Antony, and all western provinces for Octavian, with the exception of Africa, which remained behind Lepid. To reinforce the alliance, Antony married Octavia, Octavian's sister (by that time Fulvia had died). The following year, at Misen, near the Gulf of Naples, a pact was signed with Sextus Pompey, in which the triumvirs recognized his authority over Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Antony then returned to the East. Sextus soon denounced the Pact of Misen, and tensions again arose between Octavian and Antony. However, through the efforts that Octavian made, reconciliation was again achieved in Tarentum (Taranto) in 37.
The triumvirate, whose legal term of power had expired, was extended for the next five years, and the triumvirs accepted an agreement on joint actions against Sextus Pompey. In 36, Octavian and Lepidus organized a landing in Sicily; although Octavian himself suffered a severe defeat, his faithful companion and best military leader Mark Vipsanius Agrippa saved the day, and Sextus was defeated. Lepidus, who quarreled with his ally after the victory, was abandoned by his troops and deposed. Octavian, having from the year 38 the title "imperator", originally designating a judicial office in charge of the military command, and calling himself imperator Caesar divi filius (emperor Caesar, son of god), returned to Rome to celebrate an ovation, and among other honors received the sacred title of Tribune of the Plebs.
Now Octavian had power over the entire West, and Antony over the entire East, and it became clear that a clash between the two supreme rulers was inevitable. Caesar's heir gained prestige and popularity thanks to the victory over Sextus, which ensured the security of the grain supply routes to Rome. During the next few years, he and his associates, especially Agrippa, fruitfully engaged in public affairs. In addition, Octavian, having gathered his troops, achieved even greater glory during the conquest of Illyria (Dalmatia) in 35-33. In the meantime, Antony was losing his influence due to unsuccessful Parthian campaigns and became alien to the Roman people, having converged with Cleopatra. Thus, Octavian had the opportunity to rise as the head of Italy and Rome, opposing the eastern queen and her degraded lover.
The crisis came at the end of the second five-year term of the triumvirate, when Octavian demanded that Anthony resign his powers. Consuls and over three hundred senators left Italy and joined Antony, but Octavian forced the Vestal Virgins to annul Antony's will and promulgate it from the podium of the senate. It was a very thoughtless document that exalted Cleopatra and all her children born from Antony, and aroused public opinion against him. Caesar's heir was able to obtain an oath of personal loyalty from the entire people of Italy, who demanded that he become a leader in the coming war. All the western provinces took his side. War was declared specifically on Cleopatra, and in 31 Octavian, having established his public position by accepting the consulship (during 32, he essentially remained a private civilian), assumed military command. At the Battle of Actium on September 2, 31, he decisively defeated the combined armies of Antony and Cleopatra, who fled to Egypt. On August 1, 30, he entered Alexandria; Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was annexed and huge treasures were seized. The following year, Gaius Octavius returned to Rome, where he celebrated a magnificent triple triumph: the conquest of Illyria, the victory at Actium, and the capture of Egypt.
Legislation of August.
Thus, Octavian's power in the empire became undeniable, but its legitimacy remained in question. Starting from the age of 31, he began to be annually elected to the consulate, but at the same time he exceeded all legal powers, demanding for himself unlimited supreme power in accordance with the people's oath of 32 years. Now, after the end of the war, the further strengthening of monarchical power could alienate from him the upper and middle strata of the Italian population, who were inclined in a republican spirit. In 28, Octavian took up the abolition of the illegal acts of the triumvirate and, together with his friend, the consul Agrippa, conducted a census and a harsh purge of the Senate, which had grown too large and included many undesirable persons. Then, on January 13, 27, he solemnly resigned his emergency powers and retained one of the two annual consulates. In gratitude, on January 16, 27, the Senate gave him the honorary name Augustus. He urged Caesar's heir not to leave the republic, and Octavian agreed to take over the task of appeasing the provinces that were out of control. To this end, he was appointed for ten years the ruler of very large provinces, including Spain (except its southern region, Baetica), Gaul, Syria and Egypt, and also received the authority to declare wars and conclude treaties. With the exception of these powers, which had precedents in the era of the late Republic, when such extraordinary powers were given by vote in the senate to Pompey and Caesar, the state system of the republic was restored. Free elections were resumed; the magistrates, under the direction of the senate, exercised their ordinary functions; proconsuls, who received power over the provinces for a period of one year, were no longer subordinate to Augustus. On coins, Octavian was designated as libertatis populi Romani vindex (defender of the freedom of the Roman people). At the same time, he retained control over all the legions, with the exception of a few - those commanded by the proconsuls of Illyria, Macedonia and Africa.
The next three years (27-25 BC) Augustus spent in his western provinces, where he finally managed to subdue the restless tribes of northwestern Spain, Asturias and Cantabria. Moreover, every year Octavian put forward his candidacy for the consulate and, of course, was elected to this position. Such a long stay as a consul was not provided for by the regulations of 27 years and therefore began to cause growing discontent. On the one hand, the nobility had their own claims due to the fact that the chances of getting a consulate fell by half. On the other hand, everyone realized that such a long stay of one person in the highest state position was contrary to the law and the spirit of the republic. Discontent culminated in the year 23, when Aulus Terentius Var Murena, second consul and until then a loyal companion of Augustus, plotted to assassinate him. Octavian realized that if he wanted to avoid the fate of Julius Caesar, he would have to make more serious concessions, and from July 1, 23 BC. Augustus refused the consulship, after which, with the exception of two years (5 and 2 BC), he never again sought it. Gaius Octavius remained proconsul of his provinces (his reign in them did not stop until 17), however, wanting to show that his power would not last longer than necessary, Augustus abandoned the provinces in which peace had already been established - Narbonne Gaul (Southern Gaul) and Cyprus. As compensation, Octavian received some privileges. It was found that, unlike other proconsuls, he did not lose his imperium, i.e. command position in the troops, upon his return to Rome, and receives majus imperium, or superior authority in relation to other proconsuls, i.e. if necessary, has the right to disregard their decisions. Augustus also received the authority to convene the senate and determine its activities. Finally, he received the lifelong power of plebeian tribune. The significance of this power is not entirely clear. She gave Octavian certain rights; to introduce legislative acts and veto the orders of the senate and officials, but Augustus used this right in rare cases, although it could be useful in any dangerous situations. It was more of a propaganda device through which Octavian enlisted the support of the common people, who considered the tribunes the defenders and champions of their rights.
In the year 22, Augustus left for a long tour of the eastern provinces and did not return to Rome until the year 19. If the republican opposition was satisfied with the new state of affairs, then the people were dissatisfied with it and offered Octavian to establish a dictatorship, accept an annual consulate with an indefinite extension, as well as a number of other extraordinary posts. In 22 and 20, the people insisted on his election as consul, but Augustus refused to accept this position. It seemed that the masses of the people were really frightened by the possibility that Octavian would finally retire to the provinces and leave them to the mercy of the senate. Concerned about the threat of rebellions, which the authorities were unable to suppress, the Senate demanded that Augustus intervene in the situation and celebrate his return at the altar of Fortuna Redux (the altar of the goddess Fortuna, who patronizes those who return to their homeland). Now the Republicans were ready to make concessions. According to the historian Dio Cassius, the title "imperium" was given to Augustus for life. The reliability of this fact is doubtful, but it is certain that since then Octavian has had executive powers in the territory of Rome and Italy at the consul level. The legitimacy of his position was now finally approved and was not subject to any changes in the future. Augustus was unanimously elected as pontifex maximus in 12, after the death of Lepidus, who had previously held the office. And in 2 BC. he was hailed as pater patriae (father of the fatherland), but all these titles were only manifestations of honor. He was reinstated as ruler of the provinces at intervals of five and ten years until his death in 14 CE.
Much controversy arose over whether Augustus really intended to restore the republican system, or whether he wanted to create a system of dual power, a diarchy in which he would share the administration of the empire between himself and the senate, or whether Gaius Octavius simply maintained the appearance of a republic, pandering to the moods of the upper class. Some of his remarks indicate that at first he may have hoped to bring order to the empire, and then retire, handing over the reins of power to the senate. However, such hopes, if he ever cherished them, soon faded. Augustus definitely made efforts to intensify the activities of the magistrates and the senate in governing the country and promoting reforms of the republican administrative system. For example, he transferred some functions that the aediles had previously neglected to the newly created colleges of persons authorized by the senate, such as curators aquarium (responsible for water supply). With regard to the aediles responsible for the activities of the fire brigades and the supply of Rome with grain, this was the last of the innovations that streamlined their functions, which Augustus personally carried out. At the same time, he tried to interfere as little as possible in lawmaking. Octavian kept the electoral system free, reserving to himself the right to recommend to the people the election of certain candidates whom he favored. However, towards the end of his life, this commendatio turned into a rigid right to nominate a limited number of candidates for election out of competition. Augustus made great efforts to get the senate to revise the rotational membership system, and although on two occasions (in 18 and 11 BC) he had to act by will, in 4 AD. he had finally achieved his original goal. At the same time, he firmly held real power in his hands and under no circumstances weakened his personal control over the army.
After the year 19, Augustus had legal prerogatives that allowed him to dictate his will in cases of almost any unforeseen circumstances. Outside his province, he preferred to use his power to a minimum and influence through his personal moral authority (auctoritas). So, although Octavian introduced some laws as a plebeian tribune, the main lawmaking in the later period of his reign was carried out by consuls who were under his influence. The consuls also ensured the activities of the senate, although it was already determined in a narrow circle of people with Augustus at the head. Bearing the title of majus imperium, however, he had much more power than just directing the actions of the consuls. Of all his official titles, Octavian ignored imperium and preferred tribuncia potestas. He also preferred to be known as princeps (Princeps), the senior civil servant of the Republic.
Perhaps the most important evidence that Augustus never seriously considered restoring the republic is the fact that he was constantly concerned about a potential successor. Octavian was criticized for wanting to find one among his family members, but serious political considerations served as the basis for this choice, in addition to personal feelings. The legions were loyal to the Caesar family, as manifested early in Augustus' career, and the stability of the regime depended largely on their loyalty. Fate did not give Octavian sons. His marriage to Scribonia, in 40 BC, produced only a daughter, Julia, born in 39 BC. with whom he passionately fell in love and whose husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, forced him to divorce her. The marriage turned out to be happy and long (Livia survived Augustus), but childless, Octavian had only one close male relative - Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the son of his sister Octavia. Livia had her children from her first marriage, the future emperor Tiberius and Nero Claudius Drusus, who were settled in the house of Augustus.
The emperor's first choice fell on Marcellus. He married him to Julia and gave him an appropriate promotion. This, apparently, led to friction with his faithful companion Agrippa, who, having pacified himself, left the stage in 23 and became a colleague of Augustus in a number of proconsuls, having received the East in the sphere of his administration. Marcellus died the following year, and Julia promptly married Agrippa. This marriage produced two sons, Gaius Caesar (b. 20), whom Augustus declared to be his adopted son, and Lucius Caesar (b. 17). In the year 18, the proconsular powers of Agrippa, together with those of Augustus, were extended for another five years, and for the same period he shared with Augustus his power of tribune.
Augustus transferred the role of Agrippa to the eldest son of Livia, Tiberius, whom he married Julia, forced Tiberius to divorce his beloved wife. In 6 BC Tiberius received the powers of a tribune for five years, but almost immediately retired to Rhodes and refused any participation in the government. The reason for the quarrel became apparent the following year, when Agrippa's son, Gaius Caesar, fifteen years old, was elected consul with a five-year delay in office and declared princeps juventutis (head of the young generation) of the equites; in 2 BC Lucius Caesar was awarded the same honors.
Tiberius, who had served full-time in Pannonia and Germany as legate to Augustus, was not going to play a secondary role in the presence of two youths. Octavian was consistent in his policy, appointing in 1 BC. Gaius Caesar to the proconsular position, entrusting him with the solution of the problems of Parthia and Armenia. However, he again had to be disappointed in his hopes. Lucius died in 2 CE and Gaius in 4 CE. Augustus had to turn again to Tiberius, whom he declared his adopted son and introduced for ten years in joint administration with the powers of proconsul and tribune. These powers were renewed and extended in 14 CE. shortly before the death of Augustus. Views: 257
Named at birth Guy Octavius Furin(lat. Gaius Octavius Thurinus). Descended from an ignorant wealthy family, founder of the dynasty Yuliev-Klavdiev, founder of the Roman Empire. Octavian August- great-nephew Caesar .
Already in 27 - 23 years BC. e. Octavian single-handedly ruled the Roman state, avoiding the establishment of an open monarchy. Expanded the boundaries of the Roman state.
Governing body Octavian was marked by the development of the economy, the development of the provinces and military reform, the decrease in the influence of the Senate on Roman politics and the emergence of the cult of the emperor. Left power to his stepson Tiberius .
Octavian August
(Gaius Octavius Furin, Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian)
September 23, 63 BC e. - 19 August 14 AD e.
lat. Octavianus Augustus, lat. Gaius Octavius Thurinus, Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus
1st Roman Emperor |
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January 16, 27 B.C. e. - 19 August 14 AD e. |
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| Predecessor | — |
| Successor | Tiberius |
Tribune of the Roman Empire |
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23 BC e. - 14 AD e. |
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Pater patriae(father of the fatherland) |
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2 BC e. |
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| Place of Birth | Rome, Roman Republic |
| Place of death | Nola, Naples, Campania, Roman Republic |
| Religion | — |
| Burial place | Mausoleum of Augustus, Rome |
| Father | Gaius Octavius |
| Mother | Atia Balba Caesonia |
| Genus | Julia-Claudia |
| Wife | 1. Claudia Pulchra |
| 2. Scribonia On either | |
| 3. Livia Drusilla | |
| Children | Julia Senior(from Scribonia) |
Octavian August
Mausoleum of Augustus
Perfect reconstruction of the original architecture of the Mausoleum of Augustus by Luigi Canina
He came from a wealthy plebeian family, belonging to the equestrian class.
From the end of 61 to 59 years. BC e. father Octavian was the governor of the province of Macedonia, but it is not known whether his wife and children went with him. In 59 or 58 BC. e. Guy - the elder died without reaching the consulate - the highest position of the Roman Republic. Due to kinship with two triumvirs at once Atia managed to find a worthy husband, despite the presence of three children with her. stepfather Octavian became Lucius Marcius Philip (c. 102 BC - after 43 BC), consul 56 BC. e.
First few years of life Octavian, probably spent in Velitra, but after the death of his father he was given to be raised by his maternal grandmother, Julia (sister Gaius Julius Caesar ). In 51 B.C. e. she died and young Octavian delivered the eulogy at the funeral. Stay at home Atii and Julia influenced the child's interest in politics and introduced them to activities Caesar .
In Rome Octavian received a good education; among his teachers, a slave teacher is known Spheres , philosophers Arius from Alexandria and Athenodorus Kananit from Tarsus, Greek rhetorician Apollodorus and Latin speaker Mark Epidius (among other students of the latter were Mark Antony and Virgil ). Dio Cassius talking about passing Octavian special military training and special study of politics, but there is no other evidence for this. As a child, he met Mark Vipsanius Agrippa and other peers who in the future helped him manage the empire.
By the beginning of the civil war 49 - 45 years. BC e. Octavian was still a child, and his initiation took place in October 48 or 47 BC. e. In 47 BC. e. patronage Caesar Octavian took the first two positions - an honorary place in the college of pontiffs, vacated after death Lucia Domitia Ahenobarba , and the ceremonial position of city prefect (praefectus urbi), when he formally ruled Rome during the days of the Latin festival. Although August could not go on an African expedition Caesar , the commander invited him to participate in the triumphal celebrations of 46 BC. e. Wherein Caesar appointed him to a place of honor - right behind his chariot, and even rewarded him on a par with real campaigners. Since then Octavian increasingly appeared with the dictator at public events, which is why many Romans began to seek his favor and ask to intercede for their affairs before Caesar . On his behalf, in the summer of 46 BC. e. Octavian engaged in the organization of theatrical performances, although his zeal was overshadowed by an attack of an unclear illness. He expected to take part in the second Spanish campaign Caesar , but was late for the decisive Battle of Munda for unclear reasons.
In 45 BC. e. tribune Lucius Cassius , executing an order Caesar , proposed a law on the transfer of a number of plebeian families to the thinned class of patricians, and the Octavia family was awarded this honor. In September of the same year Caesar left a will that Octavian received most of the inheritance, provided that he agreed to go through the adoption procedure. The contents of the will and the name of the main heir, however, remained unknown until the assassination of the dictator in March 44 BC. e. Already in antiquity, there were different opinions about how serious the plans were. Caesar in a relationship Octavian, and whether the latter was aware of the intentions of the dictator.
Although the legal traditions of the Roman Republic did not provide for the transfer of power by inheritance, and the often discussed possible vesting Caesar the power of the king (rex) would still require the election of a new ruler, Octavian as the official heir, he was subsequently able to dispose of the wealth looted in Gaul, as well as enjoy the support of numerous soldiers personally betrayed Caesar .
The problem of inheritance was acute, since Caesar there were no sons born in a legal marriage. The only daughter of a dictator Julia , died during childbirth with a child from Gnaeus Pompey . There were three people in the closest relationship with the dictator - Lucius Pinarius , Quint Pedia and Gaius Octavius(August). Had some reason to hope for an inheritance and Mark Antony , who was both a relative of the dictator (albeit a very distant one), and his close ally. Caesarion , son Cleopatra , allegedly was the son of a dictator, however Caesar did not officially recognize him and did not mention him in his will.
In the winter of 45-44 years. BC e. Octavian on behalf of Caesar went to Apollonia (near the modern city of Fier in Albania). There he completed his education and prepared for the war conceived by the dictator (according to various versions, either Parthia or Dacia was to become the enemy). Ancient authors also mention that Caesar was preparing to appoint Octavian head of the cavalry, that is, to the responsible post of deputy dictator, instead of Emilia Lepida stamp . Some historians doubt the plausibility of this appointment, which never took place due to the assassination of Caesar on March 15, 44 BC. e.
When news of the murder came to Apollonia Caesar , legionnaires promised to protect Octavian from a possible assassination attempt by the conspirators. The young man was even offered to lead the legions stationed in the Balkans and lead them to Rome to avenge the murder. Caesar (the latter story may have been invented by later historians). Friends in Apollonia Octavian supported the expedition to Italy, but his parents in letters dissuaded him from escalating tensions. Moreover, later the stepfather even urged the young man to abandon the inheritance Caesar for your own safety. In the first days after the murder Caesar many feared that the conspirators would start killing the dictator's relatives as well. However, Octavian crossed over to Italy, but without troops. Apparently, the refusal to use the army was due to the lack of reliable information about what was happening in Rome. After the veterans of the dictator's army in Italy happily met the heir (by this time everyone knew about the dictator's will), Octavian announced his intention to accept the inheritance, after which his name became " Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian". On the way to Rome Octavian stayed in Campania, where he consulted with experienced politicians - above all, with Cicero . The details of their conversation are unknown, but the great orator wrote in one of his letters that Octavian completely devoted to him. Typically, it is assumed that Cicero even then I thought of using an inexperienced Octavian in the fight against his old enemy Mark Antony . In May he arrived in Rome.
In the summer of 44 BC. e. Octavian consistently strengthened his authority in the capital. To publicly demonstrate his grief, he let go of his beard and did not shave it as a sign of mourning for the murdered dictator. In July, he became the host of the Victory Games. Caesar during which a very bright comet appeared in the sky. Some Romans believed that the comet portends misfortune, but Octavian, apparently managed to convince them that this is the soul of the deified Caesar . Finally, he distributed to each Roman 300 sesterces promised by the dictator in his will. He was forced to sell ancestral property to fulfill this clause of the will, since Anthony refused to transfer money from the personal treasury Caesar legal heir. Till Octavian led a successful policy to increase its popularity, Anthony , who did not take the young heir seriously, was losing his authority among ordinary Caesarians - both among the metropolitan plebs and among veterans. This was due to inconsistency in the issue of persecution of the conspirators, the brutal suppression of the riots of the townspeople and the constant promulgation of the laws that the dictator allegedly conceived. autumn Mark quarreled with many senators and, above all, with Cicero .
Although Octavian and was popular with the urban plebs, the active army and many veterans Caesar mostly supported Anthony - an experienced commander and ally of the dictator. To defend your interests Octavian departed for southern Italy and began to raise an army, attracting to his side the veterans who received land there and the legionnaires stationed there with promises of a speedy reprisal against the murderers Caesar and money. Soon two legions came over to his side, previously recognizing the power Anthony . Mark offered 100 denarii (400 sesterces) to the hesitant soldiers, but the legionnaires ridiculed him: Octavian offered them five times more. Only by arranging a decimation, during which 300 instigators of unrest were executed, and by raising the promised payment, Anthony held off the remaining soldiers. Gathering a 10,000th personal army, Octavian marched on Rome and occupied the Forum on November 10. There he made a speech in which he called for starting a war with Anthony - the violator of laws and the offender of the legitimate heir Caesar . However, his speech ended in an unexpected way: many soldiers who were ready to defend Octavian from possible assassination attempts and fight with brutus and Cassius under his rule, did not want to fight with the faithful Caesarians Anthony . They also remembered the lack of legal authority for the young Octavian. The Senate remained indifferent to his proposal. Although many soldiers remained with Octavian, he left Rome and fortified himself in Arrezia (modern Arezzo).
After leaving Octavian November 24, 44 B.C. e., Anthony entered Rome with his troops. He redistributed a number of key provinces in favor of the Caesarians and his brother Guy ; an attempt to announce Octavian enemy of the state was not crowned with success. After that Anthony moved to Cisalpine Gaul and laid siege to the previously appointed Decima Brutus in Mutina (modern Modena). Meanwhile, the Senate began to prepare for war with Anthony who showed open defiance. January 7, 43 B.C. e. Cicero made sure that Octavian received the powers of a propraetor, became a senator ahead of schedule (a seat in the Senate was usually guaranteed by the performance of a magistracy of a quaestor) and was able to be elected to all positions ten years ahead of schedule. The Senate also insisted on the annulment of a number of orders Anthony , including his appointment as governor of Cisalpine Gaul. After that, both consuls - Gaius Vibius Pansa and Aulus Hirtius - gathered an army and went to Mutina to lift the siege. In exchange for legal powers Octavian agreed to transfer to the consuls the most combat-ready troops at his disposal, and soon went to Mutina. Apparently, many soldiers without much enthusiasm went to war with the still popular among the Caesarians Anthony , which made Octavian consider their opinion.
In April the troops Pansy got into the arranged Anthony ambush near the Gallic Forum (modern Castelfranco Emilia). Pansa defeated and died, but when Anthony was already preparing to celebrate the victory, troops arrived on the battlefield hirtia , who pushed the enemy back to the walls of Mutina, where troops remained to continue the siege. In a few days Hirtius and Octavian attacked Anthony near Mutina, in order to finally lift the siege from this city. They forced Anthony flee through the Alps to Narbonne Gaul, but during the battle Hirtius was mortally wounded and soon died. The deaths of both consuls were suspicious, and in ancient times their deaths were sometimes blamed Octavian. Degree of participation Octavian in battles is unclear: the authors of the era of the Empire reported that he fought in the forefront and even picked up a legionary banner in the form of an eagle from the hands of a wounded aquilifer (standard bearer). Mark Antony also claimed that Octavian shamefully fled from the battlefield. After the battle Octavian ceased to be useful to the Senate: by this time those close to the Senate Mark Brutus and Gaius Cassius gathered large troops in Greece, and the victory over Anthony already considered a matter of the coming days. As a result, the Senate demanded Octavian hand over Decimus Brutus consular troops, which he received after the death of the consuls without legal grounds. In addition, the Senate refused to pay previously promised rewards to all soldiers. Octavian. Dissatisfied with the actions of the Senate, Octavian refused to help Decimus Brutus in persecution Anthony , and he had to act only with his soldiers exhausted by the siege and with the consular troops. In addition, two legions, which Octavian should have passed Brutus , refused to fight under the former conspirator and stayed with Octavian.
After the victory at the Battle of Mutina Octavian announced his intention to become a suffect consul: custom demanded new elections after the death of consuls. The second suffect he saw Cicero : by the proposal Octavian, « Cicero will manage the affairs of state as a senior and more experienced, Caesar[August] will be satisfied with one title, convenient to lay down his arms. The Senate rejected the claims Octavian quite legally: Octavian was very young for the consulate, even taking into account the previously granted reduction in the required age for master's studies by 10 years. However, for their actions Octavian received the honorary title of emperor, which in the republican era denoted a victorious commander and allowed him to claim a triumph. However, the Senate denied him the right to triumph itself, although this opportunity was provided Decimus Brutus .
Till Decim Brutus crossed the Alps Anthony managed to win over to his side the troops of the governors of all the western provinces - the former Caesarians Emilia Lepida stamp , Gaia Asinia Polliona and Lucia Munazi Planck . Anthony announced his intention to avenge the death Caesar , then before Octavian there was a problem of choosing a side. soldiers Octavian, among whom there were many veterans of the dictator's army, inclined their commander to the side Anthony . They also swore never to fight another Caesarian again. In addition, the soldiers were extremely concerned about the revision of laws that had begun. Anthony , among which were the promises of cash awards and the distribution of land for veterans Caesar . Rapprochement of the Octavian with Anthony began on the basis of a general hatred of the Republicans and dissatisfaction with the actions of the Senate. To demonstrate willingness to negotiate Octavian began to release captured soldiers and centurions Anthony . In addition, he openly sabotaged the orders of the Senate and missed Publius Ventidia Bassa with reinforcements for Anthony recruited in southern and central Italy.
After gathering a large army Anthony had more power and influence than Octavian, which made the latter a junior partner in any alliance created. Apparently, it is precisely for negotiating with Anthony equally Octavian continued to try to take the place of the consul. The senators refused to meet him. Moreover, they tried to split the army Octavian, giving generous promises to the most combat-ready legions; ambassadors Octavian, in turn, sought the fulfillment of earlier obligations in Rome and the right to elect their commander as consul.
The Senate still hoped for a speedy arrival in Italy brutus and Cassia , and therefore refused to delegations Octavian. However, located in Macedonia Mark Brutus was dissatisfied with the negotiations of the young Caesar and Cicero (in his circle there were even rumors about their election as consuls that had already taken place) and refused his mentor, who urged him to come to Italy as soon as possible with his army. brutus , apparently, did not want to start a new civil war, because of which he saved his life Guy Anthony - the commander's brother, captured in Macedonia.
Doom Decima Brutus and neutrality Mark Brutus left Italy with only a small force loyal to the senate. After the failure of regular negotiations in August (sextiles) Octavian August, allegedly fulfilling the demand of the soldiers, began a campaign against Rome. The civil war, like six years ago, began with the crossing of the Rubicon, but this time the commander led not one, but eight legions into battle. When his troops were already on their way, the senate agreed to grant Octavian the right to be elected consul without resigning, but Octavian continued the march. Three legions located near Rome immediately went over to his side, which brought the total size of the army Octavian up to 11 legions, or about 50 thousand soldiers. During the hike Guy he feared for the safety of his mother and sister, who remained in Rome, but they took refuge with the vestal priestesses who enjoyed immunity.
After the troops entered the capital without a fight, Guy seized the state treasury to pay money to his soldiers and achieved the appointment of elections. August 19 (sextile) Octavian Augusta elected consul along with his uncle Quintom Pedias (more likely contenders for second place were considered Cicero or father of the bride Octavian Augusta Publius Servilius Vatia Isauric ). Apparently, there were no other consul candidates. In a new position Octavian completed his adoption in the first place Caesar by convening curate committees. Soon Quint Pedia passed a law on the trial of murderers in absentia Caesar (law Pedia ), after which a trial was held in one day and a guilty verdict was issued. The property of the escaped convicts was confiscated, and their powers were annulled. Soon the Senate, under pressure from the consuls, repealed all laws against Anthony and Lepida , after which peace negotiations began with them.
October 43 B.C. e. Octavian, Anthony and Lepidus met on a small island in the river near Bononia (modern Bologna). At this meeting, an agreement was reached on the creation of a second triumvirate - an alliance of three politicians with unlimited powers. Unlike the first triumvirate Caesar , Pompeii and Crassus , the new union was formalized and limited to a five-year period. At the same time, the triumvirs did not agree on any serious reforms, and officially the triumvirate was created "to put the republic in order" (rei publicae constituendae). The People's Assembly approved the draft law on the creation of a triumvirate (law Titia ) November 27, 43 BC. e., and before taking office Octavian August resigned as consul. They were proclaimed triumvirs with supreme powers for a period from November 27, 43 to December 31, 38.
The triumvirs agreed on the distribution of the higher magistracies among their supporters for the following years and divided all the western provinces among themselves. Octavian August received the least benefit from this partition, since the provinces transferred to him - Africa, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica - were partially occupied by the Republicans. The triumvirate was sealed by marriage august on the Claudia , stepdaughter of the most influential triumvir Anthony . The marriage was annulled two years later.
Although Octavian, having taken the post of consul, did not pursue his opponents, at a meeting in Bononia, the triumvirs agreed to organize proscriptions - mass executions of their opponents according to pre-agreed lists. The initiator of the proscriptions is unknown, and the details of the negotiations on them are unclear due to the secret nature of the discussion and the desire of supporters Octavian Augusta downplay his guilt for the proscription. In total, the final list of those sentenced to death included approximately 300 senators and about 2 thousand horsemen, and the first was the name Cicero .
The property of the proscribed, as a rule, was sold at auctions in order to replenish the treasury. However, soldiers and other proscribers plundered the unattended houses, and the conditions of the auctions and the atmosphere of terror against the rich scared off many potential buyers. As a result, the sale of the property of the proscribed did not cover the costs of the impending war with the Republicans, although many of the triumvirs' comrades-in-arms became extraordinarily rich. To cover the costs, the triumvirate imposed new taxes, arranged forced loans, ordered the senators to recruit slaves for the fleet, and also confiscated the property of many wealthy citizens. A separate tax was imposed on the property of wealthy women, but the Romans achieved the abolition or significant reduction of this fee.
Leaving Lepida in Italy with part of the troops, Anthony and Octavian August successfully crossed the Adriatic Sea, passing the superior naval forces of the opponents. In total, the troops of the triumvirate in Macedonia numbered about 100 thousand infantry and 13 thousand horsemen, the republicans (their self-name - liberators, liberatores) had about 70 thousand infantry, but had an advantage in cavalry (about 20 thousand) and at sea. In September Anthony arrived on the plain near the city of Philippi, where the republicans had already strengthened. Octavian delayed for a few days due to illness.
The camps of the triumvirs were on a swampy plain, while the republicans had built their camps in advance on the hills, which made their position more advantageous. The Republicans hoped to avoid a general battle, relying on the fact that the advantage at sea and good supplies would allow them to weaken the triumvirs. However, soon a battle broke out between the troops on the left flank of the Republicans. Anthony and Cassia . Mark acted successfully and captured the enemy camp, but at the same time brutus attacked the troops Octavian and captured his camp. After that brutus and Anthony returned to their original positions and Cassius unaware of success brutus , committed suicide. A few weeks later, when the supply situation in the camp of the triumvirs became critical, brutus succumbed to the persuasion of his associates and led the troops to the decisive battle. Through skillful action Anthony the army of the triumvirate won the battle. Role Octavian in both battles it was minimal: the superstitious commander missed the first battle because of a bad dream of his doctor and hid in the swamps for three days, and the second battle was due to illness.
Octavian decapitated the body brutus and sent the head to Rome to throw it at the feet of the statue Caesar but the ship carrying the head brutus , crashed. The two winners staged a redistributed province: Mark retained Gaul, received Africa and, apparently, all the eastern provinces; Guy received the Spanish provinces, Numidia (New Africa), Sardinia and Corsica; Lepidus lost influence. The triumvirs also distributed responsibilities in the matter of fulfilling promises to the soldiers: Octavian was supposed to give them land in Italy, and the task Anthony began to search for cash in the wealthy eastern provinces
After returning to Italy Octavian began to allocate land to the soldiers who had served, and the plots were also distributed to the surrendered soldiers brutus and Cassia so they don't revolt and join the surviving Republicans. The triumvirs had previously outlined 18 cities whose lands were to be confiscated, but mass expropriations had to be put into practice. Octavian. It soon became clear that these lands were not enough for numerous veterans, and Octavian was forced to start confiscating land from other cities. The veterans were to receive plots in Italy, where there had long been a shortage of free land, and the mass withdrawal of colonies in the provinces had not yet become a common practice. Often land was taken from the inhabitants of settlements hostile to the triumvirs in the past. As a rule, the smallest allotments were left to the former owners, as were many of the largest plots, and the peasants of the middle class and owners of medium-sized agricultural villas suffered the most. The size of allotments for veterans is unknown: the average area is estimated from very small allotments to plots of 50 yugers (12.5 ha) for soldiers and 100 yugers (25 ha) for centurions. It was extremely rare for the owners of land intended for division to be able to achieve the preservation of the site: for example, the poet was lucky Virgil for whom he stood up Gaius Asinius Pollio . Octavian paid money to the former owners of the confiscated land, but even for these symbolic payments it was not always possible to get money. The situation was seriously complicated by the blockade of the Apennine Peninsula by the fleet Sexta Pompey , entrenched in Sicily and did not let ships with grain to Italy.
The discontent that arose as a result of the mass eviction of Italians and the naval blockade was taken advantage of by Lucius Anthony , brother Mark Antony , and remained in Italy Fulvia , the wife of this triumvir. Lucius blamed for what happened Octavian and promised that his brother, after returning from the East, would restore the republic. His agitation was successful not only among the Italians, but also among some senators. Soldiers and military leaders, interested in continuing the distribution of land, tried to reconcile Octavian with Lucius Antony , but soon italic uprisings began in central Italy. It is not clear if it worked Lucius at the behest of his brother: Appian , for example, claims that he started campaigning on his own, and Mark indifferent to his brother's actions. In the summer of 41 BC. e. Lucius occupied Rome with loyal troops and headed north from there, hoping to unite with detachments of regular troops Asinia Polliona and Ventidia Bassa . However Octavian, Agrippa and Salvidien Ruf prevented rebel troops from joining and blocked Lucia Antonia in Perusia (modern Perugia). After a long siege and unsuccessful attempts to lift it Lucius gave up. Octavian pardoned him Fulvia , Ventidia Bassa and Asinia Polliona , but the city itself was given to soldiers for plunder, executed most of the local nobility with the exception of one person. To top it off, the city burned to the ground: Appian and Velley Paterkul blame the fire on a city lunatic. Opponents Octavian it was claimed that he ordered 300 Perusians to be sacrificed on the altar of the divine Caesar .
Many of the survivors of the uprising fled to Mark Antony . Despite an affair with Cleopatra and busy preparing for the war with Parthia, Mark crossed to Italy and laid siege to the most important port of Brundisium (modern Brindisi). Soon he was joined Sextus Pompey and Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus . Only under the influence of soldiers who did not want to allow new clashes between the triumvirs, negotiations began in Brundisium through the mediation Gaia Asinia Polliona from the side Anthony and Patron from the side Octavian. The two triumvirs made peace and redistributed the provinces. Anthony got all the eastern provinces, Octavian- all Western, but for Lepidus only the province of Africa remained. All triumvirs received the right to recruit new soldiers in Italy. The agreement was sealed with the marriage of a widow Anthony on the Octavia , sister Octavian who recently lost her husband. Interests Sexta Pompey the triumvirs ignored him and he renewed the blockade
The redistribution of land in Italy disorganized agriculture, since the allotments of the peasants and the former latifundia were in the hands of veterans. It is unclear whether they had everything necessary for agricultural work. The result of the redistribution of land was a shortage of food, seriously aggravated by the naval blockade of the Apennines. Sextus Pompey : to the middle of the 1st century BC. e. most of the grain for the supply of Rome and Italy was imported by sea. The situation was aggravated by the lack of Octavian a full-fledged navy, as well as an exodus of slaves to Sextus Pompey who promised them freedom in exchange for service in their ranks. Finally, on Octavian the inhabitants of Italy exerted pressure: they demanded the restoration of supplies not with the help of another war, but through peace negotiations. At the beginning of 39 BC. e. driven to despair, the Romans stoned the triumvirs. Octavian was forced to negotiate with Sextom .
To demonstrate the seriousness of peaceful intentions Octavian who is already divorced Claudia , married to Scribonia . She was the father-in-law's sister Sexta Pompey Lucius Scribonius Libo and at the same time was a distant relative Pompeii . The conclusion of this marriage contributed to an early reconciliation with Pompey . The first stage of the negotiations of the triumvirs with Pompey passed on the shallows in the Gulf of Naples, where they built two small wooden platforms for each side. The second stage, which took place either at Cape Misen or in the nearby Puteoli, turned out to be successful.
Pompey refused to be accepted into the number of triumvirs instead Lepida , but otherwise Octavian and Anthony give him concessions. They promised to give amnesty to all proscribed who took refuge in Sicily, to provide runaway slaves from the army Pompeii freedom and rewards similar to the payments of the soldiers of the triumvirate. Sextus legalized its control over Sicily, Corsica, Sardinia, and also received the Peloponnese. In addition, his supporters were included in the number of magistrates for future years. In reply Pompey undertook to completely lift the naval blockade of Italy and to facilitate its supply of grain. According to legend, the agreement was celebrated with a joint feast on the ship Pompeii . During the dinner Menodor , chief naval commander Sixth allegedly offered to kill Octavian and Anthony , but Pompey refused.
Among the Romans who returned to the capital under the guarantees of the triumvirs was Tiberius Claudius Nero with pregnant wife Livia Drusilla and little son Tiberius . At Octavian and Libya an affair began, which soon ended in engagement and marriage. Claudius not only did not interfere with marriage, but even collected a dowry for his wife and organized an engagement celebration in his house: father Libya committed suicide due to being placed on proscription lists. The date of the wedding is unclear: according to different versions, it took place either three days after birth Druza or even in the sixth month of pregnancy.
The peace treaty turned out to be fragile: despite the achievement of peace, Octavian began the construction of the navy, and Pompey delayed dismantling warships and the dissolution of their commands. Sextus did not officially restore the naval blockade, but pirates began to operate along the coast of Italy, and Octavian claimed they were people Pompeii . Soon to the side Guy ran across Menodor and surrendered Sardinia and Corsica to him. Octavian accepted menodora and strengthened the protection of the coast.
Soon the ships Pompeii and Octavian met at Kum in the Gulf of Naples. The fierce battle ended with the victory of the Pompeians. However, the commander of the fleet Pompeii Menekrates was killed, and the one who replaced him Demohar took the ships to Messana (modern Messina) on the island of Sicily. ships Octavian followed him. The first clashes in the Strait of Messina were unsuccessful for the triumvirate, and the storm that broke out soon forced him to retreat. Guy lost more than half of the ships and asked for help from Anthony . After the differences between the triumvirs were settled through the mediation Octavia and Patron , in the spring of 37 BC. e. they met at Tarentum. They agreed to extend the term of the triumvirate for another five years. In addition, in need of a fleet Octavian should have received from Anthony 120 ships. In trade for Mark , planning an invasion of Parthia, 20 thousand soldiers were to withdraw. Anthony fulfilled his end of the bargain, but Octavian handed over to his colleague only a tenth of the promised troops.
After the extension of the triumvirate Octavian continued building a new fleet. He had few experienced sailors at his disposal, and a new naval training base was established near Qom. To build a fleet Octavian forced the rich to make large donations and gave his slaves as rowers. Agrippa , who directly supervised the preparation of the fleet, took into account the experience of previous battles and built larger ships with a hook-crane (harpago; lat. harpax) to destroy the gear of enemy ships (it is not clear whether this device was a Roman invention, or it was used back in the Hellenistic era).
At 36 Octavian and Lepidus organized a landing in Sicily; although he Octavian suffered a severe defeat, his faithful companion and best military leader Mark Vipsanius Agrippa saved the day and Sextus was broken. Lepidus , who quarreled with his ally after the victory, was abandoned by his troops and removed.
After defeating Sextus Pompey Octavian began to prepare for the coming war with Anthony without severing, however, relations with him. Consuls continued to be elected in accordance with the Treaty of Tarentum - usually one associate from each of the two remaining triumvirs. However Agrippa at the direction Octavian continued to build up the strength of the navy, the purpose of which was to prevent the landing Anthony to Italy. Myself Octavian in 35 BC. e. led an invasion of Illyria, which was seen as both training for soldiers and an excuse not to disband a large army. In addition, with this trip Octavian hoped to strengthen his authority as a commander in the eyes of the army. Moreover, in Illyria Guy could hope to capture slaves and recruit auxiliaries. Probably, other directions for waging war were also considered: Dio Cassius mentions the thwarted plans to invade Britain.
As a result of the war in Illyria Octavian strengthened his authority in the army and among the inhabitants of Italy, equaling the recognized master of war Anthony , whose reputation suffered from failure in Parthia. He used the loot he had looted during the war to support monumental construction in the capital and to organize sumptuous mass events in order to win the support of the city's plebs. The commander himself received the right to a triumph, but did not immediately take advantage of it. However, the successes of the Romans in Illyria were fragile: the troops Octavian avoided participation in protracted campaigns and therefore managed to establish control only over the territory not far from the Adriatic coast, and in 6 AD. e. a major uprising broke out in the conquered territory.
After death Sexta Pompey the surviving republicans were forced to choose between Octavian and Anthony . Many of them have joined Mark . Anthony also supported by many neutral senators, who saw in him a lesser evil compared to the vengeful Octavian, which, in their opinion, destroyed the remnants of republican freedoms. Octavian he made a bet on the veterans who owed him land Caesar , to the business community of Italy and to his friends, whom he actively promoted up the career ladder. However, his old friend Salvidiena Rufa , governor of Transalpine Gaul and commander of a large army, Octavian brought to trial for treason - allegedly he was conducting behind-the-scenes negotiations with Anthony . As a result, he committed suicide or was executed.
About 35 BC. e. Octavian sent to Anthony , who was defeated by the Parthians, money and military equipment, as well as soldiers, whom he was supposed to transfer under the Treaty of Tarentum in exchange for 120 ships. However, instead of the promised 20 thousand soldiers Guy sent only 2,000 legionnaires to the East. Convoy with escorted Octavia , legal wife Brand , although its connection with Cleopatra was publicly known. Apparently Guy hoped that Anthony provoke a scandal that he could use to start a war. Anthony acted cautiously and did not give Guy cause for serious accusations, although sources give different details of the mission Octavia . Octavian also did not allow his colleague to recruit troops in Italy, despite the existence of such a possibility under the agreement in Tarentum. The inability to receive reinforcements from Italy pushed Anthony to concessions Cleopatra . Subsequently Octavian began to publicly accuse Anthony in arbitrariness and betrayal of the interests of Rome, focusing primarily on the unauthorized redrawing of borders and the distribution of titles to please the Egyptian queen. Another issue around which the allegations were based Guy , became a failure Anthony from a Roman wife to a foreigner. Anthony tried to defend against attacks Octavian. Suetonius preserved a fragment of his letter, written in response to accusations of violating the sacred bonds of marriage:
“What are you angry about? Because I live with the queen? But she is my wife, and not since yesterday, but for nine years now. And you seem to live with one Drusilla ? I'm sorry if you haven't slept with your Tertulla , or Terentilla , or Rufilla , or Salvia Titisenia , or with everyone at once, - and does it really matter, in the end, where and with whom you are confused?
The triumvirs also argued over which of them was to blame for the death of a rather popular among the people Sexta Pompey , and is Caesarion legal heir Caesar instead of Octavian.
Before the expiration of the term of the second triumvirate of authority Octavian and Anthony overpowered the powers of the consuls. The exact date of the end of the triumvirate is unclear - either December 31, 33 BC. e., or (less likely) December 31, 32 BC. e. Octavian did not officially resign the powers of the triumvir after their expiration, but did not use them either. January 1, 33 B.C. e. he became consul, but after only a few hours he transferred powers Lucius Anthony Petu . Summer Anthony refused to prepare for a new war with Parthia and began to redeploy troops closer to Greece, which is usually considered evidence of a sharp aggravation of relations between the triumvirs. Supporters took office on 1 January of the following year. Anthony who took advantage of their position and launched a new stage of the propaganda campaign against Octavian. Guy responded to this by appearing at a meeting of the Senate, accompanied by armed supporters. After this show of force, many senators defected to the side Anthony . The two consuls also crossed over to him. Although this provided Mark convenient opportunity to respond to the violation of the rights of the senate, he did nothing. Moreover, among the supporters Anthony there was no unity: some of them advocated a break with Cleopatra and reconciliation with Octavian, however, the supporters of the Egyptian queen were more influential. This led to the flight of many noble Romans in the opposite direction, to Guy.
Among the defectors to Octavian turned out to be Lucius Munacius Plancus and Mark Titius . Being the closest associates Anthony, they were witnesses at the signing of his will and told Guy about its content. Octavian took the will from the vestal priestesses who kept it, after which he opened and announced some of its points before the senate (such disregard for the secrecy of the will was considered blasphemy). The provisions of the testament known from the sources are certainly authentic; However, the possibility of announcing Octavian individual phrases without context, and the falsity of the read document. Under influence Octavian the senate stripped Anthony all powers, including the consulate scheduled for next year, but war was declared only Cleopatra .
The form of government established August and, in general terms, preserved until the establishment of an absolute monarchy (dominate), in historiography it is designated as a principate (Latin principatus, from princeps, after the name of the honorary title of princeps - “leading [in the Senate]”). Contemporaries did not use the term "principate" in a political sense, although it came into use by the time of the historian's life. Tacitus (end of I - beginning of II century AD). The principate was formed on the basis of the republican system, largely retaining continuity with the political institutions of the Roman Republic. Octavian did not seek to collect all the republican positions and conceivable honors and titles. Instead, for an unlimited time, he concentrated in his hands the highest power in the provinces (imperium - empires) and broad powers in the capital (tribunicia potestas - the power of the tribune). This is the first time such a combination of powers has been encountered - Sulla and Caesar ruled, using dictatorial powers - and to maintain his position, the emperor consistently strengthened his authority among the inhabitants of the empire (auctoritas). Under the complete control of the emperor was a huge army.
The foundations of the principate were laid by the reforms of 27-23 BC. e. January 13, 27 B.C. e. Octavian delivered a speech before the Senate, in which he declared his readiness to give up all emergency powers in favor of the Senate and the people. Carefully orchestrated performance Dio Cassius mentions that a group of supporters Octavian supported him with applause) came as a surprise to the senators, who had recently been cleared of unwanted Octavian persons, and they refused Octavian. Moreover, the Senate granted him the right to govern the Spanish and Gallic provinces, as well as Syria for a 10-year term with the right to renew (usually the governor received one province for one year). Egypt was recognized as a "personal possession" Octavian. On January 16, at a new meeting, the Senate endowed him with a number of honors, primarily the name "August", as a result of which the full official name of the ruler became "Emperor Caesar August, the son of God "(Imperator Caesar Augustus divi filius), and briefly - Caesar August. The inclusion of a new element in the full name was not an invention Octavian: Sulla adopted the name Felix (Happy), Pompey - Magnus (Great). At the same time, the word "August" had a pronounced religious connotation and referred to the well-known lines of the poet Ennia about the founding of Rome after the "sacred divination" (augusto augurio). Initially Octavian it was proposed to add the name "Romulus" instead of "August", after the name of the mythical founder of Rome, who conducted the "August" divination, but he refused. The reasons for the refusal of the ruler on behalf of "Romulus" were both associations with the murder of his brother Remus, and the royal power established by him. Proconsular power operated only in the provinces, and in Rome Octavian continued to use the powers of the consul, holding this position annually.
In 24-23 BC. e. Octavian consolidated its position with new political reforms. In 24 BC. e. senators, according to Dione Cassia , freed the ruler from obeying the laws, which is interpreted as immunity from prosecution. The following year, a political crisis erupted, caused primarily by the emperor's illness. Agrippa who hoped to succeed Octavian, was dissatisfied with the elevation Marcellus - nephew and son-in-law of the ruler. Some historians refer to 23 BC. e. litigation Brand Prima and conspiracy caepion and moray eels which made things difficult for the ruler. august managed to reconcile Agrippa with Marcellus , but the latter soon died. July 1 Octavian unexpectedly resigned as consul and refused to be elected in the future. Instead of a consulate August received from the Senate "greater empires" (imperium maius), thanks to which he was able to interfere in the management of not only his own, but also Senate provinces. The Senate also granted Octavian the powers of the people's tribunes (tribunicia potestas), but not the office itself, which was available only to the plebeians. The power of the tribune granted him the right of legislative initiative, which was lost upon the resignation of consular powers, as well as the right to veto (intercession) on any adopted laws. The sacred inviolability inherent in the tribunes, Octavian received in 36 BC. e. After 23 B.C. e. Octavian concentrated in his hands both the supreme power in the provinces of the Roman Empire, and broad legal powers in Rome. The combination of the two powers turned out to be very stable, and subsequent emperors relied mainly on them.
When in Rome in 22 BC. e. famine began, a rumor spread that crop failure and severe flooding were sent down to Italy due to the fact that Octavian no longer holds the office of consul. According to the message Dione Cassia people began to ask Octavian accept the position of dictator, abolished after the assassination Caesar . The same historian claims that soon august offered to become a third consul for life and even granted this right. After that, between the two curule chairs in the Senate, a third was supposedly installed, for Octavian. However, modern researchers admit that the ancient author could be mistaken. Finally, in the reign Octavian Romans convicted by the court lost the right to apply for a review of the punishment to the popular assembly (provocatio ad populum), but instead were able to ask for pardon from the emperor (apellatio ad Caesarem).
The flip side of maintaining republican political institutions and refusing to Octavian from the legal consolidation of sole power, it became impossible to appoint a successor. In addition, not all people who resigned themselves to the establishment of the principate agreed to the inheritance of power. Possibly around 24 B.C. e. Octavian thought about leaving politics, and to ensure a peaceful old age he endowed himself with judicial immunity. However, contemporaries did not know whom he planned to make a successor. The most obvious candidate was the Emperor's nephew and son-in-law Marcellus , although Octavian and denied any plans for him. During the next year's crisis, the patient Octavian gave his ring Agrippe , which was interpreted by the senators as an intention to transfer power to him. After recovering, the emperor continued to entrust important tasks Marcellus .
Octavian endowed Agrippa , his closest supporter, the powers of the tribune and, possibly, the "big empire" (imperium maius) for a five-year term with the right to renew. Widowed at the insistence of the emperor Julia married Agrippa . But the principate did not turn into a dual power. Apparently the powers Agrippa were supposed to ensure the stability of the state in the event of the death of a frequently ill august. Since Octavian still had no natural sons, he adopted children who were born soon Agrippa and Julia - Guy and lucia - using the half-forgotten procedure of fictitious purchase. It is assumed that he prepared them for power from childhood, hiring a famous teacher Mark Verria Flacca and sometimes joining their training. Tiberius and Druz , the stepsons of the emperor, thus, ceased to be considered as the main heirs. Some historians suggest that Agrippa was supposed to become regent with new children Octavian, but this involved the design of a hereditary monarchy.
In 12 BC. e. Agrippa died and Octavian had to rethink plans for the transfer of power. Guy and Lucius were too young, and the emperor accelerated career advancement as an adult Tiberius (Druz died in 9 BC. e.). The emperor's stepson was a successful commander, and his abilities were not questioned, although ancient authors mention his complex character. Octavian secured for him the right to hold office five years prematurely, married him to a newly widowed Julia (pre-order Tiberius divorce Vipsania ) and began to entrust commands in responsible wars. Tiberius he did not immediately receive the power of a tribune, and he was not awarded the “greater empire” (imperium maius).
In 6 BC. e. Tiberius unexpectedly resigned from all positions held and announced his retirement from politics. His mother and foster father unsuccessfully tried to convince him, but he went on a hunger strike. On the fourth day Octavian allowed Tiberius leave Rome and he sailed for Rhodes. Reasons for the sudden decision Tiberius were unclear even in antiquity, and so far no single satisfactory explanation has been offered. After leaving the politics of his stepson Octavian placed all hopes on Guy and lucia : he personally introduced them to the Romans, and soon they were nicknamed "princeps of youth" (principes iuventutis). The emperor allowed them to sit in the senate and hoped to make them consuls much earlier than the prescribed age. He passed on responsible assignments to more mature relatives - in particular, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus . In the year 2 A.D. e. Lucius Caesar died unexpectedly in Massilia (modern Marseille), and on February 21, 4 AD. e. died from a severe wound Guy .
Shortly before death Guy returned to Rome Tiberius . Octavian returned to him the powers of the tribune for a ten-year term and entrusted him first with the leadership of operations in Germany, and then with the suppression of the uprising in Pannonia and Illyricum. June 26, 4 AD e. emperor finally adopted Tiberius , as well as the third son Agrippa - Agrippa Postuma (Suetonius mentions that he took this step reluctantly). However, already in 7 BC. e. Agrippa Postumus quarreled with the emperor, and Octavian expelled him from Rome, and then struck him out of his will.
After the uprising of the Germans, led by Arminius , who surrounded and destroyed three legions in the Teutoburg Forest along with the commander (9 AD), august I had to leave Zareinskaya Germany forever. In 8 AD e. scandal broke out Julia the Younger - granddaughter august, exactly repeating the fate of her mother. At the same time August, without explaining the reasons, forever expelled one of the greatest Roman poets from Rome Ovid . Now he rarely left his palace and lost much of his former flexibility and courtesy. When one day the popular assembly elected magistrates that were objectionable to him, he simply canceled the elections and himself appointed whom he considered necessary. This potential of tyranny, inherent in the principate system he established, was fully revealed already under his closest successors - the emperors from the Julio-Claudian dynasty.
However, on the whole, the political system established under Augustus provided the Roman state with two centuries of peace and prosperity and had a profound impact on the subsequent history of European civilization.
In 13 a.d. e. tribune power Tiberius was extended for ten years, and about the same time he received the imperium maius. Through this preparation, death august August 19, 14 AD e. allowed for a peaceful transition of power to Tiberius . However, short-lived unrest began in the legions on the Danube and the Rhine, caused by the desire of the troops to proclaim Emperor Germanicus the Younger , and another possible contender for the inheritance august, Agrippa Postumus , was killed under unclear circumstances.
Body august cremated on the Field of Mars, and the urn with the ashes of the emperor was placed in a long-built mausoleum, where his relatives already rested. His main heirs by will were Tiberius and Libya , another adopted son - Agrippa Postumus - was not mentioned at all in the will, and about his own daughter and granddaughter, he left only one instruction: not to bury them in his mausoleum. The will was accompanied by instructions on the order of his own funeral, a report on the state of the state (not preserved), as well as a short autobiography for placement in front of the mausoleum, which has survived to this day and is known as the "Acts of the Divine Augustus".
Octavian managed to take into account the experience of dictatorship Caesar to formalize sole power and convince others that it is necessary and inevitable. Not daring to establish an open monarchy, Octavian used republican institutions to legalize his de facto dominant position. But already in the 1st century BC. e. unwillingness Octavian to approve the hereditary nature of the power of the princeps predetermined the crises of the transfer of the throne.
Octavian reformed the army, hoping, apparently, to conquer first all of Europe, and then the whole inhabited world. However, this plan failed - primarily due to the underestimation of the "barbarians", which resulted in uprisings in Pannonia and Germany. In addition, the emperor completely centralized the leadership of the army, and his desire to eradicate any political activity of the provincial commanders predetermined the insufficient flexibility of the army. The emperor managed to keep the army under control, but later it turned into an independent political force. An important achievement of the emperor was the cessation of civil wars, as a result of which agriculture, handicraft and Mediterranean trade were strengthened. social support Octavian was very wide, and the emperor himself did not give preference to either senators or horsemen, or any other groups of the population. Finally, the formation of the principate completed the transformation of Rome from an overgrown city-state, still ruled by elected magistrates, into a world power with a nascent bureaucracy.
August led a policy of conquest and the establishment of a long and lasting peace within the empire. He conquered more countries and peoples than all the other emperors combined, and at the end of his life announced that he had subjugated "the whole circle of lands" (orbis terrarum) to the power of the Romans. Egypt was conquered in the east (30 BC), in the west - the northern part of the Iberian Peninsula (19 BC), in the north by the end of the reign august- land along the southern bank of the Danube to the source and mouth, as well as between the Rhine and the Elbe. For the first time, campaigns were made in Ethiopia, South Arabia and Dacia.
Taking advantage of the civil strife in Parthia, August Octavian achieved the return to Rome of the previously captured banners and prisoners (20 BC). The children of Parthian and other foreign kings were brought up at court august, who often erected his proteges to the thrones of neighboring states. Under him, diplomatic relations with India were first established. Having established reliable control over the kingdoms dependent on Rome, he prepared their subsequent transformation into Roman provinces.
August sought to strengthen the traditional social order. Having issued the most severe laws against recalcitrant slaves, he allowed the obedient to seek protection from the authorities against the cruelty of their masters. Landless rural plebeians began to receive land or money for arranging a farm for service in the army. The numerous urban plebs in Rome were appeased by regular distributions of free bread and lavish spectacles. with the provinces August and his successors were treated after the model of the good shepherd, "who shears his sheep, and does not skin them." The decurions of the provincial towns for service to the Roman state could now receive Roman citizenship, and later senatorial and equestrian rank.
August nipped in the bud conspiracies of individual disaffected aristocrats. As a result, he managed to smooth out the most acute social contradictions and establish peace and tranquility in the state for many years.
The most important tool of his policy was state propaganda, which he used more systematically and effectively than any other ruler of the ancient world. He behaved like an exemplary citizen of the "restored republic", controlling his every act and every word, he was the first to make speeches "on a piece of paper", so as not to say anything superfluous. He allowed himself to be portrayed only by the best masters and only in a solemn spirit, under him a new artistic style (“August classicism”) was established, which was used to sing of the “restored by Augustus order of the fathers”.
Perceived by contemporaries and descendants as a happy chosen one of the gods, he became for most of his successors an indisputable authority and role model.
Governing body Octavian was marked by a decrease in the influence of the Senate on Roman politics and the emergence of the cult of the emperor (among the manifestations of the latter is the renaming of one of the months in August).
August divided Rome into 14 districts, adorned the city with numerous new buildings (the imperial palace and the forum, the altar of Peace, the mausoleum on the Field of Mars, etc.). Intensive construction activity august attribute both ideological and economic functions (reducing unemployment).
Octavian founded the richly decorated Forum of Augustus with a large temple of Mars the Avenger. To the board Octavian marble began to be actively used in the capital. The first building built entirely of Carrara marble was probably the Temple of Apollo. Octavian early (at the end of the 30s BC, when he was about 30 years old) laid his future tomb (mausoleum august), which was associated both with frequent illnesses and with the desire to oppose oneself Anthony who wished to be buried in Alexandria. In 29 B.C. e. the curia Julia and the temple were opened at the forum Caesar . In 20 BC. e. a column was also installed there indicating the distances to other cities. The emperor bought several houses on the Palatine Hill at public expense and built his own, rather modest house in their place. On the island of Capri, which he traded with the Neapolitans, Octavian mortgaged the villa.
Octavian paid much attention to civil engineering. During his reign, many old roads were repaired and new ones were built, new markets and warehouses were built. Many public buildings were built under the supervision Agrippa , whose construction activities are considered closely related to Octavian. In particular, the emperor's associate built two new aqueducts and repaired several old ones, built hundreds of cisterns and fountains. He repaired many streets of the capital, public buildings and the city sewer, and also completed the construction of the Septa Julius, begun even Caesar . On the Field of Mars Agrippa built large public baths, an artificial lake, a canal and landscaped gardens, and installed a map of the world at the Forum. After death Agrippa Octavian created a commission of three senators to oversee the state of public buildings (curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum). Some buildings at the beginning of the reign Octavian erected in the capital by triumphant generals after returning from conquest campaigns (in particular, Gaius Asinius Pollio built and stocked the first public library in Rome). However, at Octavians the practice of granting triumphs to strangers ceased, which stopped the construction of public buildings by generals. The last major building erected by the triumphant commander was the Balba Theater. After another major fire in Rome in 6 BC. e. Octavian organized 7 cohorts of the regular fire brigade (vigili) led by the prefect of the vigils instead of the former private brigades. In addition to putting out fires, the vigils also maintained order at night.
The emperor began the systematic minting of gold coins - aureus with a face value of 25 denarii or 100 sesterces (previously gold coins were produced irregularly in Rome). The introduction of gold coins into the monetary system allowed the inhabitants of the empire to conveniently conclude transactions of any scale - from real estate to food. Sestertia and dupondium began to be minted from orichalcum (brass) - an alloy that occupied an intermediate position between bronze and silver. More Caesar , as a dictator, faced a financial crisis, partly caused by a lack of cash. conquests Octavian, primarily the annexation of Egypt, as well as the beginning of the regular minting of gold coins, solved the problem of a shortage of cash in the economy. Massive injections of money into the economy during his reign led to a jump in prices.
The minting of silver and gold coins began to be produced outside of Rome under the direction of the emperor. The largest mint was Lugdunum (modern Lyon). Between 14 and 12 BC. e. the senate finally stopped minting silver and gold coins, and in the capital, under its supervision, only small bronze coins continued to be minted, which were marked with the letters SC (Senatus Consulto). To the board Octavian control over the production of money is centralized, and the names of the coiners (officials responsible for minting) are gradually disappearing from the coins. In the eastern provinces (first of all, in Egypt), their own monetary systems and independent coinage centers were preserved for some time. The emperor introduced the custom of frequent, although not permanent, placement of his profile on the obverse of coins, while on the reverse he often placed scenes from his own life, received honors and portraits of relatives. Finally, at Octavians coins became an important propaganda tool for the new government through the available symbols and slogans that were engraved on the coins. However, it is incorrect to consider the entire monetary policy as propagandistic. august: firstly, most of the inhabitants of the empire did not use gold and, to some extent, silver coins with various and detailed plots in everyday life. Secondly, many large issues of coins had rather trivial images, and many vivid examples of propaganda of the new government are found on coins issued in a small circulation.
The emperor created a separate treasury, which received income from the imperial provinces (fiscus - fisk). It existed in parallel with the state treasury, controlled by the Senate (aerarium). In 23 B.C. e. he gave control of the aerarium to praetors instead of quaestors. In addition to fiks, Octavian disposed of a large personal fund (patrimonium), which was filled with personal property, income from conquests, estates and inheritances. The emperor often intervened in the activities of the aeraria. However, during his reign, there was still no clear line between them: apparently, fisk and aerarius were finally separated only under subsequent emperors.
To the board Octavian taxation has been reformed. First, the princeps unified the system of taxation of the imperial provinces, and soon the collection of taxes from the senatorial provinces was revised along the same lines. The most important innovation was the regular nature of tax collection. Octavian refused to pay direct taxes to the publicans and transferred their collection to individual communities. The general principles for the collection of land tax (tributum soli) were unified, although its rates were different, and in some provinces it was levied on finished products. It is assumed that due to underdeveloped market relations, peasants often paid taxes in products that the state accepted at fixed rates and accounted for as payment in cash. Poll taxes began to be collected on a regular basis. At the same time, the republican principle was preserved, in which Roman citizens and holders of Latin citizenship were not subject to direct taxes. At the beginning of the reign Octavian some of the eastern provinces retained Hellenistic taxation systems, but were gradually supplanted by Roman taxation. The emperor also took into account the interests of influential tax-farmers, leaving them the right to collect certain types of taxes, although publicans were not allowed into the newly formed provinces, and their influence gradually fell. Trade between the provinces was subject to duties, but they were small and did not interfere with the development of Mediterranean trade. Octavian established a five percent tax on the emancipation of slaves and inheritances. The emperor began to publish reports on the state of public finances (rationes imperii).
During the era of the Empire, money began to be widely used in all spheres of society, and Strabo , contemporary Octavian, already viewed barter as a "barbaric" method of exchange. As a result, the level of monetization of the economy of the Roman state was significantly higher both in comparison with the era of the Republic and in comparison with the late antique period. By the end of the reign august it was, according to modern estimates, already about half of the GNP. Until the 3rd century A.D. e. the issue of money, being primarily subordinated to the realization of state interests, did not create serious problems in the functioning of the economy. This is associated with the existence of some elementary, experience-based ideas about the monetary policy of the state, which made it possible to maintain a single exchange rate in a complex system of coins from four different metals, while preventing a long-term shortage of cash.
The conquest of Egypt and the right to use the harbors in South Arabia made it possible to build a direct sea route to India and to multiply the volume of trade compared to the previous period. However, foreign trade did not play a big role: mainly luxury goods were imported from outside the Roman state. On the contrary, trade between the provinces satisfied the needs of the population in grain, olive oil, wine and other everyday goods. Maritime trade flourished thanks to the establishment of peace in the Mediterranean and the eradication of piracy. The development of trade was facilitated by the involvement of the conquered territories in market relations, the restoration of large shopping centers (primarily Carthage and Corinth), the modernization of the road network, as well as the non-interference of the state in trade transactions. To the board Octavian Italy experienced economic prosperity thanks to the development of new technologies and the opening of new industries, the opening of large markets and successful competition with the developed craft of the eastern provinces. Increased exports have significantly reduced Italy's trade deficit. An additional factor in the economic prosperity of Italy was the development of the provinces: while the colonists had not yet mastered Italian technologies and had not had time to plant perennial crops (primarily grapes), many finished goods were exported there from the metropolis.
The development of trade was used by businessmen from all over the empire, with the main business activity moving from the capital to Italy and the provinces. At the same time, the free Italian peasantry was in decline due to the increasing role of slaves in agriculture and constant grain distributions in Rome, as a result of which the cultivation of grain in Italy became unprofitable. The problem of weakening the peasants - the backbone of the Roman army in the Republican era - was recognized at the highest level, but the emperor did not take any real measures ( Suetonius mentions the plans of the emperor to eliminate grain distributions precisely for the sake of supporting the peasantry, which he himself abandoned because of their futility). After difficulties in supplying the capital with grain in 23 BC. e. Octavian for some time he directed the supply of Rome personally with the help of the powers of cura annonae, and in about 6 AD. e. created a special post of prefect annona to manage this activity on a regular basis. At the same time, he reduced the number of recipients of free bread from 320 to 200 thousand people.
Appearance Octavian known for the numerous surviving statues. According to the message Suetonia , Octavian He was not very tall, but this was noticeable only in comparison with tall people. The same author mentions the testimony of the emperor's secretary that he was five and three-quarters of a foot tall (about 170 cm), which was even higher than the average height at that time. Despite the average growth Octavian considered himself not tall enough and therefore resorted to the use of shoes with high soles.
Pliny the Elder mentions that Octavian had bright eyes Suetonius describes his eyes as light and shiny, and also mentions that he began to see worse in his left eye as he got older.
“He was handsome in appearance and at any age remained attractive, although he did not try to preen. He cared so little about his hair that he let several barbers comb his hair for speed.<...>His teeth were sparse, small, uneven,<...>eyebrows - fused, ears - small, nose - hump and pointed, skin color - between swarthy and white.
Octavian He was extremely superstitious and did not hide his fears from others. After lightning killed a slave walking in front of his stretcher, he became afraid of thunderstorms: he carried a seal skin with him (it was believed that lightning never hit this animal), and in severe thunderstorms he hid in an underground shelter. Under the influence of prophetic dreams, he fled from the battlefield at Philippi, decorated the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol with bells, returned to Ephesus the statue of Apollo by the sculptor Myron , and every year he asked the Romans for alms. Suetonius even reports in general terms the statistics of dreams that have come true - probably the emperor kept such calculations. Octavian believed in omens, omens and miracles, and by his own decision avoided starting new business on nons of each month.
Octavian was afraid of people with dwarfism and physical defects, although he once showed the Roman public a certain lucia two feet tall (about 57 cm), and the dwarf canopy playing with his granddaughter Julia .
The emperor was afraid of assassination attempts - for example, he ordered to torture (and allegedly even personally killed) a Roman praetor, suspecting a hiding place for weapons in the writing tablets in his hands; during the revision of the list of senators, he was in armor and surrounded himself with the strongest friends.
Octavian slept poorly, waking several times a night, and rarely slept more than seven hours. The emperor did not like to get up early, often dozed during the day, and in 36 BC. e. I almost overslept the beginning of the Battle of Navlokh. In hot weather Octavian slept in a room with open doors or in the courtyard near the fountain, while a slave fanned him. During the day he tried to avoid the sun by wearing some kind of headdress. In winter, the emperor wore a thick toga, several tunics, and wrapped his legs. Suetonius retained a description of gastronomic habits Octavian. According to the Roman historian, he ate little, during the day he had a snack every time he felt hungry. The emperor preferred to snack on coarse bread, dates, moist cheese, small fish, cucumbers, lettuce, fresh and dried apples, and other simple foods. For dinners - very simple for his time - he carefully selected guests, but he appeared at the table later than everyone else, and left first, and sometimes dined before the guests arrived or after they left. He drank little by Roman standards, usually limited to three cups of cheap Rhaetian wine, and rarely drank more than one sextarium (about 0.55 liters). However, in the 30s BC. e., when Rome experienced a shortage of food, Octavian accused of organizing a sumptuous dinner with a staged feast of the Olympian gods.
The emperor's favorite entertainment was dice - the main gambling game of antiquity. He played constantly, with relatives, friends and slaves, and often - for money, sometimes losing tens of thousands of sesterces. He was engaged in physical training and training with weapons until the end of the civil wars, and subsequently limited himself to exercises with the ball, walking and jogging. In addition, he liked to fish. The emperor collected unusual bones of large animals and the armor of heroes. On the contrary, he did not collect art objects popular with his contemporaries, although he was accused of being addicted to expensive Corinthian vases: he allegedly even included people in proscription lists because of these vases.
Octavian lived a long life by ancient Roman standards, but was often sick. In his youth, unknown diseases did not allow him to fully participate in his uncle's military campaigns and carry out his orders in the capital. Sources testify to several cases of illness in adolescence, as well as serious ailments in 42, 33, 28, 26, 24 and 23 BC. e. However, later the emperor's health improved slightly. Frequent bouts of acute pain forced the emperor to often think about death: this is probably why he began to build his mausoleum, write his autobiography and make plans for the state structure in the future in his youth.
The reasons for the emperor's frequent ailments are unclear. Dio Cassius directly relates one of the ailments Octavian during the Cantabrian Overvoltage Wars. After returning from this campaign, the emperor, according to Suetonia , began to have serious problems with the liver. This unknown disease Octavian cured or seriously relieved by a new doctor Anthony Musa , who recommended to the emperor cold compresses instead of hot poultices.
Octavian often overcame a runny nose, and every year at the beginning of spring and autumn he experienced slight ailments. The emperor endured heat and cold very badly. Finally, in old age he suffered from rheumatism and weakness in his legs and arms. Suetonius He also mentions stones in the bladder.
Although attempts to make a diagnosis based on existing information have been unsuccessful, it is assumed that seasonal health problems and excessive use of the skin scraper are indicative of some type of allergy. The main ailment of the emperor was not diagnosed. Due to the absence of visible symptoms and the disappearance of pain in 23 BC. e. some historians also admit the possibility of a fictitious nature of ailments Octavian: allegedly rumors about his frequent illnesses and about the imminent death of the ruler could make his subjects fear the onset of a new civil war
The emperor wrote quite a lot: the polemical essay “Objections to Brutus about Cato”, “Encouragement to Philosophy”, a detailed autobiography “On his life”, the poem “Sicily” and a collection of epigrams. He began to compose a tragedy, but soon destroyed what he had written. All these works, except for the tragedy, were known to contemporaries, but have not been preserved. Only the “Acts of the Divine Augustus” (a short autobiography carved in stone) and fragments from his correspondence, often quoted Suetonius and Aulom Gelliem . Unlike most orators of his time, Octavian did not spend time memorizing the texts of public speeches, but read them out. Octavian was a supporter of the reflection in writing of the oral norm of the Latin language, which was expressed in some deviations from the spelling rules. Suetonius who had access to autographs august, reports that he did not separate words with spaces and did not transfer them to another line, attributing letters that did not fit next to each other. The Roman historian also recorded some of the favorite idioms and words frequently found in the emperor's correspondence and writings. Like all educated contemporaries, the emperor knew the ancient Greek language, but he did not dare to write in it. He knew Greek poetry well and was fond of classical comedians.
Octavian and especially his friends patronized the development of Roman culture, thanks to which the cognomen (third part of the name) of the closest associate of the emperor, Gaius Cylnius Maecenas , has become a household name. Direction august came the "golden age" of Roman literature - creativity Virgil , Horace , Ovid , Tibulla , propercia , tita Libya and other authors.
Octavian attached great importance to the restoration of public morality according to the old Roman models. The notion of moral decay as the root cause of all strife and civil wars was widespread in Rome in the first century BC. e. (one of the most famous popularizers of this idea is the historian Gaius Sallust Crispus ), and from the environment of the first emperor, such ideas were defended Titus Livy and more diligently Horace .
In the years 18-17 BC. e. Octavian held at least two laws regulating Roman marriage. All men from the estates of senators and equestrians under the age of 60 and women under 50 were required to be married, and senators were forbidden to marry the daughters of freedmen, no matter how rich they were. The punishments for non-compliance with the law were a ban on attending ceremonial events and restrictions on receiving inheritances. The law on adultery (lex de adulteris) was very harsh: lovers of married women were threatened with large fines and exile, and the husband himself received the right to divorce an unfaithful wife according to a simplified procedure. The husband even got the right to kill his lover without trial if he was a slave, a freedman of this family, as well as a gladiator or an actor (these and some other professions were defined in the law as people who made a living with the body - qui corpore quaestum facit). Bringing a wife and lover to justice became not a right, but an obligation: a man who, for some reason, did not inform on them, the law prescribed to bring himself to court as a pimp. If the father caught his daughter with her lover, he did get the right to kill both without trial (although the law did not allow the execution of the lover and the daughter alive). Men could only be prosecuted for having an affair with a woman who was not a registered prostitute. Law papias - poppea 9 AD e. consolidated and clarified the provisions of the previous laws (modern historians have no doubt that the adoption of this law was Octavian). From now on, bachelors were deprived of the right to receive property by will, and the childless could receive no more than half of the amount indicated by the testator. Tacitus mentions that the practice of applying the law led to numerous abuses, and the second emperor Tiberius created a special commission to improve the situation. At the same time, the Roman historian notes that during the period of the law, the birth rate has not changed much. In addition to the measures mentioned, additions and clarifications were made to the laws in 11 BC. e. and 4 a.d. e.
On the Purposes of Unpopular Family Law Octavian there is no consensus: the restoration of traditional foundations for the stabilization of the state, getting a reason to persecute opponents, replenishing the treasury thanks to fines. Purely demographic tasks are also considered - an increase in the number of soldiers in the future and a reversal of the trend towards an increase in the proportion of citizens from among the provincials and freedmen compared to the native inhabitants of Italy.
The Romans tried to circumvent the laws by using loopholes in them: for example, fictitious engagements with girls of premarital age became common, which were subsequently terminated, but allowed one to actually remain a bachelor for about two years and at the same time not be subject to discriminatory provisions of the laws. The time for the restoration of traditional patriarchal marriage turned out to be unsuccessful: it was during the reign Octavian the emancipation of women accelerated, and the emperor himself was reproached for the fact that his own family was by no means an example of integrity. Ovid in the poem "The Science of Love" directly parodied family law august, which accelerated the exile of the poet to distant Tomes (modern Constanta).
The policy of "correction" of morals was also expressed in the implementation of laws that limited luxury. In 18 BC. e. Octavian set a very modest marginal spending on feasting. He soon passed laws restricting the use of rich materials in women's clothing and the construction of overly opulent structures, including tombstones. Insofar as Tiberius again tried to limit spending on luxury, it is assumed that the measures Octavian turned out to be ineffective. Myself Octavian led a modest lifestyle compared to many rich contemporaries, although, for example, his daughter lived in a big way.
The emperor tried to restore the patriarchal old Roman traditions of slavery and in every possible way made it difficult for the masters to free the slaves. “He considered it especially important that the Roman people remain unspoiled and pure from the admixture of foreign or slave blood,” concludes Suetonius . To achieve these goals, he sought the adoption of various laws. Obstacles were created for the emancipation of slaves under the age of 30; slaves, once severely punished, could not become full Roman citizens. The slave owner could no longer release more than a certain proportion of slaves - from 1/5 to ½, depending on their total number. A ban was also established on the release of slaves if this could harm the interests of creditors or patrons of their owners. For some conquered tribes who were sold entirely into slavery, long periods were set before the possibility of liberation, or a mandatory condition was set that they would be taken away from their homeland. The 5% tax on the emancipation of slaves (vicesima libertatis) continued to exist. According to one version, it was to the board Octavian the law applies Junia – norbana on the empowerment of slaves freed in a simplified manner, with the rights of not full Roman, but limited Latin citizenship. The reasons for these measures were probably the weakening of the influx of new slaves and the increase in the number of unemployed citizens from the freedmen. The emperor defiantly did not interfere in relations between slaves and masters, including the most egregious cases of arbitrariness. In 10 a.d. e. the senate reaffirmed the ancient law that if a man was killed in his house, all the slaves in the house were to be executed.
The religious policy of the emperor, aimed at strengthening traditional Roman beliefs, is considered one of the most important areas of his activity in "restoring the republic." Octavian repaired or rebuilt 82 temples and sanctuaries in Rome, restored the ceremony of augur divination for the prosperity of the state and the people (auguris salutis), received the right to raise families into the patrician estate thinned due to wars and natural attrition. In 12 BC. e., after death Lepida , Octavian became a great pontiff. Using these powers, he restored the important priestly office of flamen Jupiter (flamen Dialis), which remained vacant after his suicide. Lucia Cornelia Merula in 87 BC. e. In 2 BC. e. the emperor consecrated the temple of Mars the Avenger (Mars Ultor) in the forum of Augustus, where the senate was to gather from now on to discuss issues of war and peace. Lupercalia games and games in honor of Lares, the patrons of crossroads, began to be held again. Restoring respect for the latter, Octavian ordered that all lar shrines at the intersections of streets and roads be repaired, and also ordered that his own images be added to them. The slogans of ending wars and establishing peace (pax Augusta) were widely promoted, and in 13 BC. e. An altar of peace (ara pacis) was laid in Rome. In the Acts of the Divine Augustus, the emperor emphasized that during his reign the gates of the temple of Janus were closed three times, which symbolized the cessation of all wars. Finally, the veneration of the deified abstraction Pax Augusta ("August's world") was established, accompanied by annual sacrifices.
In addition to the position of great pontiff, the emperor was a member of the priestly colleges of augurs, quindecemvirs and epulon septemvirs. When Octavian was in Rome, he participated in the performance of religious rituals and carefully observed the numerous prescriptions for the great pontiff (for example, he avoided looking at the dead, even if he was present at the funeral of loved ones). However, he did not move to the state house assigned to him on the Forum (domus publica), but attached to his house on the Palatine the sanctuary of Vesta with eternal fire to circumvent religious prescriptions. The attitude of the emperor towards foreign religions varied depending on the circumstances. Despite the fact that in 42 BC. e. the triumvirs decided to start building the temple of Serapis and Isis in Rome, Octavian subsequently halted its construction due to Egyptian support Cleopatra Mark Antony (the temple was completed only when Caligula ). In 28 BC. e. he forbade Egyptian worship in the capital, and after coming to power he showed disdain for the Egyptian gods. Using the powers of the great pontiff, in 12 BC. e. August ordered to burn two thousand different prophetic books, very popular in the turbulent times of civil wars, and ordered the official edition of the prophecies of the Cuma Sibyl to be sealed in the pedestal of the statue of Apollo Palatine. Earlier, in 33 BC. e., Agrippa (apparently instructed Octavian) expelled magicians and astrologers from the capital.
Octavian connected his reign with the advent of a new, "golden" age. The Etruscan sages, from whom the Romans adopted the tradition of counting the centuries, first declared the end of the previous, ninth century, and the beginning of civil wars in 49 BC. e., and "comet Caesar » 44 BC e. However, in 17 B.C. e. another comet appeared in the sky, and Octavian interpreted this as a true sign of the change of the ages, organizing the luxurious Secular (Century) games. The beginning of a new era was promoted, in particular, by the court poet Virgil who predicted the coming of the eternal golden age:
“The last circle has come according to the broadcast of the prophetess of Kuma,
Now again the majestic order is beginning,
Virgo is coming to us again, Saturn's kingdom is coming.
At Octavians the formation of the cult of the emperor began, rooted in lifetime veneration Gaius Julius Caesar . January 1, 42 B.C. e. senators who survived the proscriptions proclaimed Caesar god that allowed Octavian call yourself the son of a god. The first steps towards organized veneration of the ruler were taken on the initiative of the Senate and with the support of the people after the victory over Anthony . Emperor's birthday, death day Anthony , the day of return from the Egyptian campaign and the dates of the victories at Navloh and Aktion became holidays, and the birthday Anthony (presumably January 14th) - a cursed day. At first time Octavian they were not worshiped on a par with the gods, which was manifested in sacrifices: animals were still sacrificed to the gods, but in honor of the genius (spirit) Octavian only libations (bloodless offerings) were to be made. His name was included in all official prayers and oaths, as well as in the hymn of the Salii priests. From the autumn of 19 BC. e. in honor of august began to hold games and celebrations - Augustalia. Soon as a sacrifice to genius august began to bring bulls. In 8 BC. e. in honor of august renamed the month of sextiles. It was originally planned to name September, the month of his birth, in honor of the emperor, but in memory of the first consulate and the victory over Anthony the last month of summer was chosen for renaming. February 5, 2 B.C. e. Octavian received from the Senate the honorary title of "father of the fatherland" (pater patriae or parens patriae).
However, Octavian refused to accept the honors inherent only to the gods - apparently, because of fears of repeating the fate of his adoptive father. Some historians deny the existence of an organized imperial cult during his lifetime. august despite unequivocal evidence from sources. Contributed to the spread of the cult of the emperor of his statue, which appeared in abundance in Rome - on the forum, in front of the temple of Mars the Avenger, in front of the Pantheon ( Agrippa wanted to install a statue of the emperor inside the temple, among the images of the gods, but Octavian refused), as well as in 265 small chapels on the streets and crossroads of the city and other places. His images were often placed on coins, although earlier portraits of living people were very rarely minted on Roman money. The emperor demanded that even in old age he be depicted as young, which conflicted with the traditions of the most realistic Roman portraits. As a result, there is not a single image august in old age.
Lifetime veneration Octavian differed markedly in Italy and the western provinces, on the one hand, and in the eastern provinces, on the other. In the west, there were only altars in his honor or together with the goddess Roma, and temples and numerous statues began to be erected posthumously. In the same time, Octavian inherited the attributes of power adopted in Egypt under the Ptolemies and ruled this province as their successor. The images of the Roman emperor, made in the Egyptian technique, have also been preserved. The Egyptian Greeks generally shared the views of the indigenous people on the ruler-god and called him Zeus the Liberator (or Zeus the Redeemer). Temples were also built in his honor. The first of these was probably the sanctuary Anthony , laid down Cleopatra , but completed and consecrated as a temple Octavian. Subsequently, other cities followed the example of Alexandria. veneration Octavian during his lifetime it also developed in Asia Minor. Some cities began to keep a new chronology with his victories over Anthony , others were renamed in his honor (in particular, several cities with the name of Caesarea appeared this way - Caesarea) or awarded him the honorary title of co-founder of their city. However, the emperor asked the Greeks to erect temples not in their own honor, but only together with the goddess Roma, who symbolized Rome.
September 17, 14 AD e., a month after his death, the Senate recognized Octavian god and established a state cult in his honor. This decision was based primarily on the statement of the Roman senator that he saw how the soul august ascends to heaven, and to other auspicious signs. By analogy with Caesar the deified ruler began to be called "divine August» (divus Augustus). new emperor Tiberius in every possible way welcomed the veneration of his foster father. Soon in honor Octavian laid a temple in Rome (its construction was completed Caligula ) and established a college of senior priests (flamins) for the administration of his cult. The first flamingo was Germanicus , and the priestess of the new cult - Libya . They also organized another college of sodales Augustales from the most distinguished senators. Before the completion of the temple Octavian worshiped in the temple of Mars the Avenger, where they installed his golden statue. The status of the holidays associated with the life of the deceased emperor was raised.
Family of Octavian Augustus
Father: Gaius Octavius(c. 101 BC - 59 BC), Roman senator of the equestrian class from a wealthy plebeian family Octaviev.
Mother: Atia Balba Caesonia(85 BC - 43 BC), niece Gaius Julius Caesar (July 12, 100 BC - March 15, 44 BC), dictator (49 BC, 48 - 47 BC, 46 - 44 BC AD, February 44 BC - March 15, 44 BC), great pontiff (63 - 44 BC), consul (59 BC) 48 BC, 46 BC, January 1 - October 1, 45 BC, January 1 - March 15, 44 BC). Daughter Mark Atia Balba (105 BC - 52 BC), senator, cousin Gnaeus Pompey the Great , and Julius Caesaria the Younger (101 BC - 51 BC), sister Gaius Julius Caesar .
Wife: 1. from 43 to 41 years. BC e. Claudia Pulchra (c. 54 BC - ?), daughter Publius Clodia Pulchra (93 BC - January 18, 52 BC), tribune of the people 58 BC. e. and Fulvia Bambula (77 BC - 40 BC).
2. from 40 to 39 years. BC e. 2. Scribonia On either (c. 70 BC - 16 AD), daughter Lucius Scribonius Libona (about 120 - after 70 BC), an ancient Roman statesman from the influential plebeian family of the Scribonians.
Children:
Julia Senior (October 30, 39 BC - AD 14), from 25 to 23 years. BC. wife Mark Claudius Marcellus (42 BC - 23 BC), nephew august. From 21 BC e. to 12 BC e. wife Mark of Vipsanias Agrippa (63 BC - 12 BC), Roman statesman and commander. From 12 BC e. to 2 AD e. wife Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (42 BC - March 16, 37 AD), 2nd Roman Emperor (August 19, 14 - March 16, 37).
3. from 38 BC e. to 14 AD e. 3. Livia Drusilla (January 30, 58 BC - AD 29), mother Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (42 BC - March 16, 37), 2nd Roman Emperor (August 19, 14 - March 16, 37), great-grandmother Caligula (Gaius Julius Caesar August Germanicus) (August 31, 12 - January 24, 41), 3rd Roman Emperor (March 18, 37 - January 24, 41), grandmother Claudia (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) (August 1, 10 BC - October 13, 54), 4th Roman Emperor (January 24, 41 - October 13, 54) and great-great-grandmother Nero (Nero Claudius Caesar August Germanicus) (December 15, 37 - June 9, 68), 5th Roman Emperor (October 13, 54 - June 9, 68). Was deified by the emperor Claudius .
The Roman Emperor Octavian Augustus was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar. When his famous uncle died under the daggers of the conspirators, Octavian was still a young man - at that time he was only 19 years old. It remains a mystery how a frail young man who did not shine with state talents surpassed immeasurably more experienced, influential and popular opponents. However, he dealt with them in turn in five civil wars. The reward for these victories was 44 years of sole rule, which marked the beginning of the "golden age" of the Roman Empire.
Unlike Julius Caesar, Octavian never encroached on the post of dictator. The emperor tirelessly emphasized that he was leading the life of an ordinary citizen, and flaunted it.
According to Suetonius, “the simplicity of its furnishings and utensils can be seen even now from the preserved tables and spoons, which would hardly satisfy even a simple layman. He even slept, they say, on a low and hard bed. He wore only home-made clothes, woven by his sister, wife, daughter or granddaughters.
However, Octavian made sure that his appearance made an impression on his subjects. Not being tall, he tucked his sandals with thick soles.
The habit of domination reflected on his face had a magical effect on those around him. One Gallic leader told how, during a mountain crossing, he wanted to push Octavian into the abyss, but, looking into his face, did not dare.
From the point of view of modern dictators, Roman historians had one serious shortcoming: they did not yet know how to write panegyrics. Speaking about their rulers, they considered them from different angles, with all the advantages and disadvantages. So the portrait of Octavian Augustus turned out to be far from unambiguous.
At the end of his life, for example, he was justifiably proud of the fact that he accepted Rome as brick and leaves it as marble. It was credited to him that he ruled the court with great zeal, even if he was ill, and at the same time showed not only great thoroughness, but also gentleness. We, who are habitually stuck in traffic jams during the passage of government delegations, will not be left indifferent by such a feature of him: he left the city only in the evening or at night, so as not to disturb any of the citizens.
Among his bad properties can be attributed the habit of living with other people's wives and excessive cruelty towards political opponents. Anyone who tried to beg for mercy or make excuses, he cut off with three words: “You must die!”.
And there is something in his character that makes him smile. Octavian Augustus was a highly educated man, but at the same time a great pedant. He was the first politician to start reading his speeches from paper. And even conversations with his wife Livia, he sketched in advance and kept his notes during the conversation.
The full title of Octavian at the time of his death sounded like this: Imperator Caesar Divi filius Augustus, Pontifex Maximus, Consul XIII, Imperator XXI, Tribuniciae potestatis XXXVII, Pater Patriae (Emperor, son of the Divine Caesar, Augustus, Great Pontifex, Consul 13 times, Emperor 21 times, endowed with the power of the people's tribune 37 times, Father of the Fatherland).
Octavian August dreamed of dying a "good death", that is, quickly and without bodily suffering. Fate sent him this last gift on August 19, 14 AD. in Nola. Caesar's death was calm and painless. Before he faded away, he had a long private conversation with his heir Tiberius, then said goodbye to his friends and asked if they thought he had played the comedy of life well. He ended this conversation with a Greek verse, with which the actor usually completed his performance on stage: “And since we played beautifully, reward us with an ovation and spend with fun.” His last words were addressed to his wife: “Livia, live and remember how we lived together. Health to you ... goodbye.
Ctavian, or, as he was called in childhood and youth, Octavius, was a great-nephew. His maternal grandmother, Julia, was the emperor's sister. Actually, the genus Octavii, to which the future Caesar belonged on his father's side, was considered very seedy, although he claimed to be related to the patrician genus Octavii. Augustus himself later wrote about himself that he came from a wealthy equestrian family, but enemies reproached him in person with the fact that his great-grandfather was an African and kept a shop with ointments, and his grandfather was either a baker or a usurer. As for his father, Gaius Octavius, it is reliably known that he was elected praetor, and after the praetorship he received Macedonia in control and adequately coped with his duties: he defeated the Besses and Thracians in a big battle, and got along with the allied tribes and even earned the praise of Cicero . He died early, leaving two daughters and four-year-old Guy.
Octavius was born in the consulship of Marcus Tullius Cicero. In 45 B.C. he followed with several companions to Spain, at considerable risk to his life, as he was shipwrecked along the way and was in danger of being killed on the way by the Spaniards. was pleased with the courage, as well as the natural mind of Octavius. Thinking then of a campaign against the Dacians, he sent his nephew ahead of him to Apollonia, in Epirus. Here the young man learned about the death of his uncle, and also that he had adopted him in his will, giving him his name and three-quarters of his property.
At first, Octavius was indecisive and did not know how to behave. Philip's mother and stepfather wrote to him from Rome so that he would not be arrogant and would not take risks. They advised Octavius to choose the life of a private person, as less dangerous under the circumstances, and go to Rome. Octavius from Apollonia crossed over to Italy, but not to Brundisium, but to Lupii.
Here he learned the details of the assassination attempt and the fact that most Romans curse the murderers and mourn Caesar. His mother advised him to give up his inheritance and adoption, but Octavius resolutely objected that this would be a shameful and cowardly act. He went to Brundisium. All the army there came out to meet him and greeted him like a son. Octavius perked up and from that time always and everywhere called himself Caesar. He moved to Rome, accompanied by a large crowd of henchmen.
In the capital, Caesar first of all turned for support to Antony, an old military comrade-in-arms of his adoptive father and his companion in the last consulate. Anthony was at this time at the height of his power and almost single-handedly disposed of everything. Caesar's widow, Calpuria, immediately after the death of her husband, transferred all the cash to Antony's house - a total of about four thousand talents and all the papers of the deceased. Since according to the will it was supposed to pay each Roman seventy-five denarii, the young Caesar reminded Antony of the money he had taken for safekeeping.
Antony, full of disdain for the young years of Caesar, answered him very arrogantly. He said that he was simply out of his mind and deprived not only of reason, but also of good friends, if he wanted to take on his shoulders such an overwhelming burden as Caesar's inheritance. However, the young man did not yield and still demanded money. Antony objected to him bluntly that he would not give anything away, since this money was not Caesar's personal property, but was taken by him from the state treasury. He added to this many more insulting and humiliating words, so that Caesar left in great anger.
All the property that he inherited by will, he immediately intended for sale, and sent the proceeds to pay the people. At the same time, he ordered to announce the lowest possible prices, so that the sale went faster. The Romans, who saw how the young man ruined himself in order to fulfill the posthumous will of his father, were imbued with sympathy for Caesar and resented Antony, who lived in defiant luxury. In addition, using the power of the consul, Antony continued to push his opponent. He forbade him to exhibit at the spectacles dedicated to Venus the parent, a golden throne and a golden wreath in honor of his father, although these honors were due to him by law. This ban left everyone bewildered, and gave Caesar the opportunity to strengthen his influence. He courted the people and former soldiers and asked everyone to come to the defense of the late emperor, who is now being bullied. He said that in this way they would protect themselves, since what they received from Caesar would not be a lasting property if what was decreed for Caesar himself turned out to be fragile. Seeing that everyone around him was grumbling at him, and even the centurions serving in his personal guard, openly condemning his behavior, Antony realized that he had underestimated his enemy, and decided to continue to act more carefully. He allowed the chair to be put up at the spectacles, and through the mediation of the old veterans made his peace with Caesar.
He wanted to take advantage of his influence in order to receive Cisalpine Gaul after the consulate. The Senate did not want to give him this province, since it was clear that Antony would immediately win over the legions stationed there to his side and then he would be able to do whatever he wanted with the state. Therefore, the senate appointed Gallia Decimus Brutus, one of Caesar's assassins. But when the question was put to a vote in the popular assembly, Caesar persuaded the Romans by his persuasion to give it to Antony, for, he said, this dangerous province should not be allowed to be ruled by the murderer of his father.
After that, Caesar began to seek his election as a people's tribune, although he was a patrician and had not yet sat in the Senate. He hoped for the support of Antony and was deceived a second time. Antony, disregarding his recent friendship with Caesar, declared in his capacity as consul that Caesar had no right to break the law. And so that the people would not vote for Caesar against his will, he completely canceled the elections. Trying to disarm Caesar, whom everyone again began to sympathize with, Antony spread the rumor that Caesar was plotting to kill him and provided him with witnesses.
Seeing that the enemy tenaciously holds the capital in his hands, Caesar went to Campania and began to prepare for an armed struggle. He won over the cities his father had settled to fight on his side. He was supported first by the veterans of Kalatia, and then by Kazilina. Caesar gave each soldier 500 drachmas and led 10,000 men. He set up his camp in Alba and soon, counting the soldiers who had gone over to his side, he had five legions under his command. He tried to make the matter look as if he was in support of the senate and the republic against the sole rule of Antony. He made all decisions, notifying the senators of this in advance, and managed to cover many of his actions with their authority. Indeed, the senators leaned more towards Caesar than Antony, whom many feared.
Anthony hastily left for Brundisium and summoned the Macedonian troops here. In total, four legions were assembled. From Decimus Brutus, he demanded Gaul, who followed him according to the popular decree. Brutus, supported by the senate, refused to carry out this order. With three legions, he took refuge in Mutin and prepared for defense. Full of anger, Antony opposed Brutus and laid siege to Mutina. At the beginning of 43 BC. Anthony's consular powers expired. Hirtius and Pansa became consuls. With their support, the senators accused Antony of exceeding his authority, and also that he had sent the army given to him for the war in Thrace against Italy. He was offered to leave Gaul and go as proconsul to Macedonia, and when Antony refused, they declared him an enemy of the fatherland.
After that, the Senate took care of the two main masterminds of the assassination attempt on Caesar - Cassia and Brutus. Macedonia was given to Marcus Brutus, and Cassius was given Syria. All the provinces east of the Ionian Sea were obliged to supply them with money and supplies. Thus, in a short time, they managed to gather a large army and turned into a formidable force.
Caesar's legions were put on state allowance, and he himself, in the rank of propraetor, was instructed, together with the consuls, to oppose the rebels. All these decrees confused Caesar, since he clearly saw that the enmity with Antony brought him into the same camp with the murderers of his adoptive father, for whose death he swore to avenge. In the strengthening of Cassius and Brutus, he foresaw a direct threat to himself. In addition, by subordinating him to the consuls, the Senate actually deprived Caesar of his troops. Indeed, Hirtius immediately demanded from him the two best legions, and Caesar had to give them up. However, he did not express his displeasure in any way, believing that among the vicissitudes of the civil war he would have many favorable moments in order to get his back.
The war against Antony ended in two months and was very successful for Caesar. In the first battle in which Pansa was wounded, he did not take part. But in the second, which unfolded near the walls of Mutina, he had to not only be a commander, but also fight like a soldier. When the standard-bearer of his legion was wounded in the midst of the battle, he carried his eagle on his own shoulders for a long time. Hirtius, pursuing the enemy, broke into Antony's camp and fell at the commander's tent. Caesar first made his way to his body and covered him with a cloak. When Pansa also died shortly afterwards, a rumor spread that it was Caesar who had taken care of their death, so that now that Antony had fled and the republic was left without consuls, he alone could seize command of the victorious troops. In particular, the death of Pansa inspired so much suspicion that his physician Glikon was taken into custody on the charge of putting poison in his wound. Others claimed that Caesar also killed the second consul, Hirtius, with his own hand in the confusion of the fight.
With the remnants of his army, Antony retreated behind the Alps. The senate entrusted the war against him to Decimus Brutus. The latter wanted to thank Caesar for his help, but Caesar replied that he had come here not to save the murderer of his father, but to wage war with Antony, with whom, if he wanted, he could make peace again, while he would never make peace with Brutus and under no circumstances.
The Senate was very pleased with the defeat of Antony, and even more with the fact that he was dealt with by the hands of Caesar. Now that the direct threat to the state had passed, many believed that the time had come to put this ambitious young man in his place. Cicero, who actually headed the Senate, turned things around so that Brutus was declared the winner at Mutina. He also reassigned the army of consuls to him. Caesar's name was not mentioned at all in his orders. Offended by all this, Caesar demanded a triumph for military exploits. In response, the senators sent him a contemptuous refusal, explaining that he was still too young and he needed to grow to triumph.
Faced with such disdain for himself, Caesar held a grudge and began to look for ways to get closer to Antony. He sent many prisoners to Antony's army without any ransom, and let his ally Ventidius with three legions cross the Alps, sagely hinting to him that he did not feel any enmity towards Antony. Asinius and Lepidus, two of his father's old associates who commanded armies outside of Italy, he wrote more frankly, complaining that the Caesarians could not reach an agreement among themselves, while the Pompeians were slowly taking power into their own hands.
All this Caesar did for the time being secretly, paving the way for a future break with the Senate. At the same time, he sent trusted people to Cicero and suggested that he, together with him, solicit the consulate in the coming elections. To lull the suspicion of this hardened politician, aged in intrigues, he assured him that, having gained power, he would provide all the threads of control to Cicero, since he only dreamed of fame and a big name. These promises seduced and inflamed Cicero, and he, the old man, let the boy fool him - he suddenly turned from an enemy into Caesar's first friend, asked the people for him and tried to win over the senators in his favor. By this, however, he did not achieve anything - he was ridiculed in the Senate, and Caesar was denied the consulate, since he had not reached the legal age.
Just then, disturbing news came from Gaul - Lepidus, who was instructed by the Senate, together with Decimus Brutus, to wage war against Antony, went over to the side of the latter with his seven legions, many other units and valuable equipment. Antony also annexed the three legions of Ventidius and again turned into a formidable opponent. The Senate summoned two legions from Africa and sent for support to Cassius and Brutus.
Caesar was also urged to move against Antony, but he instead began to incite his soldiers to discontent. He pointed out to them that as long as the Senate was dominated by the relatives of Caesar's assassins, the lands of the Caesarian veterans could be taken away at any moment. Only he, Caesar and Caesar's heir, can guarantee their safety, and for this they must demand consular power for him. The army greeted Caesar in unison and immediately sent centurions demanding consular authority for him. When the senators again refused this impudent and downright illegal demand, Caesar raised his troops, crossed the Rubicon and led eight legions against Rome.
When the news of the approach of Caesar came to Rome, there was a terrible panic and confusion; all in disarray began to scatter in different directions. The Senate was terrified beyond measure, for the three African legions, in which it had its last hope, immediately went over to Caesar's side upon their arrival in Rome. The city was surrounded by soldiers. Reprisals were expected, but Caesar has not touched anyone yet, he only seized the treasury and paid each legionnaire 2,500 drachmas. Then he held elections and was elected consul along with his protege Quintus Pedias.
Immediately thereafter, he instituted criminal proceedings against Caesar's assassins for killing without trial the first official in the state. They were all convicted in absentia and sentenced to death, with the judges casting their votes under threats and coercion under Caesar's personal supervision.
After that, he began to think about reconciliation with Antony. News came that Brutus and Cassius had raised twenty legions and many other auxiliaries. In the face of such a formidable danger, all the Caesarians had to unite and act in common. Therefore, the hostile resolutions against Antony and Lepidus were canceled by the senate, and Caesar himself congratulated them in a letter on this. Antony and Lepidus immediately answered him in a friendly manner. By this time, all the trans-Alpine commanders had crossed over to their side: Asinius with two legions, Plank with three, and then all ten legions of Decimus Brutus also ran across. Decimus Brutus himself tried to escape, but was captured and beheaded.
When the internecine wars among the Caesarians were over and all the European provinces recognized their authority, Caesar, Antony and Lepidus came together near the city of Mutina on a small and flat island located on the Lavinia River; each of them had with him five legions. Placing them opposite each other, they each went, accompanied by three hundred people, to the bridge over the river. Here they left their companions standing in their places, moved towards the middle of the island to a place visible from all sides, and all three sat down, and Caesar, by virtue of his rank, took a place in the middle. In the course of two days from morning to evening, conferring among themselves, they decided the following. Caesar must resign his consular rank, and Ventidius accept it for the remainder of the year; establish a new magistracy, equal in importance to the consular position (triumvirate), to put the state in order after civil wars; to grant this position to Lepidus, Antony and Caesar within five years. At once they were to appoint annually rotating city magistrates for the next five years. The administration of the provinces was to be divided in such a way that Antony received all of Gaul, Lepidus - Spain, Caesar - Africa, Sardinia and Sicily. The question of the eastern provinces was postponed until the end of the war with Cassius and Brutus.
It was further decided that Antony and Caesar would make war on them, while Lepidus should become consul for the next year and remain in Rome to conduct business there. Of the troops of Lepidus, three legions were to remain with him to protect Rome, and the remaining seven were divided between Caesar and Antony so that each of them could lead 20 legions on a campaign. They were now to reassure the army with awards for victory, and, in addition to other gifts, provide them with 18 Italian cities for settlement; these cities, distinguished by wealth, fertility of the soil and beauty of buildings, they intended to divide among the army, together with the land and houses, as if these cities had been conquered by them in an enemy country. It was also decided to deal with their personal enemies, so that they do not interfere with them in the implementation of their plans and during their long-distance campaign. All these decrees were written down, and Caesar, as consul, read them all to the troops, with the exception of only the proscription lists.
The triumvirs compiled lists of names of persons destined for death in private, suspecting all influential people and putting them on the list of personal enemies. At the same time, they sacrificed their relatives and friends to each other. One by one, some were entered into the list because of enmity, some because of a simple offense, some because of friendship with enemies or enmity towards friends, and some because of outstanding wealth. The fact is that the triumvirs needed significant funds for waging war, since the richest provinces were still under the rule of the Pompeians. The triumvirs themselves, in Europe devastated by wars and taxes, especially in Italy, were in need of money. That is why they imposed the heaviest exactions on all sections of the population. Some have been proscribed for their beautiful country houses and villas. In total, 300 senators and 2,000 horsemen were sentenced to death and confiscation of property. Most of the triumvirs doomed to death were intended to be subjected to public proscription after their entry into Rome. But 17 of the most influential people, including Cicero, it was decided to eliminate the rest before the rest, sending assassins to them immediately.
Having agreed on everything, the triumvirs entered Rome. Each was accompanied by one legion and a Praetorian cohort. Surrounding the popular assembly with troops, the triumvirs passed through it all their decisions, thus giving them the appearance of law. At night, proscription lists with the names of persons to be destroyed were put up in many places in the city. The heads of all the executed were exhibited on the forum. For each head they were paid 250,000 drachmas, and slaves - 10,000 (they were also given freedom and Roman citizenship). Everyone was obliged to provide their homes for search, and those who hid the convict were also subject to execution. A special fee was charged for the denunciation.
However, the hopes of the triumvirs that at the expense of the property of the proscribed they would cover military costs were not justified. Everyone was afraid to buy it, for fear of incurring the same punishment on themselves. If something was bought, it was only for a negligible fee. In order to collect the missing money, the triumvirs imposed a special tax on the 400 most wealthy women, as well as everyone who owns a fortune of more than 100,000 sesterces.
At the beginning of 42 BC. Caesar went to the south of Italy. He made a promise to the inhabitants of Rhegium and Hipponia that their cities would be excluded from the list of cities assigned to his soldiers as a reward for victory. Caesar was afraid that they would not stick to Sextus Pompey, who, having a huge fleet, captured Sicily at that time and waged a stubborn struggle against the triumvirs. Then Caesar went to Brundisium and sailed with an army to Epidamnus. Here he was forced to stop due to illness. Antony alone led the army to Philippi, where Brutus and Cassius stood with their legions. Caesar arrived later, not yet recovered from his illness, - he was carried on a stretcher in front of the ranks of the troops.
Both sides had 19 heavily armed legions, but Cassius and Brutus had more cavalry. In addition to this, their fleet dominated the sea, and they had all kinds of supplies in abundance, while Antony and Caesar experienced great hardships. Therefore, Antony hurried up the battle and attacked the enemies first. He defeated Cassius, but Brutus put Caesar's legions to flight and captured the camp. Caesar himself did not participate in this battle: he left the day before. Later in his memoirs, Caesar wrote that one of his friends had a bad dream, and therefore he was wary of this day.
The defeated Cassius committed suicide, and Brutus, leading both troops, began to prepare for the second battle, which was to decide the outcome of the entire war. He believed that the delay in hostilities would cause starvation in the enemy army, and therefore for some time did not withdraw his legions from the camp fortifications. But the soldiers demanded a decisive battle, and against his will, Brutus agreed to it.
When the battle began, the flank that was under the direct command of Brutus prevailed over the legions of Antony and put to flight the left wing of the enemy. But the commanders of the other flank, in order to prevent the encirclement, stretched more and more, and since the numerical superiority was now on the side of Caesar and Antony, the battle line became thinner in the middle and lost strength, so that it could not withstand the onslaught of the enemy and ran. Caesar's legions broke through the enemy line and immediately hit Brutus in the rear, after which his army fled. Brutus himself took refuge in the nearest forest. That same night, he said goodbye to his friends and, throwing himself on a sword, committed suicide. Before his death, Brutus said that he was dying calm: he was pleased with how his life had passed, and reproached fate only for cruelty to his fatherland, because on that day it had lost its freedom forever. And it was true: the future political system of the Romans was determined precisely after the battle of Philippi, and after it they never returned to democracy.
Having celebrated the victory, Caesar went to Italy to distribute land to the soldiers and distribute them among the colonies; he chose this business for himself, because he was unwell. Anthony moved to the eastern provinces to collect the money promised to the soldiers. Soldiers who had served their time were released. Caesar and Antony divided among themselves eleven legions, which were recruited from the former soldiers of Cassius and Brutus.
On the way back, Caesar's illness intensified, taking on a particularly dangerous character in Brundisium: even the rumor spread that he had died. Having recovered, Caesar entered Rome, and Lepidus sent to Africa, which followed him under the new section. As promised, Caesar gave the veterans land. He gave them much more than promised, borrowing money from the temples for this. This raised even more his prestige in the eyes of the troops. But among the local population, which for no reason were driven from their lands and lost their homes, such a policy aroused a burning hatred for the triumvirs and especially for Caesar.
Antony's supporters were also unhappy, accusing Caesar of taking advantage of the absence of a co-ruler and luring his legions over to his side in order to further take all power into his own hands. After all, it turned out that the war with Brutus and Cassius was actually won by Antony, and all the gratitude of the troops goes to Caesar. At the head of Caesar's opponents stood Lucius Antony, the brother of the triumvir, who was in 41 BC. consul, and Antony's wife, Fulvia. Driven from the lands of the Italians, Lucius encouraged and promised them his support. He inspired Antony's veterans that Caesar was dreaming of autocracy and was leading the cause to dictatorship.
All the sympathies of the Italians were on the side of Lucius, and he managed to collect seventeen legions, while Caesar at first had only four. He left Rome and went to meet his commander Salvidienus, who led him six legions from Gaul. Lucius freely entered the capital and, to the great joy of the people, declared the power of the triumvirs deposed; he promised that Antony would resign voluntarily, and that Caesar and Lepidus would be forced to do so.
But when Salvidienus entered Italy, and confusion occurred in the army of Lucius (it was rumored that Antony was not pleased with his brother, since he was not going to quarrel with Caesar at all), the situation changed dramatically. Lucius retreated from Rome and fortified himself in Perusia, while Caesar and his generals began a siege. There was little food in the city, and when Caesar stopped its supply from outside, severe famine began in Perusia. Yet Lucius stubbornly defended himself all winter. Several times the besieged tried to break out of the siege ring, but they were invariably defeated, since Caesar ordered the city to be surrounded by a moat and a palisade, and then a wall was built and one and a half thousand wooden towers were erected on it; the wall was equipped with frequent battlements and other devices designed for two fronts - against the besieged and against those who would approach from outside. In the spring of 40 B.C. Lucius was forced to beg for mercy. Caesar treated the soldiers and Lucius himself mercifully, but subjected the Perusians to an exemplary punishment. He ordered all the senators to be executed, and he wanted to give the city to be plundered. During the night, however, a fire broke out here, and Perusia burned to the ground.
Although outwardly Caesar continued to share power with his co-rulers, the defeat of Lucius turned him into the sole ruler of Italy and all the western provinces: many of Antony's supporters, as well as his generals with their legions, fled the country. Caesar annexed Gaul and Spain. Eleven of Antony's legions stationed here went over to his side.
Concerned about all this, Antony went from Egypt to Italy. When he was not allowed to land in Brundisium, he made an alliance with Pompey and began hostile actions against Caesar. Antony himself laid siege to Brundisium and occupied Sipuntus and Ausonia on the Italian coast, while Pompey captured Sardinia, and the two legions stationed there surrendered to him without a fight. By this time, Caesar had 40 legions at his disposal, but he was far from sure that all of them would remain loyal to him if it came to a decisive battle with Antony. In addition, he did not have a single ship, did not have the opportunity to build a fleet, so he was afraid that his opponents, who owned 500 ships, would not block Italy devastated by the war and cause hunger there.
All these reasons, as well as the fact that both the army and the generals themselves were tired of endless wars, forced both sides to seek peace. With the assistance of friends, Antony and Caesar met in Brundisium and concluded a new treaty among themselves. They divided the whole Roman state into three parts, so that Caesar got all the provinces west of the Illyrian city of Scodra, and Antony - all those located east of it. Africa remained with Lepidus. Caesar was destined for war with Pompey, and Antony with the Parthians. Since Fulvia, Antony's wife, had recently died, it was agreed that Antony would marry Octavia, Caesar's sister. After that, both triumvirs went to Rome and celebrated their wedding there.
Meanwhile, Rome suffered from famine, as merchants from the east were deterred by the fear of Pompey and Sicily, and from the west by the fact that Sardinia and Corsica were also in the hands of Pompey; bread did not come from Africa, since the same enemies dominated both seashores. The prices of all foodstuffs in Rome rose, and since the cause of the disaster was seen as the enmity between the leaders, they were scolded and demanded reconciliation with Pompey. But Caesar did not agree to this and prepared for war. In order to raise funds for it, he issued a law to all those who own slaves to pay twelve and a half drachmas to the treasury for each of them, and also imposed a tax on persons who take possession of the inheritance. This order was met with an outburst of indignation among the people. A huge crowd of indignant people gathered in Rome; when Caesar went out to her to make a speech, stones flew at him. Anthony hurried to help him, but was also met with a hail of stones. Then he called a large detachment and the soldiers dispersed the crowd, killing and injuring many in the process. The corpses of the unfortunate Caesar ordered to be thrown into the Tiber. So this turmoil was stopped, but the famine continued to grow and by winter reached its highest strength.
Caesar was forced to yield. In the spring of 39 B.C. he agreed to start peace negotiations with Pompey. Pompey with the fleet arrived at the Dicearchy. At dawn, stakes were driven in in the middle of the sea at a short distance, boards were laid on these stakes, and in this way two decks were arranged. Caesar and Antony climbed one of them, Pompey and Libo climbed the other (he was an intermediary in the negotiations). The negotiations were not easy. By this time, many of the proscribed had fled to Sicily. Pompey demanded that only the murderers of Caesar be sentenced to exile, and that the rest be granted amnesty and their property returned. Caesar and Antony agreed with labor for the return of a quarter of their property to them. After that, peace was concluded. Pompey promised not to interfere with trade, but kept Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Peloponnese under his rule on the same grounds on which the triumvirs owned their provinces. His veterans were promised the same rewards as the veterans of the triumvirs. All the slaves who fled to him from Italy received freedom, but those who fled after the conclusion of the treaty, he had to return them to their owners. The triumvirs extended their emergency powers for another four years, and then had to return control to the people.
Caesar entered into this treaty with great reluctance under the pressure of circumstances. Having demonstrated his peacefulness, at the same time he continued to secretly feud with Pompey. Peloponnese, which followed that under the agreement, he agreed to transfer only after the payment by the Greeks of all the taxes imposed on them. Outraged by this, Pompey again began robberies at sea, the famine in Italy resumed, but Caesar entirely blamed the insidious Pompey for this, as well as the negligence of the Romans, who, instead of conquering the seas with weapons, preferred to receive handouts from the hands of enemies. And indeed, he managed to turn public opinion in his direction: the Romans loudly said that the world did not bring relief, but only planted a fourth tyrant on their neck. At this time, Menodorus, to whom Pompey first entrusted the administration of Corsica and Sardinia, and then began to suspect without any reason of treason, hastened to go over to the side of Caesar, along with his fleet, both islands and three legions of infantry. Caesar accepted him, and the world was finally torn apart.
Since Pompey could not be defeated except at sea, Caesar ordered the construction of ships in Rome and Ravenna. In 38 BC, when everything was ready, he crossed from Tarentum to Rhegium. Pompey was waiting for him at Messene with only 40 ships (the attack happened unexpectedly, and the main forces had not yet had time to approach him). Caesar, however, did not dare to start a battle in a narrow strait. In addition, he was waiting for the fleet of Menodorus. From Rhegium he sailed north along the shores of the strait. Meanwhile, Pompey, who had managed to collect most of his ships, overtook Caesar's fleet at Schilleus and pressed him to the rocky impregnable shore. The ships began to bump into each other, run into rocks and fill with water. The night and the approach of the ships of Menodorus did not allow Pompey to complete the rout, but even without that, the position of Caesar's fleet was desperate.
He himself jumped off the ship onto the coastal rocks, took those who were sailing out of the sea and escorted them to the nearest mountain. The survivors spent the night on a bare rocky shore, without food and servants, having experienced all the hardships. Caesar, who was in the same position, went around them, urging them to endure until dawn. All his slaves fled, and at first he did not even have a tent where he could rest. The next day a violent storm broke out. Pompey managed to take refuge with his ships in Messene, and Caesar's fleet was almost completely destroyed by bad weather.
Among these misfortunes, a joyful event for Caesar took place - after many failures, he finally found himself a life partner. In his youth, he was engaged to the daughter of Publius Servilius Isauricus. However, after the first reconciliation with Antony, when their soldiers demanded that both commanders enter into a family relationship, Caesar took as his wife Claudia, Antony's stepdaughter, daughter of Fulvia by Publius Clodius, although she had barely reached marriageable age. Having quarreled with his mother-in-law Fulvia, Caesar, without touching his wife, let her go as a virgin. He soon married Scribonia, who was already married to two consuls and had children by one; but he divorced her on the very birthday of his daughter Julia, as he himself wrote, "tired of her bad temper." Now Caesar was infatuated with Livia Drusilla, the wife of Tiberius Nero. He took her pregnant from her husband, married her, and loved her like no one else, honoring her until his death.
The next year the war with Pompey continued. In extreme cases, Caesar was forced to turn to Antony for help. In the early spring of 37 B.C. Antony sailed to Tarentum for negotiations. At first, relations between the co-rulers were strained: Caesar complained that Antony had delayed his help for such a long time. Antony sent his wife ahead of him, and Octavia managed to soften her brother. The triumvirs met quite friendly. Caesar, alone without bodyguards, crossed the Tarentum River in a boat and spent the night in Antony's house. The next day Antony showed the same confidence. They agreed that Antony would give Caesar 120 warships for the war with Pompey, and Caesar would give him 20,000 legionnaires for the campaign against the Parthians. They extended their emergency power for another five years and did not try to give this decision even the semblance of legitimacy, which they cared about the first time.
Postponing the start of the war for another year, Caesar began to prepare his fleet. New ships were built to replace the dead ships. The loss in crews was made up for by 20,000 freed slaves. At Bayi, Caesar ordered the construction of a harbor, connecting the Lucrino and Avernian lakes with the sea, and here he trained his troops throughout the winter.
Finally, in the summer of 36 B.C. Caesar opposed Pompey for the second time. He himself led a fleet from Dikearchia, Lepidus with 170 ships and 12 legions headed from Africa to Lilybaeum, and Taurus with Antony's fleet went from Tarentum. According to the general opinion, Pompey was not able to repel this triple blow. However, again, like two years ago, a strong storm mixed up all Caesar's plans. Taurus, however, managed to return to Tarentum at the first sign of it, and Lepidus, having lost many ships, nevertheless reached Sicily, but the fleet of Caesar himself suffered such losses and damage that he had to spend a whole month repairing the ships. Caesar took this new setback with firmness. Although autumn and the end of navigation were approaching, he decided to end the war with Pompey this year. He sent his fleet under the command of Agrippa to Mila, and he sailed with the ships of Taurus to Tauromenia.
Agrippa met Pompey's fleet at Mila and attacked it. After a stubborn battle, the Pompeians, having lost 30 of their ships and sunk 5 of the enemy, retreated to a shallower place where Agrippa's ships could not follow them. Caesar, meanwhile, landed three legions near Tauromenia. He was sure that Pompey was still under Myla, but he, leaving part of the ships there to mislead Agrippa, suddenly appeared near Tauromenium and began to push the enemy. Caesar ordered the army to wait for him in a fortified camp, and he himself went out with the fleet against Pompey. The battle lasted all day and ended with the complete defeat of Caesar. Most of his ships were sunk or burned. Others fled to the shores of Italy.
Caesar himself reached the Gulf of Abal. Pompey's commanders, Democharus and Apollophanes, pursued him, and he barely escaped them on a single ship. Caesar went ashore with only one squire - without friends, bodyguards and slaves. Here he, weakened in body and spirit, was found by the scouts of Messala (he was entrusted by Caesar in his absence by the Italian legions). Emboldened, Caesar began to actively collect ships and prepare new legions for the crossing. During these days, his life was in danger more than once. It is said that once he walked past Locri to Rhegium and saw the biremes of Pompey moving along the coast; mistaking them for his own, he went down to the sea and almost got captured. And when after that he fled along the narrow paths, the slave of his companion Aemilius Paul tried to kill him, taking advantage of the opportunity to avenge Paul the father, who was executed during proscriptions.
Those troops that he left near Tauromenia were forced to leave the camp due to lack of food. With heavy fighting, constantly pressed by the Pompeians, they reached Mil through the waterless terrain and joined with Agrippa. By this time Agrippa had taken possession of Tyndaris, a place abounding in provisions and conveniently located for waging war on the sea.
Caesar sent his troops to Tyndaris. Of all the forces in Sicily, he had 21 heavily armed legions, 20,000 horsemen and 5,000 lightly armed. Already in late autumn, during heavy rains, he joined the army of Lepidus, and they both encamped near Messene. Their detachments scattered throughout Sicily, exposing it to robbery and devastation.
Pompey did not dare to start a land battle. Proud of his fleet, he sent a challenge to Caesar and offered to decide the outcome of the war by a naval battle. Caesar agreed, although he had previously had no luck in any of his maritime ventures. A day was appointed by which both sides equipped 300 ships each. The Caesarian fleet was commanded by Agrippa, the most talented of all Caesar's generals. Caesar believed in his luck and was not mistaken. In full view of the two land armies near Navlokh, a grandiose naval battle unfolded, which proceeded with great ferocity. Its outcome seemed unclear for a long time, but in the end Agrippa pinned the Pompeian fleet to the shore and completely destroyed it. Only 17 ships managed to escape. Pompey took refuge in Messene, abandoning his land army. On the same day, she surrendered to Caesar. When news of the defeat reached Lilybaeus, his garrison also capitulated. Pompey fled from Sicily. The eight legions he left at Messene went over to the side of Lepidus.
With 22 legions now at his disposal, Lepidus began to plan how he could keep Sicily for himself without giving it to Caesar. He sent an order to all the cities in which his garrisons already stood, not to let in either Caesar or his generals. Thus, having just ended one war, Caesar was faced with the threat of a new one.
However, it soon became clear that Lepidus did not calculate his strength. Even his own soldiers disapproved of his feud with Caesar. As for the recent Pompeians, who had just come over to his side, such a turn of affairs suited them even less, because in the event of the defeat of Lepidus, they could no longer count on Caesar's indulgence. Knowing the mood of the soldiers, Caesar with a small guard suddenly appeared in the camp of Lepidus. He turned to the soldiers and said that he did not want war. They greeted him as emperor, and the Pompeians immediately went over to his side. Learning what was happening, Lepidus attacked Caesar. In the ensuing battle, some of his companions were killed, Caesar himself was hit with a spear, but did not break through the shell. He hastily retreated behind the fortifications.
However, his daring act was not without consequences. The warriors of Lepidus began to run across to Caesar, at first one by one, then in groups, and finally in whole legions. Caesar accepted everyone. When asked what to do with Lepidus, he ordered that his life be spared. He deprived Lepidus of all powers and released him to Rome, where he lived until his death as a private person. Africa and Sicily were annexed to Caesar's dominions. So happily ended this war, the most difficult of all that Caesar had to wage.
Returning to Rome, Caesar turned to the affairs of the state. He forgave all arrears in taxes and farming, which caused universal joy and jubilation. But that was only the first step. Caesar understood that a lot had to be done in order to return the country, ruined to the last limits, to its former prosperity. Italy was inundated with gangs of runaway slaves, marauders and renegades of every kind. The audacity of the robbers knew no bounds. Caesar waged a real war against them and betrayed all those caught to mass extermination. In less than a year, peace and security were again established everywhere, and Caesar deserved the general amazement at such a quick and unexpected restoration of order. He returned many rights in state administration to annual officials, in accordance with his father's laws, burned documents relating to the time of unrest, and promised to fully restore the state system after the return of Antony from the Parthian campaign. Caesar himself began to prepare for a campaign against the Illyrians, who devastated the coast of Italy with their raids. He moved into Illyria in 35 BC. Many tribes on the coast submitted to him without a fight. With others, he had to wage a stubborn struggle. By 33 the conquest of Illyria was complete.
Having received this answer, Antony in 32 BC. sent his people to Rome with orders to expel Octavia from his home and began to prepare for war. Upon learning of the swiftness and size of the enemy preparations, Caesar was in dismay. He feared that hostilities might have to be started that same summer; meanwhile, he still lacked much for the war, in addition, there was a murmur everywhere caused by high taxes. The freeborn were to contribute a quarter of their income to the treasury, and the freedmen - an eighth of all property, and everyone angrily appealed to Caesar, all of Italy was worried. Therefore, delay was considered the greatest mistake of Antony: he gave Caesar time to prepare, and unrest to settle down, because while the penalties were going on, people were indignant, but, having paid, they calmed down.
When Caesar considered his preparations sufficient, it was decided to start a war against Cleopatra and deprive Antony of powers, which he conceded and transferred to a woman. Antony had at least 500 warships, 100,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry. Caesar had 250 ships, 80,000 infantry and 12,000 cavalry. Knowing about his double advantage at sea, Antony intended to solve the war by a naval battle. Although it was pointed out to him that for such a large number of ships it was impossible to collect a sufficient number of rowers and therefore they would be slow and clumsy, Antony, in order to please Cleopatra, did not change his mind. Meanwhile, Caesar's fleet was flawlessly equipped.
Battle of Cape Actium, 31 BC
Artist - Pavel Glodek
9 CE e. Battle in the Teutoburg Forest In September 31 BC. both fleets met in Greece at Cape Actia. Caesar himself was in charge on the right flank, and left Agrippa instructed. As many had foreseen, Antony's ships proved worthless. Due to the lack of rowers, they could not gain acceleration, on which, mainly, the strength of the ram depends. Caesar's ships easily avoided blows, bypassed the enemy from the side and attacked from the rear. Nevertheless, the outcome of the battle was still far from being decided, when 60 Egyptian ships, led by Cleopatra, suddenly took to flight at once. As soon as Antony saw this, he, as if mad, gave up the battle and rushed to catch up with Cleopatra. His fleet continued to fight for some time, but by the evening ceased resistance. Caesar captured over three hundred warships. A week later, the entire ground army surrendered - 19 legions and masses of cavalry.
After that, Caesar sailed to Athens, reconciled with the Greeks and divided the remnants of the grain reserves made for the war between the cities, which suffered the most severe need - robbed, deprived of all their money, cattle and slaves. Caesar wanted to spend the winter in Samos, but then alarming news came from Rome that the select detachments sent by him after the victory to Brundisium rebelled and demanded awards and resignation - he immediately set off back to Italy. Twice on the way he was overtaken by storms - once between the ends of the Peloponnese and Aetolia, another time against the Keravnian mountains, in both storms part of his Liburnian galleys died, and on the ship where he sailed, the gear was broken and the rudder was broken. In Brundisium, he stayed only twenty-seven days, until he arranged everything according to the wishes of the soldiers, and then returned to Greece.
In the spring of 30 B.C. Caesar moved to Egypt through Syria, and his generals - through Africa. Pelusius surrendered to the Romans without a fight. Caesar approached Alexandria, and here, near the horse races, Antony's cavalry had a successful battle with him. But this insignificant victory could no longer change the fate of Antony. The remnants of his fleet went over to the side of Caesar, followed by the cavalry, only the infantry entered the battle, but was defeated.
Abandoned by all, Anthony committed suicide by stabbing himself with a sword. When Caesar was informed of this, he went into the depths of the tent and wept, grieving for the man who was his relative, co-ruler and comrade in many deeds and battles. Then, taking out the letters, he called his friends and began to read to them, so that they could see how friendly and just he wrote, and with what rudeness, with what arrogance Antony always answered. Then he ordered Cleopatra to be captured and vigilantly ensure that she did not commit suicide. He pardoned all the Alexandrians for the glory of their city. But Antullus, the eldest son of Antony from Fulvia, Caesar ordered to be beheaded. Later, the son of Cleopatra Caesarion, whom she gave birth to from the elder Caesar, was also killed. Cleopatra herself, Caesar wanted to spend in Rome during the triumph as a prisoner, but she, despite strict supervision, was poisoned.
Caesar turned Egypt into a province; and in order for it to be more fertile and give more bread to the capital, he forced the soldiers to clear the canals swollen with silt from old age, through which the Nile spills. Returning in 29 B.C. to Rome, he celebrated a triple triumph: Dalmatian, Aktian and Alexandrian for three consecutive days.
Upon his return, Caesar purged the senate, which had long since grown and turned into a disorderly crowd - it had more than a thousand members, and among them the most unworthy people, accepted after the death of the elder Caesar by acquaintance or for a bribe. After reviewing the Senate lists, Caesar crossed out many and returned the Senate to its former size (600 people) and its former splendor. They say that at the same time he was sitting in the chairman's seat in a shell under his clothes and with weapons, and around him stood ten of his strongest friends from the senate. Each senator was allowed to approach him one by one and searched. Some he conciliated, so that they voluntarily renounced the title. He ordered from now on to convene the Senate only twice a month, and he brought with him a council with which he discussed matters before submitting them to the full senate.
In 27 BC, at the suggestion of Munatius Plancus, the Senate proposed to Caesar that he be called Augustus, as the savior of the fatherland. He accepted this name with gratitude and carried it until his death. Then the division of the provinces between him and the senate was arranged. Augustus took upon himself those of them that were significant and that it was difficult and unsafe to manage with year-old governors. In the future, however, he visited both of them and, having traveled all over the state, he was not, it seems, only in Africa and Sardinia.
In 26 B.C. Augustus waged war against the Cantabrians in Spain, which ended in their subjugation. This trip nearly cost him his life. In general, he was distinguished by poor health and ailments, which he repeated every year at a certain time: around his birthday he usually felt relaxed, in early spring he suffered from atrial enlargement, and with a south wind - from a runny nose. Upon his return from Spain, he was plagued by liver disease. August was treated with hot poultices, but without any result. Finally, by 23 B.C. the disease took on such a dangerous character that Augustus began to prepare for death. Then he thought of restoring the republic and renounced the consular power, which he had been using uninterruptedly since 31 BC. He even summoned senators and officials to him and gave them the books of state affairs. Soon the doctor Anthony Musa began to treat him in an unusual and dubious way: cold poultices. Contrary to expectation, the remedy helped, and August completely recovered. Then the senators, with their own money, erected a statue of Antony near the statue of Aesculapius. And in Italy, the news of Augustus's recovery was greeted with such jubilation that many cities made the day on which he first visited them the beginning of a new year. Having recovered, Augustus abandoned the idea of restoring the republic. He believed that it was dangerous to give the state back into the hands of many rulers.
He remained at the head of the country, although officially his special position was not fixed by anything. After an illness, he refused the consulship for seventeen years, taking upon himself only the lifelong power of the people's tribune and proconsul. It is said that when the people in 22 B.C. offered him dictatorial power, he lowered his toga from his shoulders and, baring his chest, begged him to save it. He called himself princeps (that is, the first in the list of senators). He always dreaded the name "sovereign" as an insult and disgrace. Neither appearance nor way of life, he tried not to stand out from others. When he was a consul, he usually moved on foot, when he was not a consul - in a closed stretcher. He allowed ordinary people to join the general morning greetings and accepted petitions from them with extraordinary kindness. On the days of the meetings, he greeted senators only in the curia in their places, addressing each by name, without a reminder; even leaving and saying goodbye, he did not force them to get up. With many he was familiar at home and did not stop visiting family holidays. No one suffered from him for free and obstinate speeches. Present at the election of officials, he always went around the tribes with his candidates and asked for them according to the old custom. He himself cast his vote in his tribe, like a simple citizen. Speaking as a witness in court, he endured interrogations and objections with rare calmness. He lived first near the forum in a house that once belonged to the orator Calvus, and then - on the Palatine, in the house of Hortensius; but even this house was modest, unremarkable either in size or decoration - even the porticos were short, with columns of Alban stone, and the rooms had neither marble nor piece floors. For more than forty years he slept in the same bedroom in winter and summer, and he always spent the winter in Rome. He worked in a special room upstairs. If he was sick or wanted to rest, he moved to a villa with one of the freedmen or to the house of his friend Maecenas. He went on vacation either to Campania or to some town not far from Rome, and in his old age he fell in love with visiting Capri. He did not tolerate large and luxurious houses, he did not buy statues and paintings, but he collected ancient armor and huge bones of prehistoric animals. The tables and couch that he usually used could hardly satisfy even a simple man in the street. His bed was low and hard. He wore only home-made clothes, made by his sister, wife, daughter or granddaughters. The dinner parties that Augustus hosted for his friends were more cordial than sophisticated. Three courses were usually served, six at the most. He himself ate very little and unpretentiously. He liked coarse bread, small fish, wet cheese and green figs. He drank very little wine.
As far as possible, Augustus tried to return his fellow citizens to the norms of ancient Roman morality. To this end, in 18 B.C. he revised the old laws and introduced some new ones: for example, on luxury, on adultery and depravity, on bribery, on the order of marriage for all classes. The severity of these laws caused a lot of criticism, and in the future, Augustus had to soften them. In the same year, the list of senators was revised for the second time, but this time the senators themselves chose each other. Labeon voted for Mark Lepid, who lived in exile, and to the question of Augustus, was there really no one more worthy, he answered: "Everyone has his own opinion." It is said that this insolence got away with him.
Augustus married off his daughter Julia to Agrippa, his comrade-in-arms. Having no male heirs, he in 17 BC. adopted his grandchildren from Agrippa - Gaius and Lucius. From childhood, he brought them closer to state affairs and sent them to the provinces and to the troops as appointed consuls. They write that he was a strict teacher. He even taught his daughter and granddaughters how to spin wool; he forbade them everything that could not be said or done openly, writing it down in his home diary. He himself taught his grandchildren reading and writing and other basic knowledge, especially trying to make them adopt his handwriting. When he dined, they always sat on the lower couch with him, and when he traveled, they rode in front of the wagon or galloped around. Augustus specifically asked for his last, thirteenth, consulship (in 2 BC) in order to bring his adopted sons Gaius and Lucius to the people in this highest position on the day of their coming of age. But despite all this, he had no luck either in children or in grandchildren. Both Julius, daughter and granddaughter, stained with all the vices, he had to exile (in 2 BC) Gaius and Lucius, he lost one after another after eighteen months - Gaius died in Lycia, Lucius - in Massilia. He adopted his third grandson Agrippa and stepson Tiberius at the forum before the assembly of curiae - but he soon renounced Agrippa for his low and cruel disposition and exiled him to Sorrent. The death of loved ones was not as hard for him as their shame. He forbade the exiled Julia to give wine and provide the slightest comfort; he did not let either a slave or a free person near her without his knowledge and always found out exactly what age, height and appearance he was. Only five years later did he transfer her from the island to the mainland and slightly soften the conditions of exile; but there was no question of forgiving her completely.
Meanwhile, it is known that Augustus himself in his youth was very greedy for women and had a relationship with many matrons. Even in old age, he was not indifferent to voluptuous pleasures and was, as they say, a great lover of young girls, whom his wife herself obtained from everywhere.
Elected after the death of Lepidus, in 12 BC, as the great pontiff, Augustus ordered to collect and burn all the false prophetic books that were circulating in large numbers among the people. The calendar, introduced by Caesar, but then carelessly thrown into disorder and disorder, he restored to its former form; during this transformation, he called August the month of his first consulate and the most glorious victories (it turned out that it was in August that he later died).
Augustus constantly cared about the beauty and grandeur of Rome. In 7 B.C. he divided the entire city into districts and quarters. To protect against fires, he set up posts and introduced night guards to prevent floods, expanded and cleared the bed of the Tiber. He ordered all the roads to the capital to be repaired and paved. Sacred buildings that collapsed from dilapidation, Augustus restored and decorated with rich offerings. He built a great many public buildings; of these, the most important is the forum with the temple of Mars the Avenger. He built many buildings under a false name, on behalf of his grandchildren, wife and sister. He strongly advised prominent citizens to decorate the city to the best of their ability, erecting new monuments or restoring or improving old ones. He was justifiably proud of what he had done and said that he accepted Rome as brick and left it as marble.
Augustus was engaged in military affairs a lot and stubbornly, gradually rebuilding the army and achieving strict discipline. So, for example, after the civil wars, he never once called the soldiers "comrades-in-arms", but only "warriors", because he found this too flattering for military orders. He carried out checks and exercises constantly and severely punished for the slightest omissions. To all soldiers, wherever they served, he appointed a single salary and awards, defining for each rank and terms of service and retirement allowance, so that after retirement, neither age nor poverty would induce them to revolt. To ensure that funds for salaries and awards were always ready, he established a military treasury and provided it with new taxes.
As a reward for his labors, Augustus, the third of all the Romans, in 2 BC. the honorary name of the father of the fatherland was granted by the people and the Senate, and the plebeians were the first to do this, and only then the senators.
Despite poor health, Augustus lived to a ripe old age and died quite unexpectedly. In 14, he accompanied his stepson and co-ruler to Illyricum. On the way, his stomach began to hurt. But he still made it to Naples. Here his illness intensified, and on the way back to Nona he fell ill. Before his death, he ordered to comb his hair and fix his drooping jaw. And when his friends came in, he asked them how they thought he played the comedy of life well? And said the final lines:
If we played well
clap
And see us good
parting word.
Livia, who held his head in her lap, he said: "Livia, remember how we lived together! Live and farewell!" With these words, he expired. And in death, as in everything else, he was happy, because he died easily, as if he had fallen asleep.
Octavian Augustus (63 BC - 14 AD) - politician, emperor, consul of Ancient Rome. He also had the status of the great pontiff (high priest) and the powers of the tribune.
Family, childhood
Gaius Octavius Furin, as the founder of the Roman Empire Octavian Augustus was named at birth, was born in Rome on September 23, 63. BC. His family, rich but not noble, was related to Caesar. Octavian was his great-nephew.
At a tender age, he lost his father, and his mother remarried. This event in the biography of Octavian Augustus was decisive - he was sent to be brought up by his maternal grandmother, who was Caesar's sister. However, it is unlikely that at that time Octavian could have met his ruling relative, since Caesar was busy waging the Gallic War. Obviously, the acquaintance took place when Caesar returned to Italy at the beginning of the civil war (49 BC).
As a child (in 48 or 47 BC) Octavian was initiated and under the patronage of Caesar in 47. BC. received the first 2 positions: an honorary place in the council of priests (college of pontiffs) and the position of prefect of the city (the person who governs Rome during the absence of the consul).
The older Octavian Augustus became, the stronger his attachment to Caesar was revealed. It is not surprising that many people began to seek friendship with him. After the assassination of Caesar, according to his will, Octavian was declared heir. Having entered into rights, he began to gain authority among the Romans: he organized games in honor of Caesar's victories after the prescribed period of mourning, gave everyone money.
Power struggle. Mutinskaya war
Despite Caesar's will, the active army, as well as his veterans, did not obey Octavian. They supported Caesar's former associate and pretender to the throne, Mark Antony. Octavian tried to remedy the situation by arriving in southern Italy. Here, by promising reprisals against the murderers of Caesar and a monetary reward, he gathered a 10,000-strong army, with which he marched on Rome. November 10, 44 BC. he occupies the Forum, where he delivers a speech calling for war with Antony. However, the legionnaires, who were ready to fight Brutus and Cassius, did not want to oppose the authoritative Antony. Octavian was forced to retreat.
Anthony also tried to seize power by making a series of military campaigns. He moved to Galia and laid siege to the city of Mutina. At this time, the Senate grants Octavian the powers of propraetor (governor of the province) and senator. This, in turn, allowed the young Octavian to take the position of assistant consul. The consuls, having taken troops from Octavian, set off to lift the siege from Mutina. During the struggle, both consuls died, the victory remained with Octavian and his associates.
Second triumvirate
After the Mutinskaya war, Octavian demands to be appointed consul-suffect, but is refused by the senate. In return, he is given the title of emperor (an honorary military title), but he is not allowed to triumph.
Octavian, dissatisfied with the actions of the Senate, experiencing a feeling of hatred for the Republicans, is moving closer to Anthony. Having gathered a huge army of legionnaires, Octavian enters Rome, seizes the treasury and seeks his election as consul. His colleague Quintus Pedias becomes the second consul.
Then Octavian, Antony and the latter's associate, Lepidus, create a triumvirate with legal power to fight Brutus and Cassius. After that, Antony and Octavian set off with a 100,000-strong army to Greece, where the bases of Cassius and Brutus were located. The latter could not reach an understanding, so the victory is for the triumvirate. Octavian returns to Rome.
Civil wars depleted the Italian economy, and famine raged in the country. Guy Octavian began to take land from the inhabitants in order to give his legionnaires the promised reward. It also shook the country's economy and Octavian's personal authority. Anthony's brother tried to take advantage of the discontent. He wanted to seize power, but was severely punished by Octavian.
Upon the return of Antony, the triumvirate divides the sphere of influence: Mark gets the eastern provinces of Rome, Octavian - Italy and the western provinces, Lepidus - Africa. After a while, only two triumvirates remained - Lepidus was removed from power.
Octavian's reign
A new round in the biography of Octavian happened after the marriage of Antony to Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt. At the same time, Anthony had a legal wife at that time. Octavian turned the Romans against Antony by making public the latter's will, according to which all Roman lands belonged to Cleopatra's children. The Senate declared war on Antony, in which the latter was defeated. Being betrayed by his legionaries, Antony commits suicide. Cleopatra, not wanting to participate in the triumph, also kills herself.
In January 29 BC. Octavian triumphs. However, he does not become a dictator while remaining an emperor. He also retains the title of princeps (first in the list of senators), so the form of state created by Augustus is the principate.
He expanded the boundaries of the Roman Empire, strengthened the foundations of slavery, reduced the Senate and raised the property qualification for entry. August won the general sympathy of the plebeians by giving them "bread and circuses", in particular, forgiving their debts.
After 9 y.o. AD Augustus limits the policy of conquest, directing forces and resources to the protection of state borders, the construction and improvement of the empire.
He died in August 14. AD in the circle of family and friends.
