D.K. Shigapova
Suchkova T.V., Saydasheva G.T.
PART 1
PSYCHOLOGY OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
T.V. Suchkova, G.T. Saydasheva
Tutorial
BBK 88.5;88.3
С 91 Psychology of social interaction. Part 1.: textbook. allowance.- Kazan: Publishing House Kazan. state architect.-builds. Univ. 2013. -80 p.
ISBN 978-5-7829-0403-6
Published by decision of the Editorial and Publishing Council of the Kazan State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering
The content of the textbook complies with the requirements of the federal state educational standard of higher professional education and is aimed at developing the general cultural competencies of students. It characterizes the psychology of social interaction as a section of social psychology, examines the history of the formation of the subject of psychology, the main directions of domestic and foreign psychology, socio-psychological problems of personality and communication.
The manual is intended for students of higher technical educational institutions studying in the direction of preparation 270800.62 "Construction".
Reviewers:
Doctor of Pedagogy, Professor, Dean of the Faculty of General Engineering Training of KSUAE
N.K. Tuktamyshev;
Candidate of Sociological Sciences, Associate Professor, Department of Human Resource Management, Kazan (Volga Region) Federal University
Section 1. Socio-psychological properties of personality…………….4
1.1. The history of the formation of social psychology as a science………....4
1.2. The main directions of foreign psychology of the XX century……………15
1.3. The development of psychology in Russia in the XIX-XX centuries…………………………30
1.4. Methods of socio-psychological research………………35
1.5. The concept of personality. Socio-psychological structure and characteristics of personality……………………………………………………………………………………………40
1.6. Socio-psychological aspects of socialization……………..49
Questions for self-control…………………………………………………..52
Bibliographic list……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………54
Section 2. Psychology of social interaction…………………....55
2.1. Communication as a socio-psychological phenomenon……………… .55
2.2. Psychological features of business communication………………….59
2.3. The structure of interpersonal communication. The communicative side of communication………………………………………………………………………….61
2.4. Interactive side of communication……………………………………….68
2.5. The perceptual side of communication…………………………………… ..71
Questions for self-control ………………………………………………….79
Bibliographic list …………………………………………………………80
SECTION 1. SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERSON
Psychology as a science. The psychology of social interaction is a branch of social psychology that studies the psychological aspects of the exchange of social actions between two or more people.
The word "psychology" in translation into Russian literally means "the science of the soul" (gr. Psyche - "soul" + logos - "concept", "teaching").
In our time, instead of the concept of "soul", the concept of "psyche" is used, although the language still has many words and expressions derived from the original root: animated, sincere, soulless, kinship of souls, mental illness, heartfelt conversation, etc.
From a linguistic point of view, "soul" and "psyche" are one and the same. At the same time, with the development of culture and especially science, the meanings of these concepts diverged. The psyche is a systemic property of highly organized matter (the brain), which consists in the active reflection of the surrounding world by a person, in building a picture of the world and regulating his behavior and activities on this basis.
In the human psyche, three categories of manifestations are distinguished: mental processes, mental states, and mental properties or features. to mental processes usually include cognitive processes: sensations and perceptions, memory, attention, imagination, thinking and speech; emotional and volitional processes. to mental states include manifestations of various mental processes: feelings (mood, affects), attention (concentration, absent-mindedness), will (confidence, uncertainty), thinking (doubt), etc. To mental properties or features personalities include features of thinking, stable features of the volitional sphere, entrenched in the character, temperament, and abilities of a person.
The division of all manifestations of the psyche into these three categories is very conditional. The concept of "mental process" emphasizes the procedural nature, the dynamics of the fact established by psychology. The concept of "psychic feature", or "mental property", expresses the stability of a mental fact, its fixation and repetition in the structure of personality. One and the same psychic fact, for example an affect, ᴛ.ᴇ. a violent and short-term emotional outburst, can rightfully be characterized both as a mental process (since it expresses the dynamics of the development of feelings, successive stages are identified), and as a mental state (since it represents a characteristic of mental activity for a certain period of time ), and as a manifestation of the mental characteristics of a person (since such a personality trait as irascibility, anger, incontinence is found here).
So psychology studies psychic phenomena, ᴛ.ᴇ. facts of internal, subjective experience ͵ of what is happening in the inner world of a person, his sensations, thoughts, desires, feelings, etc. In addition, there are a number of other forms of manifestation of the psyche, which psychology has singled out and included in the circle of its consideration. Among them are facts of behavior, unconscious mental processes, psychosomatic phenomena, and finally, creations of human hands and mind, i.e., products of material and spiritual culture. In all these facts, phenomena, products, the psyche manifests itself, reveals its properties, and in connection with this, it can be studied through them. At the same time, psychology did not come to these conclusions immediately, but in the course of heated discussions and dramatic transformations of ideas about its subject.
Modern psychology is a very branched system of scientific disciplines that are at different stages of formation, associated with various areas of practice. So, they distinguish, for example, pedagogical psychology, labor psychology, developmental psychology, etc.
Social Psychology studies mental phenomena that arise in the process of interaction between people in various organized and unorganized social groups. The structure of social psychology currently includes the following three ranges of problems.
Socio-psychological phenomena in large groups (in the macro environment). These include the problems of mass communication (radio, television, the press, etc.), the mechanisms and effectiveness of the impact of mass media on various communities of people, the patterns of distribution of fashion, rumors, generally accepted tastes, rituals, prejudices, public sentiment, problems of psychology classes, nations, psychology of religion.
Socio-psychological phenomena in the so-called small groups (in the microenvironment). These include the problems of psychological compatibility in closed groups, interpersonal relations in groups, group atmosphere, the position of the leader and followers in the group, group types (association, corporation, collectives), the ratio of formal and informal groups, the quantitative limits of small groups, the degree and causes of group cohesion. , the perception of a person by a person in a group, the value orientations of the group, and many others.
Socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality (social psychology of personality). Human personality is the object of social psychology. At the same time, they consider how much a person meets social expectations in large and small groups, how he accepts the influence of these groups, how he learns the value orientations of groups, what is the dependence of a person’s self-esteem on the assessment of her group, which includes a person, etc. .
The formation of the subject of psychology. In the history of the formation of the subject of psychology, several stages can be distinguished. The first ideas about the subject of psychology are associated with the concept soul, disclosed in the writings of ancient philosophers. Almost all philosophers antiquity tried to express with the help of this concept the most important, essential principle of any object of living (and sometimes inanimate) nature, considering it as the cause of life, breathing, knowledge, etc. They tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life by the presence of the soul. The question of the nature of the soul was decided by philosophers depending on whether they belonged to a materialistic or idealistic direction.
One of the brightest representatives of ancient philosophy is Socrates (469–399 BC). He believed that the basis of a moral act is knowledge of the good. Virtue consists in knowing the good and acting in accordance with that knowledge. The brave is the one who knows how to behave in danger and does so. Knowledge has active power. It is stored in the secrets of the soul of every person.
In the doctrine of the soul, Socrates first pointed out the distinction between the body and the soul and proclaimed the immateriality and immateriality of the soul. He defined the soul as something distinct from the body. The soul is invisible, unlike the visible body. She is the mind, which is the beginning of the divine. He defended the immortality of the soul.
Thus, the movement of ancient thought gradually began to take shape in the direction of an idealistic understanding of the soul. Idealism reaches its highest development in the works of Plato, a student of Socrates.
The doctrine of ideas is the central philosophical problem Plato (427-347 BC). Ideas - ϶ᴛᴏ truly existing being, unchanging, eternal, having no origin, invisible, existing independently of sensible things.
The further development of the concept of the soul proceeded by highlighting various “parts” and functions in it. In Plato, their distinction took on an ethical meaning. This was explained by the Platonic myth of a charioteer driving a chariot to which two horses are harnessed: a wild one, eager to go its own way at any cost, and a thoroughbred, noble, manageable. The driver symbolized the rational part of the soul, the horses - two types of motives: lower and higher motives. Reason, called upon to reconcile these two motives, experiences, according to Plato, great difficulties due to the incompatibility of base and noble desires.
Such important aspects as the conflict of motives with different moral values and the role of reason in overcoming it were introduced into the sphere of the study of the soul. Many centuries later, the version of the interaction of the three components that form the personality as a dynamic organization, torn by conflicts and full of contradictions, will appear in Freud's psychoanalysis.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher and naturalist who laid the foundations of many disciplines, including psychology. His treatise "On the Soul" is considered the first special psychological work.
Aristotle opened a new era in the understanding of the soul as a subject of psychological knowledge. Not physical bodies and not incorporeal ideas became for him the source of this knowledge, but the organism, where the corporeal and the spiritual form an inseparable integrity. The soul, according to Aristotle, is not an independent entity, but a form, a way of organizing a living body. “If the eye were a living being, its soul would be vision,” said Aristotle.
The concept of ability, introduced by Aristotle, was an important innovation, forever included in the main fund of psychological knowledge. It shared the capabilities of the organism - the psychological resource inherent in it and its implementation in practice. At the same time, a scheme was outlined for the hierarchy of abilities as functions of the soul: a) vegetative (plants also have it); b) sensory-motor (in animals and humans); c) reasonable (inherent only in humans). The functions of the soul became the levels of its development.
Thus, the idea of development was introduced into psychology as the most important explanatory principle. The functions of the soul were located in the form of a "ladder of forms", where a function of a higher level arises from the lower and on its basis. (After the vegetative (vegetative) one, the ability to feel is formed, from which the ability to think develops.)
At the same time, each person, during his transformation from an infant into a mature being, goes through those steps that the entire organic world has overcome in its history. (This was later called the biogenetic law.)
The distinction between sense perception and thought was one of the first psychological truths discovered by the ancients. Aristotle, following the principle of development, sought to find the links leading from one stage to another. In these searches, he discovered a special area of mental images that arise without the direct impact of things on the senses. Now they are commonly called representations of memory and imagination. (Aristotle spoke of fantasy.) These images are again subordinate to the mechanism of association discovered by Aristotle - the connection of ideas.
Explaining the development of character, he argued that a person becomes what he is by performing certain actions. The doctrine of the formation of character in real actions, which in people as "political" beings always presuppose a moral attitude towards others, put the mental development of a person in a causal, natural dependence on his activity.
Aristotle attached great importance to education, emphasizing that a lot depends on what one learns from childhood. At the same time, education should not be a private matter, but the concern of the state.
Aristotle's doctrine of the soul, based on the analysis of vast empirical material, the characteristics of sensation, thinking, feelings, affects, will pointed to the qualitative difference between man and animals - Aristotle defined man as a "social being". Aristotle presented a completely new, in comparison with his predecessors, picture of the structure, functions and development of the soul as a form of the body.
Significant contribution to the development of psychology was made ancient doctors. So, Hippocrates (c.460-c.377 BC)– the ancient Greek physician, the "father of medicine", believed that the organ of thinking and sensations is the brain. Everything that a person sees, hears, understands as good or bad, pleasant and unpleasant, everything is connected with the brain. When the brain is in a calm state, a person thinks sensibly; when the brain is unhealthy, in an abnormal state, the person experiences madness, fears and dreams.
Hippocrates' doctrine of temperaments is most famous. He classified temperament types on a somatic basis. The predominance of a certain juice in the body, Hippocrates believed, determines the type of temperament, from which differences in the customs of people follow. So, the predominance of blood is the basis of sanguine temperament (from Latin sanquis - blood), mucus - phlegmatic (from Greek phlegma - mucus), yellow bile - choleric (from Greek chole - bile), black bile - melancholic (from Greek. melaina chole - black bile). IP Pavlov, developing his doctrine of the types of higher nervous activity, referred to Hippocrates and noted that Hippocrates "caught the capital features in the mass of countless variants of human behavior."
The era of the Middle Ages (the period from the 5th to the beginning of the 17th century) went down in history as a time of unconditional submission to the authority of the church. Psychology in the Middle Ages acquires an ethical-theological mystical character. The development of knowledge about the psyche slows down sharply. The study of spiritual life is subject to the tasks of theology: to show how the human spirit is gradually elevated to the kingdom of grace.
The transition from the ancient tradition to the medieval Christian worldview is associated with the theory of the Roman thinker Aurelius Augustine (AD 354–430). He believed that the soul controls the body, but its basis is not the mind, but the will. The individual will depends on the divine and acts in two directions: it controls the movement of the soul and turns it towards itself. The improvement of the soul occurs through repentance, renunciation of everything earthly, and not through education, as was the case with Plato and Aristotle. Augustine introduces the proposition “I think, therefore I am”, from which the thesis about the reliability of our being is derived, that the measure of truth is in our self-consciousness. At the same time, truth is granted by God, as well as the source of human activity - will.
In the Middle Ages, Arabic-speaking science, in particular, medicine, achieved success. Its major representatives are Avicenna (Ibn-Sina), Alhazen, Averroes (Ibn-Rushd). In the works of these scientists, the idea of the conditionality of mental qualities by natural causes, of the dependence of the psyche on the conditions of life and upbringing, is carried out. Avicenna gave a more accurate description of the connection between the processes of sensation and thinking with the brain, observing the disturbances in brain injuries. Spiritual forces do not exist on their own, but need an organ, a bodily substratum, which is the brain.
One of the brightest representatives of medieval thought in Europe is Thomas Aquinas (1226–1274 gg). In his system, he tried to reconcile theology with science. He believed that the human soul is conscious, one of the mechanisms of cognition is intentionality, some kind of force, an inner word that gives a certain direction to the act of perception and cognition in general. At the same time, truth is still religious in origin. The ultimate source of free human decisions, according to Thomas Aquinas, is not man himself, but God, who arouses in man the desire to act this way and not otherwise.
Main Feature renaissance turned to ancient values. By the XIV century. includes the activities of the greatest humanists - Aligheri. Dante (1265–1321 rᴦ.), F. Petrarch (1304–1374 rᴦ.), D. Boccaccio (1313–1375 gg.). During this period, there is a great interest in a person, in his experiences. The most important invention of the XV century. - typography - allowed to publish classical ancient literature and engage in education. The most important feature of the Renaissance is the revival of the natural science direction, the development of science and the growth of knowledge. A natural philosophy arises, free from the direct subordination of religion (J. Bruno, B. Telesio, P. Pomponazzi). The 16th century is a time of great discoveries in the field of mechanics, astronomy, and mathematics. N. Copernicus (1473–1543 rᴦ.), I. Kepler (1571–1630 rᴦ.), J. Bruno (1548–1600 gg.), G. Galileo (1564–1642 rᴦ.) stand at the origins of the classical science of modern times. Their significance lies in the fact that they proved that it is extremely important to analyze real phenomena, processes and reveal laws, guided by the assumption that nature obeys the simplest rules. The systematic work of theoretical scientific thinking begins.
A new era in the development of world psychological thought was opened by concepts inspired by the great triumph of mechanics, which became the "queen of sciences" in new time.
The first draft of a psychological theory oriented towards geometry and new mechanics was by a French mathematician, naturalist and philosopher René Descartes (1596-1650). He invented a theoretical model of the organism as an automaton - a system that works mechanically. Thus, the living body, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ in the entire previous history of knowledge was considered as animated, ᴛ.ᴇ. gifted and controlled by the soul, freed from its influence and interference.
Descartes introduced the concept of reflex which has become fundamental for physiology and psychology. Reliable knowledge about the structure of the nervous system was negligible in those days. Descartes saw this system in the form of "tubes" through which light airborne particles - "spirits" are carried. In the reflex scheme, it was assumed that an external impulse sets these "spirits" in motion, bringing them to the brain, from where they are automatically reflected to the muscles. A hot object, burning the hand, forces it to withdraw. A reaction occurs, similar to the reflection of a light beam from a surface. The term “reflex”, which appeared after Descartes, meant reflection.
Muscle response is an essential component of behavior. For this reason, the Cartesian scheme, despite its speculative nature, belongs to the category of great discoveries.
Thanks to the works of Descartes, there was a turn in the concept of "soul", now the subject of psychology is consciousness. According to Descartes, the beginning of all beginnings in philosophy and science is doubt. Everything should be doubted - natural and supernatural. Hence the famous Descartes aphorism “cogito ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am). Since thinking is the only attribute of the soul, it always thinks, always knows about its mental contents, visible from within. This "inner vision" was later called introspection(human self-observation of the inner plan of mental life, ᴛ.ᴇ. of experiences, thoughts, feelings, etc.), and the Cartesian concept of consciousness - introspective.
Recognizing that the machine of the body and the consciousness occupied with its own thoughts (ideas) and desires are two entities (substances) independent of each other, Descartes faced the extreme importance of explaining how they coexist in a holistic person? The solution, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ he proposed, was called psychophysical interaction. The body affects the soul, awakening in it “passive states” (passions) in the form of sensory perceptions, emotions, etc. The soul, possessing thinking and will, affects the body.
One of the first opponents of Descartes was B. Spinoza (1632–1677 gᴦ.). He believed that there is a single, eternal substance - God or Nature - with an infinite number of attributes (inherent properties). Of these, only two attributes are open to our limited understanding - extension and thinking.
An attempt to build a psychological doctrine of man as an integral being was captured by his main work - "Ethics". In it, he set the task of explaining the whole variety of feelings (affects) as the motivating forces of human behavior with the same accuracy and rigor as lines and surfaces in geometry. The three main driving forces are: a) attraction, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ, referring to both the soul and the body, is “something other than the very essence of man”, and also b) joy and c) sadness. It was argued that the whole variety of emotional states is derived from these fundamental affects. Moreover, joy increases the ability of the body to act, while sadness reduces it. This conclusion opposed the Cartesian division of feelings into two categories: rooted in the life of the organism and purely intellectual.
G. Leibniz (1646–1716) He believed that the imperceptible activity of "small perceptions" was continuously going on in the soul. With this term, Leibniz designated unconscious perceptions. Awareness of perceptions becomes possible due to the fact that a special mental act is added to a simple perception (perception) - apperception, the dependence of perception on past experience.
When asked how spiritual and bodily phenomena relate to each other, Leibniz answered with a formula known as psychophysical parallelism. The dependence of the psyche on bodily influences is an illusion. Soul and body perform their operations independently and automatically. At the same time, divine wisdom affected the fact that between them there is a pre-established harmony. Οʜᴎ are like a pair of clocks that always show the same time, as they are started with the greatest accuracy.
Leibniz's ideas changed and expanded the concept of the mental. His concepts of the unconscious psyche, "small perceptions" and apperceptions have firmly entered the scientific knowledge of the subject of psychology.
T.Hobbes (1588–1679) completely rejected the soul as a separate entity. There is nothing in the world but material bodies that move according to the laws of mechanics. Accordingly, all mental phenomena were brought under these global laws. Material things, acting on the body, cause sensations. According to the law of inertia, representations appear from sensations in the form of their weakened trace. Οʜᴎ form chains of thoughts following each other in the same order in which the sensations changed. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, Hobbes proclaimed the mind the product of an association that has its source in direct sensual communication of the organism with the material world.
Experience was taken as the basis of knowledge. Rationalism is opposed empiricism(from Gr. "empeiria" - experience). Under the motto of experience arose empirical psychology.
A prominent role in the development of this direction belonged to J. Locke (1632–1704 gᴦ.). He confessed the experiential origin of the entire composition of human consciousness. In the experience itself, he singled out two sources: feeling and reflection. Along with the ideas that the sense organs deliver, there are ideas generated by reflection. ( Reflection - ϶ᴛᴏ the process of self-knowledge by the subject of his internal mental acts and states). The development of the psyche occurs due to the fact that complex ideas are created from simple ideas. All ideas are brought before the court of consciousness. Consciousness is the perception of what is happening in a person in his own mind, Locke believed. This concept has become the cornerstone of psychology, called introspective. It was believed that the object of consciousness is not external objects, but ideas (images, ideas, feelings, etc.), as they are to the “inner eye” of the subject observing them.
From this postulate most clearly and popularly explained by Locke, an understanding of the subject of psychology arose later. From now on, the place of this subject was claimed by phenomena of consciousness. They are generated by two experiences - external, which comes from the senses, and internal, accumulated by the individual's own mind.
In the XVIII century. develops associative psychology- a direction that explains the dynamics of mental processes based on the principle of association. For the first time these ideas were formulated by Aristotle, representatives of associationism extended the principle of the association of ideas to the entire field of the mental. At the same time, two trends arose within associationism: J. Berkeley (1685–1753 gg.) and D. Hume (1711–1776 gg.) considered the association as a connection of phenomena in the mind of the subject͵ D. Hartley (1705–1757 gg.) associated the emergence of associations with the interaction of the organism and the external environment.
At the beginning of the XIX century. concepts appeared that separated the association from its bodily substrate and presented it as a principle of consciousness (T. Brown, James Mill, John Mill). The view was established that the psyche is built from elements - sensations. Elements are primary, complex mental formations are secondary and arise through associations, the condition for the formation of which is the contiguity of associations, as well as the frequency of their repetition in experience.
Separation of psychology into an independent science occurred in the second half of the 19th century and was associated with the emergence of the first programs, the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes that began training psychologists, the formation of psychological societies and associations.
W. Wundt (1832–1920) came to psychology from physiology and was the first to collect and combine into a new discipline created by various researchers. His monumental work, perceived as a body of knowledge about the new science, was called - "Fundamentals of Physiological Psychology" (1873-1874).
It is with the name of W. Wundt associate the formation of psychology as an independent experimental science. In 1879, Wundt opened the first psychophysiological laboratory, which studied sensations, reaction time, associations, and psychophysiological characteristics of a person. A few years later, on the basis of the laboratory, the Institute of Experimental Psychology was created, which turned into an international center for the training of psychologists.
Psychologists were once called experts in human souls. But psychologists by profession appeared only after Wundt.
A unique subject of psychology, not studied by any other discipline, was recognized as direct experience.
Based on the ideas of W. Wundt, a new direction is developing - structuralism, studying the structure of consciousness, dividing its phenomena into sensory elements that are not amenable to further analysis, elucidating the laws of connecting elements into structures and establishing connections between the phenomena of consciousness and internal and external conditions.
In the 80-90s of the XIX century. Numerous studies of the conditions for the formation and actualization of associations were undertaken (G. Ebbinghaus, G. Müller, etc.). G. Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) in the book "On Memory" (1885 G.) outlined the results of experiments carried out on himself in order to derive mathematically precise laws by which the learned material is preserved and reproduced. Ebbinghaus opened a new chapter in psychology not only because he was the first to venture into the experimental study of mnemonic processes (memory processes), more complex than sensory ones. His unique contribution was determined by the fact that for the first time in the history of science, through experiments and a quantitative analysis of their results, psychological laws proper were discovered that act independently of consciousness, in other words, objectively. The equality of the psyche and consciousness (taken as an axiom in that era) was crossed out.
At the end of the XIX century. the experimental method extends to the study of higher mental functions, and experimental and differential psychology is developing. Methods for diagnosing various psychological characteristics of a person are being actively developed. So, in American experimental psychology, one of the brightest representatives is R. Cattell (1860–1944). The most famous in modern psychology was created by him, within the framework of the theory of personality traits, the Multifactorial Personality Questionnaire (16PF).
Alfred Binœ (1857–1911) developed methods for diagnosing the level of mental development of children (intelligence development scale ͵ 1905–1911ᴦ.). It was on the Stanford-Binge Intelligence Scale that the intelligence quotient (IQ) or the ratio of mental age (determined on the Binœ scale) to chronological (age according to the passport). Their discrepancy was considered an indicator of either mental retardation (when mental age is below chronological) or giftedness (when mental age is greater than chronological).
The creation of various psychological means for diagnosing personality manifestations combined psychology with practice. In this vein, f functionalism - this direction, rejecting the analysis of internal experience and its structures, considered the main business of psychology to find out how these structures work when they solve problems related to the actual needs of people. Thus, the subject area of psychology expanded. It was seen as covering mental functions (and not elements) as internal operations that are performed not by an incorporeal subject, but by an organism in order to satisfy its need for adaptation to the environment.
At the origins of functionalism in the United States was William James (1842–1910). He is also known as the leader of pragmatism (from the Greek "pragma" - action) - a philosophy that evaluates ideas and theories based on how they work in practice, benefiting the individual.
In his Fundamentals of Psychology (1890 G.) James wrote that the inner experience of a person is ϶ᴛᴏ not a “chain of elements”, but a “stream of consciousness”. It is distinguished by personal (in the sense of expressing the interests of the individual) selectivity (the ability to constantly make a choice).
Discussing the problem of emotions, James proposed a paradoxical concept that caused sharp debate, according to which changes in the muscular and vascular systems of the body are primary, and the emotional states caused by them are secondary. In this case, the sadness was explained by the fact that the person was crying.
Although James did not create either an integral system or a school, his views on the auxiliary role of consciousness in the interaction of the organism with the environment, calling for practical decisions and actions, have firmly entered the ideological fabric of American psychology. And now, according to the book of James, brilliantly written at the end of the last century, they study in American colleges.
Relationships of interaction - connections between individuals, as well as between human groups or social systems; the specificity of these connections is that they are mediated by the goals pursued by each of the parties to the interaction.We believe that in systems of interpersonal communication there are also other types of connections that make up the scheme proposed by the authors - connections of generation, transformation, structure, functioning, development and management.
I. V. Blauberg, V. N. Sadovsky, E. T. Yudin
In psychology, the category of "relationship" is used very widely and in several senses. First of all, through relations to the surrounding world, the very essence of the mental is revealed, the generic essence of a person is revealed, which was perfectly shown by S. L. Rubinshtein:
No object, taken by itself, can reveal its generic essence. The general manifests itself in the individual through the relation of the individual to the individual, when one individual acts as an equivalent of another. The category of gender is realized through the category of relation in its connection with the category of thing.In this case, we are talking about the objective aspect of the relationship of man to man. In the same general and broad terms, the author also reveals the problem of relationships, which is understood not so much as a direct relation of a person to another, but as communication through objective activity, through the totality of “action” in the surrounding world. “Almost every human action,” says S. L. Rubinshtein, “is not only a technical operation in relation to a thing, but also an act in relation to another person, expressing an attitude towards him. Therefore, another person with his actions enters the “ontology” of human existence. Through the relation to things, to human objects, relationships between people are realized” (337, 336).
This is the general logical categorical basis of how the generic property of a person is revealed through the relationship of one person to another (337, 333).
The objective non-personalized attitude towards other people is reflected and manifested in the subjective personal aspect of behavior in relation to another: “Analysis of human behavior involves the disclosure of the subtext of behavior, what a person “meant” with his act. There are always certain relations that realize this act” (337, 336). Further, the “doubling” of the attitude towards a person is formulated more clearly: “... another person, being given as an object, evokes an attitude towards himself as a subject, and I am for him an object, which he, in turn, accepts as a subject” (337, 377).
Relationships in psychology are both a philosophical category in which the generic essence of the psyche is revealed, the relation of consciousness to matter, and a category in which the generic essence of a person is revealed - the relationship of a person to a person.In this way, relationships in psychology- this is both a philosophical category in which the generic essence of the psyche is revealed, the relationship of consciousness to matter, and a category in which the generic essence of a person is revealed - the relationship of a person to a person.
In relation to man, one must distinguish between objective and subjective aspects, aspects of awareness and personality experiences those objective relations in which it is with others.
The objective relations that people are forced to enter into in the course of their life activity, and the subjective reflection of these relations, constitute two main layers, two genetically related types of interpersonal relationships. In the future, each of them can be differentiated almost infinitely. However, this will take place within the main, fundamental division.
In the scientific literature, subjective relationships are most often denoted by the term "personal relationships". It was in this sense that this concept was used by K. Marx and F. Engels. This was well shown by B. D. Parygin: “... further developing the idea that the social relations of people are the product of their actual relations to each other, K. Marx and F. Engels emphasized that in this case we are talking about interpersonal, individual and not the abstract relations of people to each other" (298, 190-191).
Considering the “real communication” of “real people”, K. Marx and F. Engels pointed out: “But since they entered into communication with each other not as pure I, but as individuals who are at a certain stage in the development of their productive forces and needs, and since this communication in turn determined production and needs, it is the personal, individual relationship of individuals to each other
friend, their mutual relation as individuals created(emphasis mine. - I.K.) – and everyday recreates – existing relationships” (252, 439-440). It was important for us to single out the “personal, individual relationship to each other”, “mutual relationship as individuals” as a special socio-psychological reality, which is the subject of our theoretical and experimental research.
Relationships
From the totality of human relations to the environment, we have identified relationship of a person to other people, one type of which is personal relationships. The concept of “relationship” is often used to refer to relationships between people. At the same time, the few attempts to somehow define this concept immediately run into difficulties.
Offering a definition of the concept of "relationship", it should be emphasized in accordance with the semantics of the term that we are talking about a mandatory relationship between man and man. Under this condition, the relationship acquires the properties of reversibility and symmetry. In fact, not all human relations with other people can be considered as relationships. So, a person can somehow relate to historical figures, to Napoleon or Shakespeare. He may also have a certain relationship to contemporary politicians or writers. At the same time, a person cannot count on any relation of the mentioned persons to him, on their mutual relation.
Relationships are essential direct interpersonal relationships. They can be direct- "face to face" or mediated means of communication(telephone, telegraph, radio, television). They can be simultaneous or delayed(as, for example, in correspondence). But in a relationship you should always maintain a real possibility of reciprocity. Hence, by the way, it is impossible relationships with inanimate objects, even as perfect as computers.
Consequently, relationships- this is a specific type of relationship of a person to a person, in which there is the possibility of a direct (or mediated by technical means) simultaneous or delayed response personal relationship.
Relationships are a specific type of relationship between a person and a person, in which there is the possibility of a direct (or mediated by technical means) simultaneous or delayed response personal relationship.It should be kept in mind that relationships do not necessarily involve symmetrical and actual reciprocity.
I can also experience an unrequited attitude towards another person; my attitude towards him may not coincide with his attitude towards me according to the “sign”. However, the real possibility some kind of personal relationship with the other.
Relationships often coincide in their modality with relationships. They can be objective, subordinate (boss - subordinate), functional, etc. and, at the same time, personal, individual and emotional.
The analysis carried out makes it possible to more accurately determine the subject of our research: they touch studying personal relationships in a peer group.
Relationships and communication
It is also necessary to consider the concept communication” and its relationship with the categories “relationship” and “relationship”.
The concept of "communication" is used in the scientific literature in a broad and narrow sense. The greatest difficulties are encountered in distinguishing between the broad concept of "communication" and relationships. In this case, sometimes “communication” is included in “relationship”, then “relationship” is included in “communication”. In the dictionary of the modern Russian literary language, “communication” is defined as “connection” and “mutual relationship” (352, 523).
The concept of "communication" is most thoroughly studied in the works of B. D. Parygin, V. M. Sokovnin and A. A. Leontiev (298; 360; 229). B. D. Parygin considered communication “as a complex and multifaceted process that can act at the same time as a process of interaction between individuals, and as an information process, and as an attitude of people to each other, and as a process of their mutual influence on each other . And as a process of their empathy and mutual understanding of each other” (298, 178).
Communication is a complex and multifaceted process that can act at the same time as a process of interaction between individuals, and as an information process, and as the attitude of people to each other, and as a process of their mutual influence on each other, and as a process of their empathy and mutual understanding of each other.While agreeing that communication is a process, we believe that it is wrong to ascribe the status of a process to the relationship of people to each other. Yes, relationships can manifest themselves in some processes. Yes, any process of interaction presupposes the existence of relations between interacting objects. But the relation itself is by no means a process. Generally speaking, it is hardly possible to posit relationship and other components of communication side by side. In each of them, a relation is necessarily assumed. Without a relationship, neither interaction, nor mutual influence, nor empathy, nor mutual understanding is possible. One can agree that communication necessarily implies a relationship between those who communicate, but these concepts by no means coincide with each other.
B. D. Parygin
V. M. Sokovnin also offers a broad interpretation of the concept of communication. At the same time, on the one hand, the author considers communication as a component of the “relationship of communication” relations, and on the other hand, communication is identified with the relationship. So, when characterizing communication as mutual influence, it is noted that “interaction is one of the main components of human relations, including communication relations” (360, 37). Elsewhere, the author says that “communication can be seen as a personal relationship. Regardless of whether a communicative act takes place regarding a purely personal object of communication or an intersubjective object acts as such (when an individual represents some kind of community in communication), it is performed as a personal relationship and manifests itself in the form of subjective influences, expression of sympathies (antipathies), feelings, claims, etc.” (360, 54-55).
However, already in the position cited by us, V. M. Sokovnin is forced to point out that the communicative act includes an attitude and manifests itself in certain forms. It seems that it would be more correct to correlate these concepts in a slightly different way: communication is the process of manifestation of a personal relationship. It is precisely such a more accurate understanding of the correlation of these concepts that is contained in other works by the same author: “Individuals enter into communication where they enter into some kind of relationship. Relationship and communication are inseparable. Communication acts as the real being of the relationship into which individuals have entered. It is through communication that their social relation appears as social and human, that is, conscious. Consequently, communication – the outer side of human relations, their being side"(my italics. - I.K.) (358, 10). And further: “The personal relationships of individuals ... become real primarily in verbal communication. That is why communication is often understood as a personal (usually friendly) relationship. Since it is communication that makes human relations a reality, we can conclude that communication is the emerging side of human relations” (359, 91).
Communication is the outer side of human relations, their side.Not being able to analyze in any detail the concept of A. A. Leontiev, we will emphasize only some of its provisions that are of particular interest to us. First of all, in the context of our work, it is important that the researcher distinguishes between the concepts public relations and its “personal” psychological correlate, which arises “in the real process of communication as a derivative of its psychological organization, namely “relationship”” (229, 25). “Communication is the actualization of relations” (229, 31).
V. M. Sokovnin
In the works of sociologists, we find interesting the concept of the Polish scientist Jan Szczepanski, who introduces the concept of "social connection", realized through three types of contacts - "spatial", "mental", "social", and "interaction".
The first condition for the emergence of a social connection is spatial contact: “All relations between people must begin with some kind of contact in space, with mutual observation and with the establishment of the fact that one of the individuals possesses some features and characteristics that may be of interest to another” (405, 79-80). If this possibility turns into reality, a psychic contact arises, which can be mutual or non-reciprocal.
Psychic contact, from the point of view of the author, does not yet create any connection. Here it should be noted the specific nature of the interpretation of the actual "connection". In general, such a state can, in our opinion, be interpreted as a relationship between persons interested in each other.
The next stage in the development of contacts is social contact. “This is a certain system, which includes at least two persons, some value that becomes the basis of contact, some interactions related to this value” (405, 82). At the same time, contacts can be personal and material.
On the basis of social contacts, interactions develop, which are understood as “a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction from the partner, this impact on the partner himself, and the reaction caused in turn causes the reaction of the influencer” (405, 84).
Interactions - a systematic, constant implementation of actions aimed at causing an appropriate reaction on the part of the partner, this is an impact on the partner himself, and the reaction caused in turn causes the reaction of the influencer.It seems that interactions are a process of communication between partners. Thus, contacts act here as an internal basis for the activity of communication.
Ya. Shchepansky
Distinguishing relationships as internal states of an individual and communication, as a process of their manifestation and implementation, is a long tradition of Russian psychology, the foundations of which were laid by V. N. Myasishchev. “Relationship,” he pointed out, “is the internal personal basis of interaction, and the latter is the realization or consequence and expression of the former” (271, 15). Here the author does not use the concept of "communication", using the category of "interaction". But in his latest works, V. N. Myasishchev directly raised the question of the relationship of communication and relationships: “Communication expresses a person’s relationships with their different activity, selectivity, positive or negative character. Communication is conditioned by vital necessity, but its nature, activity, dimensions are determined by the attitude” (272, 114).
We note the parameters that are distinguished for the study of these processes: activity, selectivity, positive or negative character, as well as sizes.
A more or less clear distinction between relationship and communication can be traced in almost all attempts made in recent years to define communication. For example, the definition proposed by L.P. Bueva seems very clear to us: “... communication is a directly observable reality and the concretization of all social relations, their personification, personal form” (49, 21).
Defining the essence of communication, it is most often qualified as interactions, which are specific activities. Perhaps the first to focus on the activity side of communication and reveal its essential features were researchers from the group of D. B. Elkonin. Defining communication as a special activity of adolescents, T. V. Dragunova writes: “The subject of this activity is another person - a comrade - peer - as a person ... This activity is a completely special practice of the child's action in personal relationships - relations with a close friend - peer" (88 , 317). Revealing the content and goals of communication activities, the author notes that actions, mutually interesting activities and conversations “are only the basis and means of communication with a friend. The main thing is the personal relationships that develop in the process of communication. They are the main content of communication” (88, 316-317).
Other authors, developing the thesis of communication as an activity, emphasize its informational content. Hence, speech communication is quite rightly singled out as the most important type of communication. “Verbal communication,” writes K. K. Platonov, “is the most significant factor in anthropogenesis and the formation of personality in its ontogenesis” (313, 148).
As parties or aspects of information communication, which is carried out in the process of communication, cognitive and emotional, business and personal components are distinguished.
Thus, in modern studies, “communication” is most often considered as an external phenomenon of relationships, as a process of their implementation and a way of manifestation. At the same time, attempts were often made to unlawfully expand this concept, when it actually replaces the concept of "relationship". In particular, the term "communication" has been used in the analysis of human-machine interaction (18, 34). Some researchers consider art (232, 226), reading, sports (81), etc., as communication.
Communication is information and subject interaction, during which interpersonal relationships are realized, manifested and formed.Of course, a person can experience some kind of relationship with inanimate objects, but since it cannot become mutual, communication is out of the question. As K. K. Platonov rightly emphasizes, “the interaction between a machine and a person cannot be considered as communication, since it requires mutual mental reflection” (313, 334). In the analysis carried out, it was important for us not so much to provide a complete overview of the various points of view on the problem, but to emphasize the difference between the concepts of "relationship" and "communication". We have adopted the following "working" definition: communication- this is information and subject interaction, in the process of which interpersonal relationships are realized, manifested and formed.
Thus, relationships, on the one hand, are realized and manifested in the process of communication, representing its motivational-need basis, on the other hand, they change, develop, form depending on the characteristics of communication. In a living act of interpersonal communication merged into one operational, procedural, « being" and interior, motivational, « relational" Components. In the observed act of communication, we are dealing with the actualization of existing relationships (which were largely formed in the previous experience of communication), and with the prerequisite for their development in the direction of strengthening or weakening, and with the cause of a possible change in the very modality of relations, their sign.
The conceptual distinction made between communication and relationships has fundamental methodological significance. It allows you to distinguish, delimit the address of specific studies, which may relate to the relationship itself, without affecting the process of communication, or may be aimed at studying the process of communication itself as observable acts of behavior. It is clear that, depending on the subject of research, it is necessary to use special methodological approaches.
Let us immediately note that our research is primarily focused on the study of personal relationships, and not on the process of communication between peers, which, as will be shown below, determined the choice of the main research tools. The distinction made also has significant psychological and pedagogical significance in terms of finding ways to manage intra-collective relations and interpersonal communication. Apparently, we can talk about two fundamentally feasible methods of management: changing and regulating relations through changing communication and regulating communication through changing relations. It is clear that each of these paths requires specific pedagogical influences for its implementation.
Questions and tasks
1. What concepts are used to describe "what happens between people"?
2. Prove with your own examples the thesis: everything that is in a person "arises thanks to communication and is intended for communication."
Research Invitation
3. Conduct a mini-study with your acquaintances - teenagers, young men, students, elderly people who have not previously studied psychology. Ask them to complete the sentences:
I think communication is...
I think communication is...
Process the results statistically. Compare the responses of people of different ages.
Make a conclusion about the level of psychological education of the subjects.
4. Give examples of situations in which the attitude of a person to a person is manifested in an act. Can a certain act express different attitudes? Can the same attitude be expressed in different actions?
5. How are the concepts of "attitude", "relationship", "communication" and "interaction" subordinated from the point of view of various authors?
6. Describe communication as an activity.
Chapter 2
Peer group as an object of psychological research
Social environment and social situation of personality development
Individual human development occurs in the process of establishing diverse direct and indirect, direct and indirect, conscious and unconscious relationships with the surrounding social environment, in the process of social communication that implements and forms these relationships. What are the relationships between them? What is the "social situation of development"? The answers to these questions are important for us, first of all, because they allow us to determine the role and place of the relationship and communication of the individual with his peers, the significance and place of the peer group for mental development in ontogenesis.
In the sociological and socio-psychological literature, which deals with the role of the social environment in the formation of personality, the versatility of this concept is emphasized. “This,” L.P. Bueva points out, “is all social conditions and situations, things and features of the social environment, the sphere of communication, the conditions of place and time, the entire material and spiritual culture of society. The environment is that specific field of social activity and relations of the individual, where his abilities are formed and realized, where each person is directly included in the life of society.
The social environment that forms a person is society as a whole, in all its spheres and manifestations” (48, 9-10).
However, the developing personality is by no means directly "immersed" in this broad social environment. Exists a series of links through which society "touches" the individual, or, to be more precise, in which their direct interaction takes place.
The cell of society closest to the personality, the cell into which it itself enters, is the microenvironment. “The microenvironment,” writes L.P. Bueva, “is an element, a link in the general social environment; its specificity lies in the fact that it refracts and mediates the impact of society on the individual and his spiritual world” (47, 124).
Microenvironment, which we are talking about, has a complex internal structure. It includes the family environment of the child, and peers, and all those adults who communicate directly with him. A specific feature of the microenvironment is not so much its reduced size in comparison with the whole society, not so much its “microscopicity”, but the decisive circumstance that the child actively interacts with it, draws from it all its social experience, emotionally experiences its relations with people around it.
Federal Agency for Education of the Russian Federation
State educational institution
higher professional education
Voronezh State University
Faculty of Journalism
Personality and group: problems of interaction
Teaching aid for the study of the course
"Social Psychology"
Compiler
E.Yu. Krasova
Approved by the Scientific and Methodological Council of the Faculty of Journalism of the Voronezh State University Protocol No. 2008
Compiled by E.Yu. Krasova
The teaching aid was prepared at the Department of Advertising and Design of the Voronezh State University.
1. ORGANIZATIONAL AND METHODOLOGICAL SECTION
Course objective: mastering by students of knowledge about social and individual-psychological mechanisms of communication and interaction of people in groups and intergroup contacts.
Course objectives:
· to give students knowledge of the theoretical foundations of social psychology, highlighting its specificity and role in the system of social sciences and humanities, practical significance for specialists in the field of media, PR and advertising;
· to help students master the methods of independent analysis of socio-psychological phenomena and processes;
· to promote students' mastery of the skills and abilities of recognizing individual and socio-psychological characteristics of a person, including the personality of a professional journalist, correcting their own consciousness and behavior.
Requirements for the level of mastering the course content:
know the basic concepts of social psychology, scientific directions and concepts;
· to master socio-psychological categories and their characteristics;
· to have an idea about the essence of social perception and its psychological effects, the peculiarities of the perception of media information;
Form and develop the skills of reflection, social perception;
understand the socio-psychological regulators of interpersonal conflicts;
understand the meaning of intergroup communication;
Know the mechanisms of influence on communication partners in different life situations;
· own the ways and techniques of mass media influence on mass consciousness;
understand the nature of aggression and ways to regulate destructive behavior;
possess the skills of socio-psychological analysis, be able to use them in their future professional and labor activities
2. THEMATIC PLAN AND GRID OF HOURS OF THE DISCIPLINE
| Topic name |
current control |
|||
| research field social psychology |
Abstracts |
|||
| The history of the formation and development of social psychology |
Abstracts |
|||
| Applied Research Methods in Social Psychology |
Abstracts |
|||
| Communicative communication side |
Abstracts |
|||
| Mutual understanding and social cognition |
Completing problem tasks |
|||
| Psychology of conflict situations |
Testing |
|||
| Personality in the social world |
Completing problem tasks |
|||
| Destructive behavior of the individual and its characteristics |
Completing problem tasks |
|||
| social impact |
Completing problem tasks |
|||
| Small groups: structure, typology, research |
Testing |
|||
| Dynamic processes in a small group |
Discussion |
|||
| Spontaneous groups and methods of influence in them |
Abstracts |
|||
| The mental warehouse of the ethnic community |
Discussion |
|||
| Socio-psychological features of intergroup relations |
Discussion |
|||
3. SUMMARY OF THE COURSE
Topic 1. Research field of social psychology
Social psychology as a behavioral science and its relationship with other branches of knowledge. The specifics of the socio-psychological approach. The object of social psychology is social groups and their representatives. The structure of social psychology (psychology of communication, personality, small and large social groups, intergroup relations). Functions of social psychology. The key provisions of social psychology are the social situation, social influence, social cognition. Psychological and sociological trends in social psychology. An experimental approach to the psychology of people's mutual influence.
Practical needs of society and social psychology. Areas of practical social psychology. Socio-psychological studies of mass communication. Positions and strategies of the work of a social psychologist-practitioner. Socio-psychological situation in Russia at the beginning of the XXI century.
The main periods of development of social psychology and their characteristics. K. Levin is the founder of dynamic social psychology. The crisis of social psychology and its overcoming. Scientific paradigms of modern social psychology: "old" - positivist and "new" - social constructivism.
Theoretical orientations (behaviorism, psychoanalysis, cognitivism, interactionism) and socio-psychological problems developed in line with them. The theory of dyadic interaction D. Thiebaud and G. Kelly. The theory of group development by V. Benis and G. Shepard. The theory of cognitive dissonance L. Festinger. The concept of social representations S. Moscovici. The theory of human destructiveness E. Fromm. Transactional Analysis
E. Bern.
Modern trends in the development of social psychology. The main milestones in the development of domestic social psychology.
Basic requirements for scientific research in social psychology. The problem of correlation between theory and empirical material. Solving the issue of the validity and practical significance of information. Qualitative, quantitative, qualitative-quantitative research methods and their characteristics. Experiment in socio-psychological research: types, procedure. Classic experiments by S. Milgram, L. Festinger. The study of the verbal and non-verbal behavior of an individual, group, several groups in a particular social situation with the help of observation. Types, procedure and typical observation errors. Focus group is a method of studying social perception, motivation. Projective techniques and their procedures. Sociometry as a method of studying the state of a small group and personality in a group. Poll technique. Rules and principles for the design of questionnaires.
Ethical problems in socio-psychological research.
Interpersonal relations in the system of public relations. The emotional basis of interpersonal relationships. The structure of communication. The specifics of the communication process. Communication model (communicator, message, audience). The problem of meaning in the assimilation of information. Verbal sign system. Language as a means of communication. Expressive functions of the language. Hypothesis of linguistic relativity E. Sapira-B. Whorf. Jargon as a form of speech behavior. Persuasive communication. Manipulative operations with information.
Features of non-verbal communication in comparison with speech. Non-verbal systems of signs (optical-kinetic, paralinguistic and extralinguistic, organization of space and time, visual contact, olfactory signals), their analysis. Communicative competence.
The concept of social perception, its forms. Experimental studies of interpersonal perception. Factors affecting social perception. Mechanisms of mutual understanding: identification, empathy. Model of the reflective structure. Interaction between a communicator and recipients (model of G. Gibsch and M. Vorwerg).
The role of social attraction in interpersonal communication. The process of forming impressions. The value of the processes of categorization, stereotyping in communication. Interpretation of the causes of another person's behavior is the phenomenon of causal attribution. The structure of the attributive process. Attribution errors. Fundamental attribution error.
The problem of the accuracy of interpersonal perception and practical means of improving it. Psychological effects of perception. Weaknesses and fallacies of the social thinking of a professional journalist and the possibility of overcoming tendentiousness.
Topic 6. Psychology of conflict situations
Psychological content of interaction (interaction). Components of the interaction process. Types of interaction. The problem of cooperation and conflict in social psychology. Conflict as a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals. Psychological traditions in the study of conflict (approaches: psychodynamic, situational, cognitivist). Modern trends in the approach to interpersonal conflicts: humanistic psychology of C. Rogers.
Psychological typology of conflicts (M. Deutsch). Styles of behavior of people in conflict (CW Thomas and RH Kilmenn grid). Signs of conflict in the human mind. Conflict personality and ways to establish mutual understanding with her.
Conflict as a cognitive scheme. Features of the perception of the conflict situation. Socio-psychological methods of conflict regulation.
Personality in the system of group and intergroup interaction. Personality theories (psychoanalytic, interactionist, cognitivist). Psychological structure of personality. Socio-psychological personality types. I-personality concept. Social identity of the individual. The concept of social identity G. Tejfel and J. Turner. Locus of control and personality self-efficacy. Socialization of the individual.
Social roles and role relations. Classification of formal personality roles (T. Parsons). Role conflicts (intrapersonal and interpersonal). Structural analysis (the concept of ego-states by E. Bern). The main characteristics of the ego-states of the individual (parent, child, adult). Functional disorders in ego states and their consequences. Psychological game. Practical use of transactions.
Aggressive (destructive behavior): concept and content. Biological and social factors of aggressive behavior of a person. Socio-psychological concepts of destructive behavior (approaches: instinctivist, frustration, behaviorist). Cross-cultural studies of the manifestation of destruction in children. Types and forms of aggression. Diagnostics of aggressiveness.
Psychology of submission. Experiments by S. Milgram to determine the degree of obedience and disobedience, ways to reduce cruelty in behavior. Problems of reporting on violence in the media.
Tactics of responding to aggressive behavior and ways to overcome it. The hypothesis of catharsis. Cognitive methods of destruction control. Language key to remove aggression.
Topic 9. Social impact
Interpersonal influence: concept and content. Influence and power. Significance of the social situation in interpersonal influence. A History of Social Influence Research. K. Levin's experiments: group influence and leadership. Psychological and social means of influence. Levels of interpersonal relationships and ways of influencing a person (E.L. Dotsenko). Psychological processes of exerting influence (compliance, identification, internalization). Social power (the power of reward, coercion, informational, expert, referent, legitimate).
Persuasion: ways and means. Manipulation and its types. manipulation methods. majority influence. Socio-psychological conditions influence the minority.
The specificity of the approach to a small group in social psychology. The main areas of research of small groups: sociometric (J. Moreno), sociological (E. Mayo), school of group dynamics
(K. Levin). The size and boundaries of the small group. Small group size. Classification of small groups. The structure of a small group: the ratio of structural and dynamic aspects. Psychological effects in a small group (social lightness, social difficulty, social laziness, deindividualization, groupthink, social polarization, etc.).
Socio-psychological qualities of a person in a group (perceptual defense, the effect of expectations, cognitive complexity, etc.). Interpersonal relations in a small group (method of T. Leary). Models of communication in a small group.
Topic 11. Dynamic processes in a small group
Mechanisms for the formation of small groups. Conditions for the transformation of an externally given group into a psychological reality for its members. The phenomenon of group pressure. Conformism: content, typology, forms. Reasons for conforming behavior. Conditions for the manifestation of conformism in a small group. The concept of psychological reactance.
The problem of group development. Group cohesion and ways to study it. Socio-psychological tension and interpersonal conflicts as forms of relationships in a group. Basic typologies and dynamics of conflicts. Conflict resolution methods. Socio-psychological methods of studying relationships and conflicts. Psychological characteristics of "majority" and "minority". Methods of interaction.
Leadership as one of the processes of group dynamics. Theories of the origin of leadership: charismatic, situational, synthetic. Typology of the leader's social influence. Leadership styles. The image of a modern political leader.
Topic 12. Spontaneous groups and ways of interaction in them
Socio-psychological tools for understanding groups: the theory of social representations (S. Moscovici), the theory of identity
(A. Teshfel), the concept of "we-feelings" (B. Porshnev). The history of the study of mass behavior (G. Tarde, G. Lebon, B.M. Bekhterev). Types of spontaneous groups: mass, crowd, audience, public. Characteristics of a person in the mass. Mass leaders.
Psychological mechanisms of spontaneous behavior. Mass panic. Mass aggression. Public opinion as a factor in the formation of a spontaneous group. Specificity of interaction in spontaneous groups. Crowd: content and typology. Form and structure of the crowd. Crowd management.
Topic 13. Mental warehouse of the ethnic community
Ethnic community and its features. "Emic" and "ethical" approaches in ethnopsychology. The main stages in the development of ethnopsychology and directions of research. Ethnic symbolism. ethnic consciousness. Ethnic identity and the influence of the social context on its formation. Psychological features of representatives of various ethnic groups.
mentality and national character. Russian national character as a psychological phenomenon. Comparative cultural studies of the Russian national character. Characteristic portrait of a typical Russian. The problem of contradictions in the national identification of Russians.
The role of mentality and national character in the media information policy.
Topic 14. Socio-psychological features of intergroup relations
The problem of intergroup relations in social psychology: theoretical approaches and experimental studies. The process of intergroup differentiation and its stages. Factors affecting intergroup perception. The role of stereotypes in the formation of the "image" of the group. The phenomenon of "intragroup partiality". Specificity of intergroup processes at the level of large social groups: influence of cultural and historical context. Characteristics of intergroup differentiation: age, gender, regional, etc. Intergroup aggression. Settlement of intergroup conflict.
Interethnic relations. Mechanisms of interethnic perception: ethnocentrism, stereotypes and prejudices. Gender relations and their influence on personality. The content and functions of sex-role stereotypes. gender roles. Gender as a factor in the media and advertising.
Main literature
Andreeva G.M. Social psychology: a textbook for students. universities
/ G.M. Andreeva. - M. : Aspect Press, 2007. - 362 p.
Aronson E. Social psychology: Psychological laws of human behavior in society / E. Aronson, T. Wilson, R. Eikert; per. from English. : V. Volokhonsky and others; scientific ed. A.L. Sventsitsky. - St. Petersburg; M. :
prime-EVPRZNAK: OLMA-PRESS, 2004. - 558 p.
Krysko V.G. Social psychology: a textbook for students. universities /
V.G. Krysko. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2006 .- 431 p.
Myers D. Social psychology / D. Myers; per. from English. V. Gavrilov and others - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2006. - 793 p.
Sventsitsky A.L. Social psychology: textbook / A.L. Sventsitsky. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing house. Prospect, 2004. - 336 p.
additional literature
Andreeva G.M. Foreign social psychology of the XX century: Theoretical approaches / G.M. Andreeva, N.N. Bogomolova, L.A. Petrovskaya. - M. : Aspect-Press, 2001. - 288 p.
Krysko V.G. Social psychology in schemes and comments: textbook. allowance / V. G. Krysko. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 284 p.
Olshansky D.V. Psychology of the masses / D.V. Olshansky. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. - 368 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - 528 p.
Platonov Yu.P. Social psychology of behavior: textbook. allowance for students. universities / Yu.P. Platonov. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2006. - 459 p.
Social psychology / ed. S. Moskovichi; per. from fr. T. Smolyanskaya. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2007. - 591 p.
Social psychology: dictionary / ed. M. Yu. Kondratiev. - M.: SPb. : Per Se: Speech, 2006. - 175 p.
Social psychology: workshop: textbook. allowance for students. universities
/ G.M. Andreeva [and others]; ed. T.V. Folomeeva. - M. : Aspect Press, 2006. - 477 p.
V.B. Olshansky. – Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 1999. - 539 p.
Electronic catalogs:
· Consolidated catalog of libraries in Voronezh. – (http//www.biblio.vrn.ru);
· catalog of scientific library of Voronezh State University. – (http//www.lib.vsu.ru);
· Website of the Department of Sociology and Political Science of VSU. – (http//www.hist.vsuru/politics/).
4. Materials for independent work of students
Topic 1. Research field of social psychology
Basic concepts: subject of social psychology, structure of social psychology, psychological social psychology, sociological social psychology, social situation, social influence, social cognition.
test questions
1. What are the specific problems that social psychology studies?
2. What is the specificity of social psychology as a branch of knowledge?
3. Describe the main categories of science.
4. Expand the content of the functions of social psychology?
5. What is the essence of the practical orientation of social psychology?
6. Describe the areas of work of a social psychologist-practitioner.
7. What socio-psychological problems are relevant in modern Russia?
Literature
Akopov GV Social psychology of education / GV Akopov. -
M. : Mosk. psycho-social in-t. Flinta, 2000. - 295 p.
Bityanova M.R. Social psychology: science, practice and way of thinking: textbook. allowance / M. R. Bityanova. - M. : Eksmo-press, 2001. - 575 p.
Baron R.A. Social psychology: key ideas / R.A. baron,
D. Byrne, B.T. Johnson; per. from English. A. Dmitrieva, M. Potapova. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. - 507 p.
Introduction to practical social psychology: textbook for universities / ed. Yu.M. Zhukova, L.A. Petrovskaya, O.V. Solovieva. - M. : Meaning, 1996. - 373 p.
Kondratiev Yu. M. Social psychology of students: textbook. allowance / Yu.M. Kondratiev. - M. : Mosk. psycho-social. in-t., 2006. - 159 p.
Novikov V.V. Social psychology: phenomenon and science: textbook. allowance / V.V. Novikov; Moscow acad. psychol. Sciences, Yaroslav. state un-t. - M. : Publishing House of the Institute of Psychotherapy, 2003. - 341 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - S.18-60.
Shibutani T. Social psychology / T. Shibutani; per. from English.
V.B. Olshansky. – Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 1999. - S.11-30.
Yurevich A.V. Social psychology of science / A.V. Yurevich. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house Rus. Christian. humanitarian. in-ta., 2001. - 350 p.
Topic 2. History of the formation and development of social psychology
Basic concepts: positivism, social constructivism, behaviorism, psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, cognitivism, cognitive dissonance, interactionism.
Control questions and tasks
1. Describe the main milestones in the development of social psychology.
2. What factors caused the crisis in social psychology?
3. What are the main scientific paradigms of modern social psychology?
4. Study the table "Theoretical orientations in social psychology" and give its detailed analysis:
5. What is the essence of K. Levin's field theory?
6. What theories of "middle rank" emerged in social psychology after K. Levin?
7. What are the psychoanalytic ideas of "T-groups"?
8. What are the main ideas of the school of K. Rogers.
Literature
Hoffman I. Presentation of oneself to others in everyday life /
I. Hoffman. - M. : Kanon-press-Ts: Kuchkovo field, 2000. - 302 p.
Emelyanova T.P. Social representation - concept and concept: results of the last decade / T.P. Emelyanova // Psychology. magazine - 2001. - T.22. - No.6. - P.24-35.
Mead J. Internalized Others and the Self / J. Mead // American Sociological Thought: Texts. - M. : Nauka, 1994. - S.224-226.
Moskovichi S. Social representations // Psikhol. magazine - 1995. -T.16. - No. 1, 2.
Levin K. Field theory in social sciences / K. Levin. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1999. - 406 p.
Leontiev D.A. Kurt Lewin: in search of a new psychological thinking / D.A. Leontiev, E.Yu. Patyaeva // Psych. magazine - 2001. - T.22. - No. 5. - P.3-10.
Leontiev D.A. Gordon Allport - architect of personality psychology / D.A. Leontiev // Psychology. magazine - 2002. - T.23. - Number 3. - P.3-8.
Psychology of the masses: reader / ed.-comp. D.Ya. Raygorodsky. - Samara: Ed. House. "BAHRAKH", 1998. - 592 p.
Rudestam K. Group psychotherapy / K. Rudestam. - St. Petersburg. : Peter Kom, 1998. - 384 p.
Fromm E. Anatomy of human destructiveness / E. Fromm; per. with him. E. M. Telyatnikova. - M. : AST, 2006. - 635 p.
Fromm E. Escape from freedom: textbook / E. Fromm; per. from English. G.F. Shveinik. - M. : Flinta: Mosk. psycho-social. in-t: Progress, 2006. - 246 p.
Festinger L. Theory of cognitive dissonance / L. Festinger. - St. Petersburg. : Yuventa, 1999. - 318 p.
Horney K. Neurotic personality of our time / K. Horney; per. V.P. Bolshakov. - M.: Acad. project, 2006. - 207 p.
Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology: textbook. manual for universities / P. N. Shikhirev; scientific ed. A. I. Dontsov. - M.; Ekaterinburg: Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences: KPS +: Business Book, 2000. - 447 p.
Topic 3. Methods of applied research in social psychology
Basic concepts: research methodology, research program, research procedure, qualitative methods, quantitative methods, qualitative-quantitative methods, experiment, observation,
content analysis, survey, sociometry, testing, hardware-technical methods, in-depth interview, focus group, projective techniques.
test questions
1. What is the specificity of the methodology of socio-psychological research?
2. What is included in the content of the program of socio-psychological research?
3. How do quantitative methods of applied research differ from qualitative ones?
4. Data on what socio-psychological problems can be obtained using observation, experiment, content analysis, focus groups, surveys, sociometry?
5. What are projective techniques, what is their procedure?
Literature
Belanovsky S.A. Focus group method / S.A. Belanovsky. – M.:
Publishing House Master, 1996. - 272 p.
Golubkov E.P. Fundamentals of Marketing: textbook / E.P. Golubkov - M .: Publishing house "Finpress", 2003. - 688 p.
Gorbatova D.S. Workshop on psychological research: textbook. allowance / D.S. Gorbatov. - Samara: Ed. House "BAHRAKH-M", 2006. -
272 p.
Dmitrieva E.V. Focus group method: Problems of preparation, conduct, analysis / E.V. Dmitrieva // Sociol. research - 1999. - No. 8. -
pp.133-138.
Zborovsky G.E. Applied sociology / G.E. Zborowski. - M. : GAYDARIKI, 2004. - 437 p.
Kornilova T.V. Introduction to the psychological experiment: textbook / T.V. Kornilova - M .: Publishing House of the Moscow State. un-ta., 1997. - 256 p.
Kruger R. Focus group. Practical guide / R. Kruger,
M.E. Casey; per. from English. - M .: Ed. House "Williams", 2003. - 256 p.
Matovskaya A.V. The use of non-verbal information in a personal interview / A.V. Matovskaya // Sociol. research - 2006. - No. 3. - P. 104 - 112.
Myznikov S.V. Sociolinguistic factors in a sociological survey / S.V. Myznikov // Economy. and social change: Monitoring societies. opinions. - 2004. - No. 1. - P.64 - 82.
Myagkov A.Yu. Explanatory models of the interviewer effect. Experimental testing experience / A.Yu. Myagkov, I.V. Zhuravleva
// Sociol. research - 2006. - No. 3. - P.85 - 97.
Levinson A. Focus groups: the evolution of the method (review of the discussion at the ESOMAR conference) / A. Levinson, O. Stuchevska // Ekon. and social. change: Monitoring societies. opinions. - 2003. - No. 1. - P.46-55.
Nokhrina N.N. Test as a general scientific diagnostic method / N.N. Nokhrina // Sociol. research - 2005. - No. 1. - P. 118-126.
Sikevich Z.V. Sociological research: a practical guide / Z.V. Sikevich. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2005. - 320 p.
Solso R.L. Experimental psychology / R.L. Solso, M.K. McLean. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. - 272 p.
Shapar T.V. Methods of social psychology / V.B. Chapar. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2003. - 288 p.
Topic 4. The communicative side of communication
Basic concepts: communication, verbal communication, non-verbal communication, sign systems: optical-kinetic, paralinguistic, extralinguistic, space and time of communication, visual contact, olfactory signals; persuasion, manipulation, lies.
test questions
1. What is the place of speech and non-verbal signals in interpersonal communication?
2. Name and describe the emotional functions of speech.
3. Classify gestures and expand the content of each type with examples.
4. What is the role of space and time in the organization of communication in communication?
5. What are the results of visual communication research?
6. What are the ways of persuasion?
7. By what signs is false information determined?
Literature
Andrianov M.S. Analysis of the process of non-verbal communication as paralinguistics / M.S. Andrianov // Psych. magazine - 1995. - T.16. - Number 3. - P.25-32.
Birkenbil V. Language of intonation, facial expressions, gestures / V. Birkenbil. - St. Petersburg. : Peter Press, 1997. - 214 p.
Wilson G. Sign language - let us succeed / G. Wilson, K. McClaffin. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - 224 p.
Glass L. I read your thoughts / L. Glass. - M. : AST Publishing House LLC, 2003. - 251 p.
Znakov V.V. Classification of psychological signs of true and false messages in communicative situations / V.V. Signs
// Psych. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 2. – P.34-46.
Krasnikov M.A. The phenomenon of lies in interpersonal communication /
M.A. Krasnikov // Society. science and modernity. - 1999. - No. 2. - S. 176-185.
Kreidlin G.E. Non-verbal semiotics: body language and natural language / G.E. Kreidlin. - M.: New Literary Review, 2004. - 281 p.
Labunskaya V.A. Human Expression: Communication and Interpersonal Cognition / V.A. Labunskaya. - Rostov n/a. : Phoenix, 1999. - 608 p.
Petrova E.A. Gestures in the pedagogical process / E.A. Petrov. - M. : OOO "AST Publishing House", 1998. - 222 p.
Popov S.V. Visual observation / S.V. Popov. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house "Rech" together with the publishing house "Semantics-S", 2002. - 320 p.
Pocheptsov G.G. Communication theory / G.G. Pocheptsov. - M. : Refl-book; Kyiv: Vakler, 2001. - 656 p.
Pocheptsov G.G. Communication technologies of the twentieth century
/ G.G. Pocheptsov. - M. : Refl-book, 2002. - 352 p.
Simonenko S.I. Psychological grounds for assessing the falsity and truthfulness of messages / S.I. Simonenko // Vopr. psychology. - 1998. - No. 3. - P.78-84.
Stepanov S. The language of appearance / S. Stepanov. - M. : EKSMO-Press, 2001 - 416 p.
Ekman P. Psychology of lies / P. Ekman. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1999. - 272 p.
Topic 5. Mutual understanding and social cognition
Basic concepts: social perception, identification, empathy, reflection, causal attribution, fundamental attribution error, stereotyping, perceptual effects.
test questions
1. What are the mechanisms of people's perception of each other?
2. What experiments have shown that explaining the causes of another person's behavior is central to social perception?
3. What are the keys to determining the adequacy of an individual's explanation of the reasons for another person's behavior?
4. Describe typical distortions in the perception of another person.
5. How to increase the accuracy of perception?
Problem tasks
1. The perceptual side of people's communication is the basis for mutual understanding, establishing trusting relationships, and coordinating actions. Perception, as it were, has two poles - personal and social. The line of typical perception of the individual passes between them. Illustrate this point with your own examples.
2. Give examples from your communication experience by reviewing the following information. In the experiments, a phenomenon called "Accentuation" was discovered. It lies in the fact that, depending on the specific conditions in which a person is formed and lives, he learns to consider some things, phenomena, qualities more significant than others. Hence the differences in the perception and evaluation of other people by representatives of socio-demographic, professional and other groups.
3. Perception is selective: new impressions are categorized based on past experiences (the significance of learned concepts, relationships, values, and rules). Therefore, the process of stereotyping plays an important role in the formation of perception. What is this process? Give your own examples.
4. Expand the content of the factors influencing perception:
restrictions associated with the senses;
a state of consciousness;
previous experience;
“cultural modeling”.
5. Explain, using information on the topic, the results of an experiment conducted by social psychologists. The experiment was called "Placebo" (dummy).
In one of the schools, two groups of schoolchildren were formed, similar in abilities and other qualities. The teachers who were supposed to work with these groups were told that the students of the first group were extremely gifted children, while the students of the second were inhibited and difficult. After some time, an analysis of the progress in both groups was carried out. The results were amazing: in the first "gifted" group, academic performance was at its best, the children shone with knowledge, and the teachers were pleased. In the second group, the children had "satisfactory" and "unsatisfactory" grades and there were constant conflicts.
6. Typical distortions of ideas about another person are the psychological effects of "halo", "significance", "projection", "novelty", "logical error", etc. What are they? Have you encountered similar effects in your practice?
Literature
Andreeva G.M. Psychology of social cognition / G.M. Andreeva. - M. : Aspect-Press, 1997. - 383 p.
Znakov V.V. Understanding as a problem of the psychology of human existence / V.V. Signs // Psych. magazine - 2000. - T.21. - No. 2. - P.50-61.
Kelly G. The process of causal attribution / G. Kelly // Modern foreign social psychology: texts / ed. G.M. Andreeva,
I.N. Bogomolova, L.A. Petrovskaya. - M .: Publishing house. Moscow State University, 1984. -
pp.127-137.
Kosov B.B. On some laws of perception, discrimination and identification of simple and complex objects / B.B. Kosov // Vopr. psychology. - 2003. - No. 1. - P.50-61.
Krupnik E.P. Experimental study of the mechanisms of integral perception / E.P. Krupnik // Vopr. psychology. - 2003. - No. 4. -
pp.127-192.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - S.106-166.
Perspectives of social psychology / ed.-sost. : M. Houston and others; per. from English. : A. Mirera and others - M .: EKSMO-Press, 2001. - 687 p.
Social psychology: workshop: textbook. allowance for university students / G.M. Andreeva [and others]; ed. T.V. Folomeeva. - M. : Aspect Press, 2006. - 477 p.
Social psychology: reader: textbook. allowance for students. universities / comp. E.P. Belinskaya, O.A. Tikhomandritskaya. - M. : Aspect-press, 2003. - 474 p.
Taylor S. Social psychology / S. Taylor, L. Piplo, D. Sears; scientific ed. per. N.V. Grishina. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. - 767 p.
Shikhirev P.N. Modern social psychology: textbook. manual for universities / P. N. Shikhirev; scientific ed. A. I. Dontsov. - M.; Ekaterinburg: Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences: KPS +: Business Book, 2000. - 447 p.
Topic 6. Interpersonal conflicts and their regulation
Basic concepts: cooperation, competition, conflict as a socio-psychological phenomenon, constructive conflict, destructive conflict, style of behavior in a conflict situation, conflict as a cognitive scheme, conflict perception.
test questions
1. What is the specificity of understanding conflict in social psychology?
2. What options for understanding interpersonal conflicts did classical psychology offer?
3. Formulate a typology of conflicts by M. Deutsch and give your interpretations.
4. What are the main strategies of human behavior in conflict? Which of them are most typical for your immediate environment?
5. Describe the conflict person. How can you influence such a person?
6. The most important factor in the emergence of a conflict is the perception of the situation as a conflict. How do you understand it?
7. What laws and effects of the psyche operate in conflict perception?
STYLES OF BEHAVIOR IN A CONFLICT SITUATION
Instruction
Choose your preferred behavior in each question and indicate its letter in your answers.
I. a) Sometimes I allow others to take responsibility for resolving a controversial issue.
b) Instead of discussing what we disagree on, I try to draw attention to what we both agree on.
2. a) I try to find a compromise solution.
b) I am trying to settle the matter taking into account all the interests of the other person and my own.
3. a) I am usually persistent in trying to get my way.
b) Sometimes I sacrifice my own interests for the interests of another person.
4. a) I try to find a compromise solution.
b) I try not to hurt the other person's feelings.
5. a) When settling a controversial situation, I always try to find support from the other.
b) I try to do everything to avoid useless tension.
6. a) I try to avoid getting into trouble for myself.
b) I try to get my way.
7. a) I try to postpone the decision of the controversial issue in order to finally resolve it over time.
b) I consider it possible to yield in something in order to achieve another.
8. a) I usually push hard to get my way.
b) I first try to determine what all the interests involved and the issues at issue are.
9. a) I think that it is not always worth worrying about some kind of disagreement that arises.
b) I make an effort to get my way.
10. a) I am determined to achieve my interest.
b) I am trying to find a compromise solution.
11. a) First of all, I try to clearly define what all the issues raised are.
b) I try to calm the other person and, above all, to keep our relationship going.
12. a) Often I avoid taking a position that can cause controversy.
b) I give the opportunity to the other in something to remain in his opinion, if he also goes forward.
13. a) I propose a middle position.
b) I will try to do everything my way.
14. a) I communicate my point of view to another and ask about his views.
b) I show the other the logic and advantage of my views.
b) I try to do whatever is necessary to avoid tension.
16. a) I try not to hurt the feelings of another.
b) I usually try to convince the other person of the merits of my position.
17. a) I am usually persistent in trying to get my way.
b) I try to do everything to avoid useless tension.
18. a) If it makes the other person happy, I will give him the opportunity to have his own way.
b) I give the other the opportunity to remain with my opinion if he also meets me halfway.
19. a) First of all, I try to determine what all the interests involved and the issues at issue are.
b) I try to postpone the decision of the controversial issue in order to eventually resolve them finally.
20. a) I try to immediately overcome our differences.
b) I try to find the best combination of gains and losses for both of us.
21. a) When negotiating, I try to be considerate of the other person's wishes.
b) I always tend to discuss the problem directly.
22. a) I am trying to find a middle position (between myself and the other person).
b) I defend my position.
23. a) As a rule, I am puzzled by satisfying the desires of each of us.
b) Sometimes I allow others to take responsibility in resolving a controversial issue.
24. a) If the position of another seems very important to him, I try to meet him halfway.
b) I try to convince the other to compromise.
25. a) I try to convince the other person that I am right.
b) When negotiating, I try to be attentive to the arguments of the other.
26. a) I usually offer a middle position.
b) I almost always seek to satisfy the interests of each of us.
27. a) I often try to avoid arguments.
b) If it makes the other person happy, I will give him the opportunity to stand his ground.
28. a) I usually strive to get my way.
b) In settling the situation, I usually seek support from the other.
29. a) I propose a middle position.
b) I don't think it's always worth worrying about disagreements.
30. a) I try not to hurt the feelings of another.
b) I always take such a position in the dispute that we can achieve success together.
Literature
Andreev V.I. Conflictology (the art of dispute, negotiation, conflict resolution) / V.A. Andreev. - M. : INFRA-M, 1995. - 286 p.
Antsupov A.Ya. Conflictology / A.Ya. Antsupov, A.I. Shipilov. - M. : UNITI, 2000. - 551 p.
Grishina N.V. Psychology of conflict / N.V. Grishin. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. - 464 p.
Emelyanov S.M. Workshop on conflictology / S.M. Emelyanov. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - 368 p.
Conflictology: textbook / ed. A.S. Carmine. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing house "Lan", 2000. - S.63-65.
Lebedeva M.M. From conflict perception to consent / M.M. Lebedeva // Polit. research - 1996. - No. 5. - P.163-168.
Lebedeva M.M. Political settlement of conflicts / M.M. Lebedev. - M. : Aspect Pressv, 1999. - 271 p.
Levin K. Resolution of social conflicts / K. Levin; per. from English. - St. Petersburg. : Speech, 2000. - 408 p.
Leonov N.I. Conflicts and Conflict Behavior: Methods
study: textbook. allowance / N.I. Leonov. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2005. - 240 p.
Topic 7. Personality in the social world
Basic concepts Keywords: personality, self-concept, locus of control, social identity, socialization, social role, role conflict, psychological game, marginal personality, deviant personality.
test questions
1. What is the specificity of the study of personality by social psychology?
2. What theoretical explanations of the psychological nature of personality have been developed by science?
3. What is the significance of the self-concept and locus of control for the individual and society?
4. What is a social role and what are the difficulties in fulfilling the roles?
5. What kind of role conflicts have you encountered in your circle of friends?
Problem tasks
1. What type of personality - with an internal or external locus of control - is common in your immediate environment? Justify your point of view using the material of the table, which gives answers to the question "What do you believe more in?".
2. Study the table “Basic Characteristics of Parent, Adult, and Child Positions” and describe situations of communication in which such ego states appear.
| Main |
Parent |
Adult |
|
| Characteristic words and expressions |
"Everyone knows that you should never..."; "I don't understand how this is allowed..." |
"How?"; "What?"; "When?"; "Where?"; "Why?"; "Maybe…"; "Probably…" |
"I'm angry with you!"; "That's great!"; "Excellent!"; "Disgusting!" |
| intonation |
accusers condescending critical Interrupting |
reality bound |
very emotional |
| State |
haughty Supercorrect Very decent |
Attentiveness Search for information |
clumsy repressed oppressed |
| Expression |
frowning unsatisfactory Worried |
open eyes Maximum attention |
Oppression Astonishment |
| Hands to the sides pointing finger Hands folded across chest |
Tilt forward to the interlocutor, the head turns after him |
Spontaneous mobility (clench fists, walk, pull button) |
3. To better understand what a "socially rejected role" is, everyone imagines himself in the role of a deviant person and answers the following questions.
What are the benefits of my position?
What are my difficulties?
What do I think about people like me?
What am I reacting to?
Who could understand me?
Literature
Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Representations of the individual about the attitude of significant others towards her / K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya, E.V. Gordienko
// Psych. magazine - 2001. - T.22. - No. 5. - P.37-49.
Alexandrov D. N. Fundamentals of entrepreneurship. Personality and Entrepreneur's Syndrome: Study Guide / D.N. Alexandrov, M.A. Alieskerov, T.V. Akhlebinin; under total ed. D. N. Aleksandrova. - M. : Flinta: Mosk. psycho-social in-t, 2004. - 519 p.
Antonyan Yu. M. Personality of the criminal = Personality of criminal /
Yu. M. Antonyan, V. N. Kudryavtsev, V. E. Eminov. - St. Petersburg. : Legal Center Press, 2004. - 364 p.
Batarshev A.V. Personality of a business person.
Socio-psychological aspect / A.V. Batarshev. - M.: Delo, 2003. - 382 p.
Belinskaya E.P. Social psychology of personality: textbook. allowance for students. universities / E.P. Belinskaya, O.A. Tikhomadritskaya. - M. : Aspect-Press, 2001. - 299 p.
Bern E. Sex in human love / per. from English. M.P. Daddy. - M. : EKSMO-Press Publishing House, 2000. - 384 p.
Leontiev A.N. Activity. Consciousness. Personality: textbook. allowance / A.N. Leontiev. - M. : Meaning: Academy, 2004. - 345 p.
Maslow A. Motivation and personality / A. Maslow; per. from English. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2007. - 351 p.
Social psychology of personality in questions and answers: textbook. allowance for students. universities / S.A. Belicheva, O.S. Vasilyeva, S.T. Janeryan and others; ed. V.A. Labunskaya. - M. : Gardariki, 2000. - 395 p.
Subject, personality and psychology of human existence / ed.
V.V. Znakova, Z.I. Ryabikina. - M. : Institute of Psychology, 2005. - 382 p.
Personality theories in Western European and American psychology: a reader in personality psychology / comp. D.Ya. Raygorodsky. - Samara: Ed. House. "BAHRAKH", 1996. - 391 p.
Frager R. Personality: theories, experiments, exercises / R. Frager, D. Feidiman. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EVROZNAK, 2001. - 864 p.
Topic 8. Destructive behavior of the individual and its characteristics
Basic concepts Key words: constructive behavior, destructive (aggressive) behavior, direct aggression, indirect aggression, aggression factors, catharsis hypothesis, cognitive methods of aggression control, language key to remove aggression.
Problem tasks
1. In science, two answers have been formed to the question of whether the destructive behavior of a person is innate:
Man by his true nature is good-natured, it is society's fault that he is aggressive;
Man is an uncontrollable, impulsive animal.
Name the scientists who expressed similar ideas. Give your arguments for or against.
3. Study the table "Types of aggressive behavior", analyze it, give relevant examples.
| Physical Active Line |
Beating or killing |
| Physical Active |
Laying booby traps; conspiracy with a hired killer to destroy the enemy |
| Physical Passive |
The desire to physically prevent another person from achieving a desired goal or engaging in a desired activity |
| Physical Passive indirect |
Refusing to perform necessary tasks (for example, refusing to vacate the area during a sit-in) |
| Verbal Active Direct |
Verbal abuse or humiliation of another person |
| Verbal Active |
Spreading malicious slander or gossip about another person |
| Verbal Passive |
Refusal to talk to another person, answer his questions, etc. |
| Verbal Passive indirect |
Refusing to give certain verbal explanations or explanations (for example, refusing to speak up in defense of a person who is being unfairly criticized) |
3. Study the data of experiments on the problem of aggressive behavior of schoolchildren given in the tables. Try to highlight those parameters that are more likely to lead to the formation of the personality of the offender.
Indicators of aggressive manifestations of students (numerical values
are given in %, data scatter limits are given in brackets below)
| Identified indicators |
Student groups |
Student groups |
| Averages aggressiveness |
||
| General prerequisites for manifestations of aggressiveness |
||
| Sociometric status among peers |
prevails |
And positive |
| Anxiety |
prevails |
Average level |
| General relationship with parents |
All options |
All options |
| Relationships with parents and peers on vacation |
prevails |
All options |
| Relations with parents in common affairs |
All options |
All options |
| Relationship with class teacher |
prevails |
Neutral |
Manifestations of independence in aggressive and non-aggressive students
| Measured indicators related to student autonomy |
Groups of children from |
Groups of children without |
| Dependence on the teacher |
Expressed |
Expressed |
| Need for help |
Expressed |
Expressed |
| Ask for help |
episodically |
episodically |
| Professionally |
Weakly expressed |
Pronounced |
| Willingness to help |
episodic |
episodic |
| demonstrativeness |
Expressed |
Expressed |
| Attitude towards cooperation |
indifferent |
Moderate |
| Striving for Success |
Restrained by the fear of failure |
High but fearful |
| The severity of the types of social. orientation |
Ignore all kinds |
Focus on one, two |
| Self-assessment of prospects |
Satisfactory |
4. In the laboratory of psychosocial research at the National Center for Mental Health (Moscow), in the course of studying the behavior of prisoners, it was revealed that the most aggressive group are first-time convicted thieves, the last place is occupied by murderers. According to the index of hostility, the robbers took the first place, the killers also took the last place. Try to explain this contradictory phenomenon.
Literature
Alfimova M.V. Psychogenetics of aggressiveness / M.V. Alfimova,
IN AND. Trubnikov // Vopr. psychology. - 2000. - No. 6. - P.112-121.
Berkowitz L. Aggression: causes, consequences, control
/ L. Berkowitz. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EVROZNAK, 2001. - 512 p.
Baron R. Aggression / R. Baron, D. Richardson. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1997. -
336 p.
Garr T.R. Why people rebel / T.R. Garr. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2005. - 461 p.
Krahy B. Social psychology of aggression / B. Krahy; per. from English.
A. Lisitsina. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 333 p.
Nazaretyan A.P. Violence and Tolerance: An Anthropological Retrospective / A.P. Nazareth // Vopr. psychology. - 2005. - No. 5. - P.37-50.
Ossitsky A.K. Psychological analysis of aggressive manifestations of students / A.K. Ossitzky // Vopr. psychology. - 1994. - No. 3. - P.61-68.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - S.366-411.
Pirogov A.I. Political psychology: textbook. allowance for universities / A.I. Pirogov. - M. : Academic Project: Triksta, 2005. - S.202-243.
Psychology of human aggressiveness: a reader. - Minsk: Harvest, 1999. - 386 p.
Rean A.A. Aggression and aggressiveness of personality / A.A. Rean // Psych. magazine - 1996. - No. 5. - P.3-18.
Safuanov F.S. Psychological typology of criminal aggression / F.S. Safuanov // Psych. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 6. - S.24-35.
Skakunov E.I. The nature of political violence. Problems of explanation / E.I. Skakunov // Sociol. research - 2001. - No. 12. - P.22-30.
Topic 9. Social impact
Basic concepts Keywords: social influence, social power, social norms, identification, internalization, authority, charisma, manipulation.
test questions
1. Define the concepts of "influence" and "power" in a psychological sense.
2. Describe the psychological processes by which people are influenced.
3. Name the types of influence and give their detailed analysis.
4. What are the foundations of social power?
6. What is the difference between barbarian and civilized influence?
7. What are the ways of influence at different levels of interpersonal relations?
Problem tasks
1. Recall a recent situation when you, after committing a certain act, realized that someone was manipulating you: declared one goal, while pursuing another. How did you guess about it? Why did your partner do this?
2. Recall a recent situation when you deliberately went to mislead your partner: announced one goal to him, while pursuing another. Why did you do it?
3. With a certain habit of introspection, each person can admit that in many cases he tries to convince other people of something or persuade them to a certain course of action because it was in his own interests. Analyze the example below.
4. Own emotions act as significant signals informing about manipulative actions on the part of others. "Exaggerated" emotions are a sign that an irrational idea has been activated. The sound of soul strings can be so strong that a person's natural ability to perceive and analyze information, draw conclusions and assumptions, respond to arguments and formulate counterarguments is violated. According to research by social psychologists, the following irrational ideas have become widespread in Russian society:
I should (should)...
take responsibility;
help if you are asked;
sympathize and understand;
thank;
behave correctly;
to be a man;
do everything quickly;
like;
to control;
eliminate injustice;
be original;
be bold;
be generous.
I shouldn't (shouldn't)...
refuse;
lose one's temper;
quarrel, scold;
pay for love.
others should...
be fair, honest;
others shouldn't...
ask me for a loan;
criticize me.
everyone should remember...
"maybe it will carry";
if I worked harder, I deserved more;
the idea is more important than the person;
if we have something bad, then it is still good, because it is ours;
the opinion of the majority must be obeyed.
Formulate your own irrational ideas and try to figure out when and how you became the object of manipulation.
Literature
Dontsov A.I. Social context as a factor of interaction between the minority and the majority / A.I. Dontsov, M.Yu. Tokareva // Vopr. psychology. - 1998. - No. 3. - P.115-123.
Dotsenko E.L. Psychology of manipulation / E.L. Dotsenko. - M. : MGU, 1996. - 269 p.
Zaraisky D.A. Managing other people's behavior. Technology of personal psychological influence / D.A. Zaraisky. - Dubna: Ed. Center "Phoenix", 1997. - 272 p.
Zimbardo F. Social impact / F. Zimbardo, M. Leippe; per. from English. N. Malgina, A. Fedorov. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. - 444 p.
Znakov V.V. Machiavellianism, manipulative behavior and mutual understanding in interpersonal communication / V.V. Signs // Vopr. psychology. - 2002. - No. 6. - P.45-55.
Moskovichi S. Are biased messages more effective than unbiased messages? / S. Moskovichi, F. Buschini // Psychological. magazine - 2000. - T.21. - Number 3. - P.74-85.
Sidorenko E.V. Influence and resistance training /
E.V. Sidorenko. - St. Petersburg. : Rech, 2001. - 256 p.
Taranov P.S. Techniques of influencing people / P.S. Taranov. - M. : FAIR, 1998. - 608 p.
Turner J. Social impact / D. Turner; per. from English. Z. Zamchuk. - St. Petersburg. and others : Peter, 2003. - 257 p.
Tokareva M.Yu. Minority as a source of social influence / M.Yu. Tokareva, A.I. Dontsov // Vopr. psychology. - 1996. - No. 1. - P.50-62.
Cialdini R. Psychology of influence / R. Cialdini. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 1999. - 272 p.
Topic 10. Small groups: structure, typology, research
Basic concepts: small group, reference group, group cohesion, social facilitation, social laziness, group polarization, communication models.
test questions
1. Expand the essence of the concept of "small group" and tell about the main directions of the study of the phenomenon.
2. What is the essence of theoretical approaches to the phenomenon of a small group? Name them and describe the main ideas.
3. How can small groups be classified? Give specific examples of different groups and indicate their specifics.
4. What psychological effects operate in a small group?
5. Describe the communication models (information networks) in a small group?
Test "Diagnostics of interpersonal relations"
To study relationships in a small group, T. Leary's technique is used. To check which relationship styles are typical for you, you need to fill in the table by selecting the appropriate number of judgments (from 0 to 4 located in each cell) that are most typical of your behavior in a group (family, educational, friendly, etc.). After summarizing the results, a personal profile discogram is filled in.
| I. Others think favorably of him Makes an impression on others Able to command Able to stand his ground |
I. Capable of inspiring admiration Is respected by others Possesses leadership talent Likes responsibility |
| II. Has a sense of self-worth Independent Able to take care of himself May show indifference |
II. Self-assured Self-confident and assertive businesslike and practical Likes to compete |
| III. Capable of being harsh Strict but fair Can be sincere Critical of others |
III. Strict and cool, where necessary Relentless but impartial open and straight |
| IV. Likes to cry Often sad Capable of distrust Often disappointed |
IV. Can't stand to be commanded Skeptical He's hard to impress Touchy, scrupulous |
| V. Capable of being self-critical Able to admit being wrong willingly obeys Compliant |
IV. Easily embarrassed Unsure of yourself Compliant Modest |
| VI. Noble Admiring and imitating Seeking approval |
V. Often resorts to the help of others Willingly accepts advice Trusting and striving to please others |
| VII. Able to cooperate Strive to get along with others Friendly, benevolent, attentive and affectionate |
VI. Always kind to deal with Values the opinions of others Sociable and accommodating kindhearted |
| VIII. Delicate approving Responsive to calls for help |
VII. Kind, reassuring Gentle and soft-hearted Likes to take care of others Selfless, generous |
| I. Likes to give advice Gives an impression of importance Commanding-imperative overbearing |
I. Strive for success Expect admiration from everyone Manages others despotic |
| II. Boastful Arrogant and self-satisfied Thinks only of himself cunning prudent |
II. Snob (judges people by rank and wealth, not by personal qualities) Conceited Selfish Cold, callous |
| III. Intolerant of others' mistakes self-serving Frank Often unfriendly |
IV. sarcastic, mocking Evil, cruel Often angry Insensitive, indifferent |
| V. Embittered Complainant Jealous Long remembers grievances |
IV. vindictive Infused with the spirit contradicted distrustful and suspicious |
| V. Self-flagellation Shy uninitiative |
VI. Timid bashful Excessive willingness to obey Spineless |
| VII. Dependent, dependent Likes to obey Lets others make decisions Easily gets into trouble |
VI. Almost never speaks to anyone Unobtrusive Likes to be taken care of overly trusting |
| VIII. Easily influenced by friends Ready to trust someone else sympathizes with everyone |
VII. Strive to ingratiate everyone. Agrees with everyone. Always friendly loves everyone |
| IX. Forgives everything Overflowing with sympathy Generous and tolerant of shortcomings Strive to patronize |
VIII. Too condescending to others. Tries to comfort everyone Caring for others to the detriment of oneself Spoils people with excessive kindness |
Personal profile discogram
domination
Aggressiveness Friendliness
Subordination
Literature
Baron R.S. Social psychology of the group: Processes, decisions, actions / R.S. Baron, N.L. Kerr, N. Miller; per. from English. Yu. Akhmedova, D. Tsiruleva. - St. Petersburg. and others: Peter, 2003. - 269 p.
Krichevsky R.L. Social psychology of a small group: textbook. allowance for students. universities / R.L. Krichevsky, E.M. Dubovskaya. - M. : Aspect-Press, 2001. 0-318 p.
Macionis J. Sociology / J. Macionis. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. - S.224-237.
Levin J. Group processes / J. Levin, R.E. Moreland. - M. : Prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. - 395 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - S.208-281.
Sidorenkov A.V. The state of foreign psychology of a small group: development trends and problems / A.V. Sidorenkov // Vopr. psychology. - 2005. - No. 6. - P.120-131.
Slavka N.V. Psychology of a small group: textbook. allowance for universities /
S.P. Slavka. - M. : Exam, 2004. - 157 p.
Topic 11. Dynamic processes in a small group
Basic concepts: interpersonal relations in a small group, team, decision-making psychology, leadership, leadership styles, group
effects, minority influence, conforming behavior, nonconformity.
test questions
1. What is the nature of leadership, leadership styles?
2. What role set should an effective team have?
3. Name group psychological effects
4. What are the conditions and influence factors of the minority?
5. What is the conformal behavior of a person?
Literature
Avdeev V.V. Team formation / V.V. Avdeev. - M.:
Aspect-Press, 1999. - 369 p.
Baron R. Social psychology of the group: processes, decisions, actions / R. Baron, N. Kerr, N. Miller. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. - 272 p.
Galkin T.P. Sociology of management: from group to team: textbook. allowance / T.P. Galkin. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. - 224 p.
Ilyin G.L. Sociology and psychology of management: textbook. allowance / G.L. Ilyin. – M.: Ed. center "Academy", 2005. - 192 p.
Cartwright D. Group dynamics: research and theory / D. Cartwright, A. Zander. - M. : OLMA-PRESS, 2004. - 471 p.
Levin J. Group processes / J. Levin, R.E. Moreland. - M. : prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. - 395 p.
Muchinsky P. Psychology, profession, career / P. Muchinsky. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. - 539 p.
Sidorenkov A.V. The psychological mechanism of the dynamics of the small
groups: integration and disintegration / A.V. Sidorenko // Vopr. psychology. - 2004. - No. 5. - P.63-72.
Sidorenkov A.V. Psychological contradictions in a small group
/ A.V. Sidorenko // Vopr. psychology. - 2003. - No. 1. - P.41-50.
Fopel A. Creating a team / A. Fopel. - M.: Genesis, 2003. - 346 p.
Shcherbatykh Yu.V. Psychology of elections / Yu.V. Shcherbatykh. - M. : Eksmo Publishing House, 2005. - 400 p.
Topic 12. Spontaneous groups and ways of influencing them
Basic concepts: collective behavior, spontaneous groups, mass, crowd, public, audience, circular reaction, infection, suggestion, imitation, panic.
test questions
1. What are the characteristic properties of spontaneous groups?
2. What are the distinguishing features of the mass, the crowd, the public and the audience?
3. What important ideas about the mass and the crowd were expressed by scientists in
XIX-XX centuries?
4. What are the main psychological features of a person in the mass.
5. Give a psychological analysis of the mechanisms of spontaneous behavior and communication in the crowd?
6. What are the main forms of spontaneous behavior - mass panic and aggression?
7. Describe the types of crowds.
8. What is the importance of the structure, shape and density of the crowd?
9. What are crowd control techniques?
Literature
Aravina T.I. The phenomenon of the crowd in the research perspectives of social psychology / T.I. Aravina // Psychology. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - Number 3. - P.59-69.
Aggressive crowd, mass panic, rumors. Lectures on social and political psychology / A.P. Nazareth. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2003. - 192 p.
Bloomer G. Collective behavior / G. Bloomer // American Sociological Thought: Texts. - M. : Nauka, 1994. - S.168-214.
Lebon G. Leaders of the crowds / G. Lebon // Psychology and psychoanalysis of power: a reader / comp. D.Ya. Raygorodsky. - Samara: Ed. House "BAHRAKH", 1999. - V.2. - P.195-212.
Moscovici S. The Age of Crowds: A Historical Treatise on the Psychology of the Masses
/ S. Moskovichi. - M .: Center for Psychology and Psychiatry, 1996. - 439 p.
Naumenko T.V. Psychological methods of influencing the mass
audience / T.V. Naumenko // Vopr. psychology. - 2003. - No. 6. - P.63-71.
Olshansky D.V. Psychology of the masses / D.V. Olshansky. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2001. - 368 p.
Olshansky D.V. Political psychology: textbook / D.V. Olshansky. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2002. - 576 p.
Psychology of the masses: reader / comp. D.Ya. Raygorodsky. - Samara: Ed. House "BAHRAKH", 1998. - 592 p.
Roshchin S.K. Crowd Psychology: An Analysis of Past Research and Today's Problems / S.K. Roshchin // Psych. magazine - 1990. - T.11. - No. 5. - P.3-15.
Sosnin V.A. Psychology of Religion: American Experience / V.A. Sosnin // Psychology. magazine - 2002. - T.23. - No. 2. – P.47-59.
Theme 13 Mental warehouse of the ethnic community
Basic concepts Keywords: "emic" approach, "ethical" approach, ethnic consciousness, ethnic identity, mentality, national character, autostereotypes, heterostereotypes, ethnocentrism.
Questions for the discussion on the topic "Russian national character and modern socio-psychological processes"
1. How does the human factor influence the course of reforms in modern Russia, to what extent, how specifically?
2. Do the mental foundations change or the cultural code of the national psyche remains unchanged? If “yes”, then what?
3. Is the Russian national character a condition or an obstacle for the modern effective socio-political development of the country?
4. There is world experience in the reconstruction of the national character (Germany). Does Russia need such experience? Is it necessary to accept the emerging realities of mass psychology as a given?
5. What are the prospects for the development of the country in connection with the mental manifestations of mass consciousness and behavior?
Literature
Aleksakhina N.A. Trends in changing the national identity of the peoples of Russia / N.A. Aleksakhina // Sociol. isisled. - 1998. - No. 2. - P.49-54.
Volkov Yu.G. Russian identity: features of formation and manifestation / Yu.G. Volkov // Sociol. research - 2006. - No. 7. - P.13-22.
Dontsov A.I. Language as a factor of ethnic identity / A.I. Dontsov, T.G. Stefanenko, Zh.T. Utalieva // Vopr. psychology. - 1997. - No. 4. -
pp. 75-86.
Dubov I.G. Socio-psychological aspect of the national idea in Russia / I.G. Dubov, T.B. Zatylkina // Psikhol. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - No. 5. - P.49-57.
Karaulov Yu. N. Russian language and linguistic personality / Yu.N. Karaulov. - M. : URSS, 2004. - 261 p.
Kochetkov V.V. Psychology of intercultural differences / V.V. Kochetkov. - M. : PER SE, 2002. - 416 p.
Latova N.V. What does a fairy tale teach? (About the Russian mentality) /
N.V. Latova // Society. science and modernity. - 2002. - No. 2. - P.180-191.
Lebedeva N.M. Social identity in the post-Soviet space: from the search for self-respect to the search for meaning / N.M. Lebedev
// Psych. magazine - 1999. - T.20. - Number 3. - P.58-70.
Moiseeva N.A. Mentality and national character / N.A. Moiseeva, V.I. Sorokovikova // Sotsiol. research - 2003. - No. 2. – P.45-55.
Nalchadzhyan A.A. Ethnopsychology: textbook. allowance / A.A. Nalchadzhyan. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. - 380 p.
Panesh E.H. Ethnic psychology and international relations. Interaction and features of evolution (on the example of the Western Caucasus) / E.Kh. Panesh. - St. Petersburg. : European House, 1996. - 303 p.
Psychology of national intolerance: reader / comp.
Yu.V. Chernyavskaya. - Minsk: Harvest, 1998. - 560 p.
Sedykh A.P. Linguistic Personality and Ethnos: (National and Cultural Peculiarities of Russian and French Communicative Behavior)
/ A. P. Sedykh. - M. : company<Спутник+>, 2004. - 268 p.
Stefanenko T.G. Ethnopsychology: a textbook for students. universities / T.G. Stefanenko. - M. : Aspect Press, 2003. - 367 p.
Sikevich Z.V. Sociology and psychology of national relations: textbook. allowance. - St. Petersburg. : Publishing House of Mikhailov V.A., 1999. - 203 p.
Khotinets V.Yu. Psychological characteristics of ethnocultural development of a person / V.Yu. Khotynets // Vopr. psychology. - 2001. - No. 5. -
pp.60-73.
Topic 14. Social and psychological characteristics
intergroup relations
Basic concepts Keywords: intra-group bias, inter-group hostility, group cohesion, ethnic stereotypes, inter-ethnic relations, gender stereotypes, gender relations.
test questions
1. What is intra-group bias as a social phenomenon?
2. Describe group defense mechanisms
3. What is group cohesion as a psychological phenomenon
4. How are interethnic relations built in contemporary Russia?
6. What are the features of gender relations in modern Russia
7. Name ways to optimize intergroup relations
Literature
Ageev V.S. Intergroup interaction: Social and psychological problems / V.S. Ageev. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1990. - 240 p.
Bern Sh. Gender psychology / Sh. Bern. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EVROZNAK, 2001. - 320 p.
Gasanov I.B. National stereotypes and the "image of the enemy" / I.B. Gasanov // Psychology of national intolerance: reader. - Minsk: Harvest, 1998. - S.187-208.
Gulevich O.A. Methods for optimizing intergroup interaction: directions and results of research / O.A. Gulevich // Vopr. psychology. - 2004. - No. 6. - P.103-118.
Nalchadzhyan A.A. Ethnopsychology: textbook. allowance / A.A. Nalchadzhyan. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2004. - S.340-378.
Nelson T. The Psychology of Prejudice: The Secrets of Patterns of Thought, Perception, and Behavior. - St. Petersburg. : prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. - 384 p.
Pines E Workshop on social psychology / E. Pines, K. Maslach. - St. Petersburg. : Peter, 2000. - 326-365.
Workshop on gender psychology / ed. I.S. Kletsina. -
SPb. : Peter, 2003. - 480 p.
Dictionary of gender terms / ed. A.A. Denisova. - M. : Information - XXI century, 2002. - 256 p.
Sosnin V.A. Culture and intergroup processes: ethnocentrism, conflicts and trends in national identification / V.A. Sosnin
// Psych. magazine - 1997. - T.18. - No. 1. – P.87-95.
Stefanenko T.G. Ethnopsychology: a textbook for students. universities / T.G. Stefanenko. - M. : Aspect Press, 2003. - S.236-278.
Shtroo V.A. Study of group defense mechanisms /
V.A. Shtroo // Psikhol. magazine - 2001. - T.22. - No. 1. S.86-97.
Ethnic groups and social boundaries. Social organization of cultural differences = Ethnic groups and boudaries. The social organization of culture difference / ed. F. Barth; per. from English. I. Pilshchikova. - M. : New ed., 2006. - 198 p.
Essay topics
1. K. Levin as a social psychologist
2. Processes in a small group in estimates and experiments by K. Levin
3. Psychoanalytic orientation in social psychology: past and present
4. Ideas of "T-groups" and modern practice of training
5. The theory of human aggressiveness by E. Fromm and modern Russian reality
6. Cognitive dissonance L. Festinger and ways to reduce it
7. The concept of social representations by S. Moskovichi and the types of socio-political representations in Russia at the beginning of the 21st century.
8. Transactional analysis by E. Bern
9. Experiment in social psychology
10. Focus group method in applied research in social psychology
11. Method of content analysis in the study of socio-psychological phenomena
12. Aggressive behavior of the individual and its characteristics
13. Verbal behavior in interpersonal communication
14. The role of non-verbal behavior in communication
15. Expression of the face and gaze
16. Gestures, facial expressions, pantomime in the structure of non-verbal interaction
17. Olfactory components in communication
18. Interpersonal conflicts and ways to regulate them
19. Role behavior in the organization: characterization of roles
20. Interpersonal relations in the organization from the position of transactional analysis
21. Conflict personality: properties and behavioral traits
22. Phenomena of conformism and nonconformism: theory and modern practice
23. Essence and nature of ethnic character
24. Prejudices and stereotypes: impact on human interaction
25. Criminal groups and their psychological characteristics
26. The phenomenon of intergroup hostility and modern Russia
27. Gender roles and their impact on human life
28. Attachment and close relationship
29. Practical application of social psychology
30. Fundamental attribution error
31. Psychology of religion: theoretical and practical aspects
32. Psychology of fashion
33. Psychology of rumors and gossip
34. Mass moods in politics
Questions for offset
1. The subject of social psychology and its specificity
2. Methods of social psychology
3. The main periods in the development of social psychology and their characteristics
4. Theoretical orientations in social psychology
5. Classification of sign systems
6. Features of speech as a means of information exchange (persuasion, conflict speech, political speech)
7. Non-verbal communication
8. Conflict interaction: content, typology
9. Ways to manage conflicts
10. Mechanisms of interpersonal perception
11. Phenomenon of causal attribution
12. Accuracy of perception of another person
13. Role behavior: characterization of personality roles
14. Interpersonal relationships from the position of transactional analysis
15. Small groups: concept, typology
16. Models of communication in a small group and their effectiveness
17. Conformity and conforming behavior
18. Intra-group conflicts and ways to regulate them
19. Leadership in small groups
20. The image of a modern political leader
21. Spontaneous groups: concept and content
22. Characteristics of a person in spontaneous groups
23. Mechanisms of spontaneous behavior
24. Crowd: content, typology, methods of influence
25. Ethnic identity and its role in human life
26. Ethnic stereotypes and prejudices
27. National character: concept and content
28. Russian national character
29. The process of intergroup differentiation and modernity
30. Gender relations: content and practical manifestation
Glossary
Autostereotype- an emotionally colored, stable image of one's own people.
Aggression Any form of conduct that is harmful or intended to harm others.
Verbal sign system- speech (the meaning of words, the nature of their use, the choice of expressions, the correctness of speech, jargon).
Intragroup bias- a tendency to favor one's own group.
Suggestion- a mechanism of communication in a spontaneous group, manifested in a conscious unreasoned impact on the group, which aims to change the state, attitude to something and predisposition to certain actions.
Hostile aggression- behavior motivated by anger, which is an end in itself.
gender role– a set of expected patterns of behavior for women and men.
Gender stereotypes- generalized ideas formed in the culture about how men and women behave.
heterostereotype- an emotionally colored, stable image of another people.
Group polarization- the psychological effect of a small group, manifested in the strengthening of previously existing opinions of group members, the shift of the average trend towards its pole during the discussion.
Groupthink (group thinking)- a psychological effect that occurs in a small group when the search for consensus becomes so dominant in a cohesive group that realistic assessments of what is happening are discarded.
Deviant behavior - social behavior, behavior deviating from generally accepted norms in society or in a social context.
Deindividualization- the psychological effect of the group, manifested in the loss of self-awareness and fear of evaluation, occurs in situations where anonymity is ensured and attention is not focused on a separate individual.
Infection- the psychological mechanism of communication in a spontaneous group, manifested in the transfer of a state or attitude to a group that adopts this state or attitude. Transmission and assimilation are both voluntary and involuntary.
The game is psychological- unconsciously performed manipulation, most often mutual.
Identification- the psychological mechanism of interpersonal perception, consisting in the identification of an individual with another person.
instrumental aggression- behavior that causes harm, but is a means to achieve some other goal.
Internalization- a mental process by which people are under social influence, when the "external" requirements of the subject of influence are reinforced by the requirements of the individual to himself (a feeling of trust arises).
Catharsis- emotional release.
Kinesics - field of study of the system of gestures, facial expressions and pantomime.
The cognitive dissonance- a feeling of mental discomfort in the mind of an individual, arising from the collision of two information (cognitions) related to the same issue, but incompatible with each other.
Team- limited association of workers with identifiable membership, interdependence and a clearly defined task.
Content analysis- a method of collecting data contained in texts (books, articles, television appearances, official documents, advertising messages, etc.) about the studied socio-psychological phenomenon or process.
Conflict from a socio-psychological point of view, this is a process of a sharp aggravation of the contradictions of two or more parties involved in solving problems that are significant to them (perceived incompatibility of actions or goals).
Conformity - the willingness of an individual to yield to real or imagined pressure from another person or group of people.
Leadership The process by which certain group members motivate and lead others.
Personality- a person included in the system of social relations, with the integrity of social and individual properties, causally associated with relatively stable specific behavior.
Locus of control- the degree to which people perceive their lives as controlled "from within" through their own efforts and actions, or controlled "from the outside" by chance or external forces.
small group- a small group based on direct and regular personal contacts, influence on each other and a sense of "we".
Manipulation- Hidden from the addressee, his motivation to experience certain states, change attitudes towards something, make decisions and perform actions necessary to achieve the initiator's own goals.
mentality ethnos- a specific set of worldview and behavioral models of people who are part of a particular ethnic integrity.
national character- a set of specific mental traits, features of the perception of the world, which have become a property of the socio-ethnic community.
Olfactory signals - odor system (body, cosmetics, etc.).
Optical-kinetic system of signs includes general motor skills of all parts of the body - gestures, facial expressions, pantomime.
Paralinguistic signals- features of speech pronunciation, individual words and sounds.
Imitation- the psychological mechanism of communication in a spontaneous group, manifested in the reproduction of words, deeds, actions of the leader.
Prejudice- an unjustifiably negative attitude towards social groups and individuals.
Proxemics– field of study of the spatial and temporal organization of communication (spatial psychology).
The mental warehouse of the ethnos- a set of mental traits that are inherent in representatives of an ethnic community, a specific way of perceiving and reflecting the surrounding reality.
Reactance- motivation to protect or restore one's own sense of freedom.
Reference group - a small group whose values serve as a kind of standard for an individual who is not a direct member of it.
Solution- a mental operation that reduces the uncertainty of a problem situation, the process of choosing an action option in order to achieve a result.
Socialization- the process of familiarization with the culture of society - the assimilation by the individual of patterns of behavior, psychological mechanisms, social norms and values.
social identity- awareness of belonging to a social group or social category (life path, gender, religion, occupation), which is the result of categorization and comparison.
social laziness- the psychological effect of group influence, consisting in the tendency of group members to make less effort for the sake of a common goal than in the case of individual responsibility.
social norm- a way of thinking, feeling and behavior that is accepted by all, which is approved.
Social perception (perception)- active reflection in the mind of a person of other people, events, information with their direct impact on the senses. There is an ordering and unification of individual sensations into integral images.
Social Psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behavior of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or perceived behavior of others.
Social role - a model of behavior focused on the status of a person in accordance with the expectations of people.
Social facilitation - strengthening of dominant reactions in the presence of other people in the group.
social impact The process by which people directly or indirectly change the thoughts, feelings, or actions of others.
social stereotype- an image of a social phenomenon or process that has the following features: emotionality, schematicity, simplification, symbolism.
Social representations - ideas, thoughts, images and knowledge of "common sense" shared by people and formed in social interaction.
Sociometry- a method of collecting and analyzing information in the process of socio-psychological research, with the help of which interpersonal relationships and the status of an individual in a small group are studied.
Cohesion- the state of a small group, when there is a feeling of "we" and the degree of connection of group members is high.
spontaneous behavior - spontaneous and unorganized actions of a mass of individuals.
Attribution theory A system of ideas about how people explain the behavior of others.
Crowd- spontaneous group , the condition for the formation of which is the direct interaction of individuals on the basis of an acutely experienced factor.
Focus group - a method of collecting and analyzing information in the process of socio-psychological research, a semi-standardized interview in the form of a group discussion.
The fundamental attribution error is reassessment of the dispositional causes of observed behavior.
Charisma- psychological attractiveness, the ability to arouse in people a commitment to their goals and enthusiasm in achieving them.
Circular reaction- a mental mechanism that contributes to the emergence and development of spontaneous behavior, consisting in picking up emotions and its whirling in the mass.
Extralinguistic sign system- the pace of speech, the inclusion of pauses, inclusions in speech (coughing, laughter, interjections "hm", "well", "uh", etc.).
Empathy- a psychological mechanism of perception, consisting in empathy with the feelings of another person (“empathy”).
Ethnos – a large social group that has specific cultural models (language, history, origin, religion, customs) that distinguish and isolate this group of people.
ethnic identification- awareness of belonging to one's ethnic group, a sense of kinship with it.
ethnic consciousness - a system of ideas, assessments, images, feelings, reflecting the national-ethnic being.
ethnocentrism- a way of perceiving one's own social group as a standard, often as more valuable and significant than other cultural groups.
I-concept- a dynamic system of emotionally colored ideas of a person about himself (images, schemes, theories), responsible for understanding and organizing experiences, thoughts and actions.
Guidelines for the study of the course "Social Psychology"
Educational and methodical manual for universities
Compiled by Krasova Elena Yurievna
Editor Tulupov Vladimir Vasilyevich
Edited by A.L. Zhuravleva
A. L. Zhuravlev (1.1., 6.2., 6.3.)
V. P. Poznyakov (4.1.-4.6., 5.1.-5.3., 7.2., 7.4.)
E. N. Reznikov (3.5.-3.7., 7.3.)
S. K. Roshchin (1.3., 2.1., 2.3:, 2.5., 3.3., 7.1.)
V. A. Sosnin (1.4., 2.4., 3.1., 3.2., 3.4., 4.7.)
V. A. Khashchenko (1.5.)
E. V. Shorokhova (1.2.,2.2.,2.6.,6.1.)
С 69 Social psychology: textbook / Ed. ed. A. L. Zhuravlev. M.: PER SE, 2002. - 351 p. (Series "Higher Psychological Education")
ISBN 5-9292-0055-6
The content of the manual is also an integration of classical and modern socio-psychological knowledge that developed in the 90s of the XX century. Its authors practice both research and teaching activities in the field of social psychology, which made it possible to take into account the results of modern research on the main classical objects of social psychology: personality in a group, small and large social groups, interpersonal and intergroup interaction.
This textbook is a summary of the course "Social Psychology" for students of the faculties of psychology of classical, social and humanitarian universities.
ISBN 5-9292-0055-6
©A.L. Zhuravlev, 2002 © Institute of Psychology RAS, 2002 © 000 "PER SE", original layout, design, 2002
Chapter 1
1.1. The subject and structure of social psychology (A.L. Zhuravlev)..................... 5
1.2. History of Russian social psychology (E.V. Shorokhova)............... 9
1.3. On the history of the emergence of foreign social psychology
(S.A. Roshchin)…………..18
1.4. Formation of modern social psychology abroad
(V.A. Sosnin)…………… 26
1.5. Program and methods of socio-psychological research
(V.A. Khashchenko)........................ 30
Chapter 2. Social psychology of personality .............................................. ..... 52
2.1. Socio-psychological ideas about personality in foreign psychology (S.K. Roshchin)................. 52
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http:// www. allbest. en/
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal state budget educationalinstitution of higher professional education "Tula State University"
Department of Psychology
Test
in the discipline "Psychology of social interaction"
Answers to questions and tasks in the discipline "Psychology of socialandsocial interaction".
1. Interaction- this is a process of direct or indirect influence of social objects (subjects) on each other. It can be considered as a set of methods used by a person to achieve certain goals - solving practical problems or realizing values.
Types of social interaction:
a) collaboration. It is aimed at the full satisfaction of partners in the interaction of their needs and aspirations. Here one of the motives given above is realized: cooperation or competition.
b)Counteraction. This type involves focusing on one's own goals, without taking into account any interests of the other party involved. The principle of individualism is manifested.
in)Compromise. It is implemented in the partial achievement of the goals and interests of both parties.
G)Compliance. It involves sacrificing one's own interests in order to achieve the partner's goals, or abandoning petty needs in order to achieve some more significant goal.
e)avoidance. This type represents withdrawal or avoidance of contact. In this case, it is possible to lose your own goals to exclude winnings.
Interaction structure:
First stage(First level). Interaction is the simplest primary contact between people. Between them there is only a certain primary and very simplified mutual or one-sided influence on each other for the purpose of exchanging information and communication. For specific reasons, it may not achieve its goal and not receive further development.
The success of initial contacts depends on the acceptance or rejection of each other by the partners in the interaction. Differences between individuals are one of the main conditions for the development of their interaction (communication, relationships, compatibility, workability), as well as themselves as individuals.
Second phase.
The first (lower) level is the ratio of individual (natural) and personal parameters (temperament, intelligence, character, motivation, interests, value orientations) of people. Of particular importance in interpersonal interaction are the age and gender differences of partners.
The second (upper) level of homogeneity - (degree of similarity - contrast of participants in interpersonal interaction) is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions in the group, attitudes (including likes and dislikes) towards oneself, partners or other people and to the objective world (including including joint activities). The second level is subdivided into sublevels: primary (or initial) and secondary (or effective). The primary sublevel is the initial ratio of opinions given before interpersonal interaction (about the world of objects and their own kind). The second sublevel is the ratio (similarity - difference) of opinions and relationships as a result of interpersonal interaction, the exchange of thoughts and feelings between participants in joint activities.
2. Communication - one of the necessary and universal conditions for the formation and development of the individual and society.
sides of communication.
Allocate three interrelated aspects of communication:
Perceptual side communication means the process of perception of each other by partners in communication and the establishment of mutual understanding on this basis, the exchange of actions, forms the image of a partner in communication, a judgment is made about the personality traits of a partner based on his external signs. It is formed under the influence of identification and reflection. Identification- this is putting oneself in the place of another (for example: “I would never do this” or “I don’t know how”, etc.). Reflection- this is awareness of one's own image "through" the eyes of others.
The communicative side of communication consists in the exchange of information between communicating.
Interactive side of communication is to organize the interaction between the communicating, i.e. in the exchange of not only knowledge, but also actions.
3. There are several different definitions of speech. In some of them, speech is understood narrowly as the knowledge and ability of a person to use natural language. In other definitions, speech refers to all possible means of a person expressing his internal, psychological states, images, thoughts and feelings in order to communicate them to other people.
In psychology, there are two main types of speech: external and internal.
External speech includes oral (dialogical and monologue) and written. Dialogic speech is supported speech; the interlocutor puts clarifying questions during her, giving remarks, can help complete the thought (or reorient it). A kind of dialogic communication is a conversation, in which the dialogue has a thematic focus.
Monologue speech - a long, consistent, coherent presentation of a system of thoughts, knowledge by one person, also develops in the process of communication, but the nature of communication is different here: the monologue is uninterrupted, therefore the speaker has an active, gestural effect.
Written speech is a kind of monologue speech. It is more developed than oral monologue speech, written speech implies the absence of feedback from the interlocutor.
Inner speech is a special kind of speech activity. It acts as a planning phase in practical and theoretical activities. Therefore, internal speech is characterized by fragmentation, fragmentation, but misunderstandings are excluded when perceiving the situation. Therefore, inner speech is extremely situational, in this it is close to dialogic. Inner speech is formed on the basis of external speech.
The concept of "communicative competence" by origin means a certain system of requirements for a person related to the process of communication: competent speech, knowledge of oratory techniques, the ability to show an individual approach to the interlocutor, etc. In communication, it is most often understood as the ability to establish and maintain the necessary contacts with people.
4. Non-verbal communication exchange of information through changes in facial expressions, gestures and body movements.
A general description of the main structures of non-verbal communication is based on the following concepts.
Kinesics is a set of gestures, postures, body movements used in communication as additional expressive means of communication, proposed to study communication through body movements.
The elements of kinesics are gestures, facial expressions, postures and attitudes, which have both physiological and sociocultural origins.
Gestures these are various kinds of movements of the body, arms or hands, accompanying the speech of a person in the process of communication and expressing the attitude of a person directly to the interlocutor, to some event, another person, to any object, testifying to the desires and state of the person.
body movements can also be used to express a desire to end or start a conversation.
facial expressions represents all the changes in a person's facial expression that can be observed in the process of communication. The development of facial expressions became possible because a person can control every single muscle of his face. In this regard, conscious control over facial expression allows us to enhance, restrain or hide the emotions experienced.
Paralinguistics (Greek para “about”) a branch of linguistics that studies non-verbal (non-linguistic) means, transmitting semantic information together with verbal ones as part of a speech message, as well as a combination of such means.
Prosody It is an intonation expressive coloring of speech. It is a set of rhythmic and intonational properties of speech, which are realized through such qualities of speech as speech breathing, strength, voice modulation, speech tempo, pause.
Extralinguistics the acoustic system, which includes the quality of intonation, phrasal and logical stresses preferred by the interlocutors, is important for the communication process.
Spatio-temporal organization of communication is divided into two large groups.
Temporary organization of communication- this component of non-verbal communication has been studied somewhat less than others. However, the results already obtained allow us to judge that the coincidence of many non-verbal and speech components in time among the interlocutors improves the result of communication.
To temporarycharacteristics non-verbal behavior of the individual include frequency, length of gaze, pauses, rate of speech, frequency of movement changes. It is noticed that:
Communication proceeds more successfully if the partners have the same frequency of non-verbal elements;
The simultaneous appearance (mirroring) of the interlocutors of the same postures, eye-to-eye gazes, facial expressions increases mutual understanding and deepens the dialogue of communication. At the same time, the productivity of the dialogue is the higher, the longer the duration of the “mirror pose” (repetition of the partner’s pose) while reducing the frequency and duration of mutual glances and “mirror facial expressions”;
For communication, it is useful to increase the frequency and duration of mutual glances and “mirror facial expressions” in the absence of a “mirror posture”;
An essential element of the rhythm of communication are pauses that carry certain information about the personality of the speaker (for example, self-esteem).
Spatial organization of communication ("proxemics", literal translation "proximity") is determined by the location of partners in space at the time of communication and the distance between them. She is defined hethree distances:
· intimate distance (from 0 to 45 cm) - communication of the closest people. The intimate area is the most important. It is this zone that a person guards as if it were his own property.
· personal(from 46 to 120 cm) - communication with familiar people. The personal zone is the distance that usually separates us when we are at official receptions and friendly parties.
· social(from 120 to 400 cm) - preferably when communicating with strangers and in official communication. The social zone is the distance we keep from people we don't know very well.
· public(more than 400 cm) - when speaking to various audiences. The public area is the distance that is observed when we address a large group of people.
5. Communication as interaction implies the organization of joint actions that allow partners to implement some common activity for them.
Communication as an interaction contains several components: position, role, style. There are three styles: ritual, manipulative, humanistic.
Transactional analysis by E. Bern (transactional analysis)
The concept of E. Berne comes from the ability of an individual to realize his behavior and separate his inadequate structures (“patterns”) from himself.
At the center of the concept is the concept of "ego-state". E. Bern distinguishes three such ego-states: parent, child and adult.
"Parent" is an ego-state with internalized rationalized norms of obligations, demands and prohibitions.
"Child"- an ego-state of impulsive, emotional response with spontaneous (although it can vary at the same time - from helpless to protesting) behavior.
"Adult"- an ego-state that embodies, as it were, an objective, reasonable and at the same time empathic, benevolent part of the personality.
transaction (from lat. transactio agreement, contract) is the minimum logically meaningful operation that makes sense and can only be completed in full.
Commons distinguished three main types of transactions:
1) Transaction transaction - serves to carry out the actual alienation and appropriation of property rights and freedoms, and in its implementation, the mutual consent of the parties is required, based on the economic interest of each of them. The hallmark of the transaction transaction, according to Commons, is not the production, but the transfer of goods from hand to hand.
2) The transaction of control - the key in it is the relationship of control of subordination, which involves such interaction between people when the right to make decisions belongs to only one side.
3) The transaction of rationing - with it, the asymmetry of the legal status of the parties is preserved, but the place of the managing party is occupied by a collective body that performs the function of specifying rights.
Ritual historically developed form of non-instinctive predictable, socially sanctioned ordered symbolic. behavior in which the manner and order of performing actions are strictly canonized and cannot be rationally explained in terms of means and ends.
pastime activities aimed at the use of free time.
The game - a type of activity in conditional situations that recreate certain areas of reality. If in labor the most important is the final product, the result for which the physical and neuropsychic energy of a person is expended, then in the game the main thing is subjective satisfaction from the process itself.
All games can also be divided into two types:
1) individual games - represent a kind of activity when one person is occupied with the game;
2) group games - includes several individuals.
As the child develops, play changes. In a functional game, the properties of objects unknown to him and methods of acting with them are revealed to the child.
More complex are constructive games.. In constructive games, children comprehend the purpose of objects and their interaction.
Role-playing games - allow a person's behavior, limited to a specific role that he takes on in the game. A role-playing game is a form of play that prevails for preschool children, in which children play the actions and relationships of adults. Relationships between people are considered story games. Role-playing games involve collective relationships. Of course, the inclusion of a child in collective games depends on the conditions of education. Gradually, rules are introduced into games that impose restrictions on the behavior of partners. These games instill a sense of collectivism and responsibility, respect for teammates, teach to follow the rules and develop the ability to obey them.
Games by the rules are widely represented in the lives of schoolchildren and adults. They are regulated by a certain system of rules of conduct for their participants.
6. The concept and types of social perception. Specifics of the analysis of perceptual processes in social psychology.
Social perception is a perception aimed at creating an idea about oneself, other people, social groups and social phenomena. The specificity of the analysis of perceptual processes lies in the fact that a person's impression of another person/group is influenced by many different factors: psycho-physiological indicators, various psychological characteristics of the subject of perception, as well as the norms of public opinion and morality. Specifically, in social psychology, the study of perceptual special emphasis is placed on the belonging of the subject and the object of perception to any social group; thus, social psychology considers perception from the point of view of belonging of the subject and object of perception to different social. groups.
Effects, phenomena and mechanisms of interpersonal perception.
Mechanisms:
* Reflection- perception of oneself
* Identification- attributing the qualities of another person or social. groups to the object of perception.
* Causal attribution- the phenomenon of interpersonal perception. It consists in interpreting, attributing the causes of the actions of another person in the conditions of a lack of information about the real causes of his actions.
The measure and degree of attribution depend on two indicators:
1. compliance of the act with role expectations - the greater the correspondence, the less the lack of information, therefore, the degree of attribution will be less;
2. conformity of action to cultural norms.
Types of casual attribution:
* personal attribution (the reason is attributed to the person performing the action);
* object attribution (the reason is attributed to the object to which the act is directed);
* circumstantial attribution (the reason is attributed to the circumstances).
Casual attribution errors:
* Fundamental attribution error - when interpreting behavior, the role of the situation is underestimated and the role of the individual is overestimated.
Empathy- understanding the emotional state of another person through empathy, penetration into his subjective world. This or that level of empathy is a professionally necessary quality for all specialists whose work is directly related to people.
Stereotyping perception, classification and evaluation of social objects (events) by extending to it the characteristics of a certain social group and other things based on certain ideas - social stereotypes. As a mechanism of mutual understanding - the classification of forms of behavior and the interpretation of their causes by referring to already known or seemingly known phenomena, categories, social stereotypes.
7. Socio-psychological approach to the study of groups.
It should immediately be noted that in the social sciences, in principle, there can be a double use of the concept of "group". On the one hand, in practice, for example, demographic analysis, in various branches of statistics, conditional groups are meant: arbitrary associations (grouping) of people according to some common feature necessary in a given system of analysis. The task is to examine the regularities of human communication and interaction that have been studied in a general form, now more specifically to consider in those real social cells where they are manifested. But, in order to fulfill this task, in addition to the accepted certain methodological principles, it is also necessary to set a conceptual apparatus within which a group in social psychology can be studied, its main characteristics are described. This conceptual scheme is necessary in order to be able to compare groups with each other and obtain comparable results in experimental studies.
Classification of social groups
For social psychology, the division of groups into conditional and real is significant. She focuses her attention on real groups. In real groups there are those that appear in general psychological research - these are laboratory groups. Unlike them, there are real natural groups. In turn, as the author of the classification notes, natural groups are divided into large and small groups. Large groups are subdivided into spontaneous, i.e. unorganized, which arose spontaneously and can be conditionally called groups, as well as conditional, i.e. organized and long-lived (nations, classes).
Similarly, small groups are subdivided into becoming ones, i.e. already set by external social requirements, but not yet united by joint activity and developed, i.e. already established, with a higher level of development.
The classification of G.M. Andreeva is not the only one, because Currently, about 50 different bases for classifications are known, among which the following can be distinguished:
Number of people in a group (large, small, microgroups)
By social status (formal and informal)
By significance (membership and reference groups)
By level of development (associations, diffuse groups, collectives)
In relation to society (pro-social and anti-social)
8. A small social group is an association of people who have direct contact with each other, are connected by joint activities, emotional or family closeness, are aware of their belonging to a group and are recognized by other people.
Structural characteristics of a small group:
The composition of the group is the size (numerical composition) and composition (composition according to the characteristics of the members of the group).
Group composition. Composition is the composition of the group according to the characteristics of its members, i.e. a certain combination of physiological, psychological, socio-psychological, socio-demographic characteristics of group members.
FROM group structure
GROUP STRUCTURE
from lat. structura - mutual arrangement, structure ...) - a set of stable connections between members of the group, ensuring its integrity and identity to itself. Depending on the specific tasks, the functional organization of a small group can be represented by various options for communicative structures: a chain, a star, a circle, a network. A small group is organized according to the principle of a chain when the labor process is divided into a number of operations sequentially performed by individual specialists. If labor operations are performed by members of the group independently of each other, but under the guidance of one person, then the functional S. g. is a star. In the case when the labor process is organized cyclically, i.e., in such a way that individual operations are performed by different people, but the end of one operation is the beginning of another, the functional SG acts as a cool one. If in the course of the labor process all members of the group are connected with each other, then its functional structure is a network. In the above cases, the relationship between people was considered on the basis of production, that is, from the point of view of organizing the solution of production problems. However, these relationships can be viewed in another aspect - official, formal (business relationships) and informal, informal (interpersonal relationships). Business relationships are established by staffing, job descriptions and other official documents. However, entering into communication and interaction within a small group, people also reveal their subjective attitude towards each other (sympathy - antipathy, trust - distrust, attraction - repulsion, etc.). These relationships are called interpersonal. In accordance with these two types of relationships, formal (official) and informal S. g. are distinguished. Formal S. g. reflects the interaction of people on a business basis, the informal side is determined by a system of emotionally directed connections. A sign of a good organization of the group is the leading role of the official this year in regulating interpersonal relationships.
G group processes
Group processes are interpersonal relations in their formation, modification, improvement and destruction. These include processes of development, cohesion and regulatory pressure. In addition, a number of group phenomena can exist only in dynamics. These include the process of making a group decision.
Group norms are formed spontaneously in the process of interaction and represent a system of social regulation of the behavior of individuals in a group. They are formed on the basis of the commonality of views, interests, goals, values of all members of the group and the social environment in which it is formed. The very process of forming a value-normative system is quite complex and contradictory. In the course of it, there is a natural selection of people who share group norms, and a “screening out” of those who do not recognize these norms.
Group values
Psychologists speak of three forms of existence of values. Firstly, values act as social ideals, as an idea of the proper and necessary developed by the public consciousness;
Secondly, values appear in the form of concrete works of material and spiritual culture, or human actions, which are a concrete, substantive embodiment of social value ideals;
Thirdly, values are included in the psychological structure of the individual and the group in the form of personal and group values, which are one of the main sources of behavior motivation. As a rule, personal values are characterized by high awareness. They are reflected in consciousness in the form of value orientations and serve as an important factor in the social regulation of relationships between people and individual behavior.
Group sanctions - mechanisms by which a group forces or encourages its member to comply with group norms. Sanctions can be of two types: prohibitive and encouraging, negative and positive. The group expresses its encouragement with praise, support, emphasized attention to the words of a particular individual, symbols of respect and status. Prohibitory sanctions, on the contrary, are aimed at linking the behavior of the individual that is undesirable for the group with experiences and restrictions that are unpleasant for him. These sanctions include ridicule and contempt of colleagues, threats and even ostracism, i.e. complete disregard for the "violator". In exceptional cases, the group is also capable of using direct physical aggression against those who openly violate its norms.
9. When analyzing the process of interaction in a group, the following are distinguished:
1) roles associated with problem solving:
a) initiator - offers new ideas and approaches to the problems and goals of the group;
b) developer - is engaged in the development of ideas and proposals;
c) coordinator - coordinates the activities of the group members;
d) controller - controls the direction of the group to the goals;
e) evaluator - evaluates the work of the group according to existing standards for the implementation of the task;
f) driver - stimulates the group;
2) roles related to providing support to other members of the group:
a) inspirer - supports the undertakings of others;
b) harmonizer - serves as a mediator and peacemaker in conflict situations;
c) dispatcher - promotes and regulates communication processes;
d) normalizer - normalizes the processes occurring in the group;
e) follower - passively follows the group.
Group development stages
Stage 1: Formation
The formation stage occurs when group members get to know each other and form a first impression of each other. They get to know the project they will be working on, discuss the goals of the project, and start thinking about what role they will play in the project team. Group members look at each other.
Stage 2: Stormy
When the group begins to work together, it goes into the storm stage. At this stage, group members compete with each other for status and for approval of their ideas. They have different opinions about what should be done and how it should be done, which causes conflicts within the group.
Stage 3: Settlement
When a group enters the settlement stage, it begins to work more effectively as a group. Team members are no longer focused on their personal goals, but focused on developing a way to work together (processes and procedures). They respect each other's opinions and value their differences. They begin to see the value of these differences for the group.
Stage 4: Performance
In the performance stage, teams perform at a very high level. The focus is on achieving a common goal. Group members get to know each other, trust each other, and rely on each other.
Stage 5: Closing
At the closing stage, the project ends and the members of the group leave in different directions. At this stage, the group is viewed from the point of view of the well-being of the group, and not from the point of view of managing the group through the original four stages of its development.
10. A leader is a person who, for various reasons and circumstances, is endowed with a certain amount of authority in order to formulate and express the interests and goals of other people, to mobilize them for certain actions.
Leadership can be exercised at various social levels: at the level of a small social group, at the level of a socio-political movement, at the level of the whole society and at the level of interstate structural formations. The phenomenon of leadership is due to the need to structure the social community and manage people.
Types of leadership:
Objective (real)leader- reflecting the real qualities of the leader and his position in the political system and in society.
Subjectiveleader - ideas about the leader and his perception by various social strata of society.
simulatedleader - the image of a leader who is trying to create his environment (team).
M. Weber identified three main types of leadership: traditional, charismatic, rational-legal or democratic.
Traditional Leadership based on political tradition, for example, the crown prince becomes king, even if he does not have the qualities of a leader. The basis of his legitimacy is his elite origin. communicative communication perceptual conflict
Charismatic Leadership assumes the exceptional personal qualities of the leader himself, which he actually possesses or which are attributed to him by his environment and are inflated in every possible way by the media. Charismatic leaders were V.I. Lenin, I.V. Stalin, A. Hitler, Mao Zedong, A. Khomeini and others. The basis of the legitimacy of a charismatic leader is his superiority over others.
Rational legal (democratic) leadership is based on the legal and regulatory framework that exists in society. The basis of his legitimacy is his presidential status (public position).
|
Management |
Leadership |
|
|
1. Regulation of official relations of the group as a certain social organization is carried out |
1. Regulation of interpersonal relations in the group is carried out |
|
|
2. Connected with the entire system of social relations and is an element of the macro environment |
2. Is an element of the macro environment (just like the small group itself) |
|
|
3. Purposeful process carried out under the control of various elements of the social structure |
3. Arises spontaneously |
|
|
4. The phenomenon is more stable |
4. The phenomenon is less stable and depends more on the mood of the group |
|
|
5. A more defined system of various sanctions |
5. Less defined system of various sanctions |
|
|
6. The decision-making process is much more complex and mediated by many different circumstances and considerations, not necessarily related to this group |
6. Decisions are made directly on group activities |
|
|
7. The scope of the leader is wider because he represents a small group in a larger social system. |
7. The scope of the leader is mainly a small group |
11. Effect (phenomenon) of social facilitation -- this is the effect of increasing the activity activity in the presence of others. In other words, a person performs simple tasks (easy examples of multiplication, crossing out certain letters in the text, winding fishing line on a reel, and other simple tasks for motor skills) if he knows that he is being observed. At the same time, the performance of complex tasks in the presence of other people, on the contrary, entails a decrease in the speed and quality of work.
The effect (phenomenon) of social inhibition is a phenomenon opposite to social facilitation. That is, this is a deterioration in the speed and quality of the actions performed under the influence of the presence of outsiders.
12. group pressure - this is the process of influence of attitudes, norms, values and behavior of group members on the opinions and behavior of the individual. Normative influence is characterized by the individual's acceptance of the opinion of the majority as a group norm, the individual's dependence on the group and his desire to harmonize his behavior and his attitudes with the behavior and attitudes of the group. Information influence is characterized by the influence of other members of the group as a source of information important for decision making and taken into account by the individual.
Conformal behavior - this is the situational behavior of an individual under conditions of a specific group pressure (influence). Comfort can be defined as a feature or property of an individual that manifests itself in his tendency to be subjected to real or imagined group pressure. This compliance finds expression in changing his views and behavior according to the point of view of the majority.
There are two types of conforming behavior: internal and external submission of the individual to the group.
Situational Conformity Factors:
1) a difficult task or incompetence - the less an individual is confident in his abilities, the more conforming his behavior;
2) the quantitative composition of the group - conformism is higher with the number of group members from three to seven. Increasing the size of the group to more than seven people does not lead to an increase in the degree of conformity;
3) the qualitative composition of the group (their erudition and professional affiliation, etc.);
4) the authority of the person expressing the opposite opinion. At the same time, submission to authority is stronger, the closer and more legitimate the authority is. Particularly high conformity is caused by institutionalized authority - the authority of the formal status of a leader in a given organization;
5) cohesion and unanimity of the group. At the same time, if there are people in the group who support the subject, then the effect of group pressure is reduced;
6) public responses also increase the level of conformism;
7) working for a joint reward increases conformity;
8) the significance of belonging to a group increases the degree of conformity.
Personal conformity factors:
1) age: people under the age of 25 are most susceptible to conformity;
2) gender: women's conformism is somewhat higher than men's, which is associated both with their social roles in society and the family, and with status differences, aspirations and needs;
3) culture: the degree of conformity of the population in the countries of European and North American culture is lower than in the countries of Asian culture, which affirms the values of collectivism;
4) profession: conformity depends on the need to obey the authorities within the framework of professional activities. So a high level of conformity is observed among the military, members of the orchestra, etc.;
5) the status of the individual: people with high status have less conformity than people with low and medium status. Individuals with an average status are most susceptible to group influence.
Distinguish external (public) conformity and internal (personal) . At external conformity the opinion of the group is accepted by the individual only outwardly, but in fact he continues to resist it. It is a demonstrative submission to the imposed opinion of the group in order to earn approval or avoid censure, and possibly more severe sanctions from the members of the group. Internal conformity(sometimes this is what is called true conformism) is expressed in the fact that the individual really assimilates the opinion of the majority. This is a real transformation of individual attitudes as a result of internal acceptance of the position of others, assessed as more reasonable and objective than one's own point of view.
In studies of conformity, another possible position was discovered, which turned out to be available to be fixed at the experimental level. This is the position of negativism (nonconformism). In this case, when the group puts pressure on the individual, and he resists this pressure in everything, striving at all costs to act contrary to the position of the ruling majority, at any cost and in all cases to assert the opposite point of view. Only at first glance, negativism looks like an extreme form of negation of conformity. In fact, as has been shown in many studies, negativism is not true independence.
13. Conflict- these are relations between the subjects of social interaction, which are characterized by confrontation in the presence of opposing motives (needs, interests, goals, ideals, beliefs) or judgments (opinions, views, assessments, etc.).
Types of conflicts in psychology
The psychology of conflict has a clear classification, which depends on the criteria that are taken into account in the first place. So, the main types of conflicts in psychology are as follows:
Intrapersonal - internal fluctuations between a sense of sympathy or antipathy and duty;
· interpersonal - conflict between people.
The following types of conflicts are also distinguished by meaning:
constructive - when disagreements relate to an area that is important either for life or for work;
· destructive - a clash of opinions on minor issues that, if you look closely, are not of great importance. Most often, it is destructive conflicts that cause negative consequences.
· The structure of conflict in psychology
· Research in psychology has revealed the fact that every conflict has a relatively well-defined structure. There must be an object or culprit in the conflict situation. Further, an important component of the structure of the conflict is considered the opponent, or several persons who are participants.
· And, of course, the goals and motives of each participant in the conflict that has arisen are taken into account. In addition, studying the psychology of conflict resolution, the structure of the problem included such a factor as the reason for the collision, as well as the real reason that became the source of contention.
Among positive The functions of the conflict in relation to the main participants can be distinguished as follows:
The conflict completely or partially eliminates the contradiction that arises due to the imperfection of many factors; it highlights bottlenecks, unresolved issues. At the end of conflicts in more than 5% of cases, it is possible to completely, basically, or partially resolve the contradictions underlying them;
The conflict allows you to more deeply assess the individual psychological characteristics of the people involved in it. The conflict tests the value orientations of a person, the relative strength of his motives aimed at activity, at himself or at relationships, reveals psychological resistance to stress factors of a difficult situation. It contributes to a deeper knowledge of each other, the disclosure of not only unattractive character traits, but also valuable in a person;
The conflict allows to weaken the psychological tension, which is the reaction of the participants to the conflict situation. Conflict interaction, especially accompanied by violent emotional reactions, in addition to possible negative consequences, relieves a person of emotional tension, leads to a subsequent decrease in the intensity of negative emotions;
conflict serves as a source of personality development, interpersonal relationships. Subject to a constructive resolution, the conflict allows a person to rise to new heights, expand the ways and scope of interaction with others. The personality acquires social experience in solving difficult situations;
conflict can improve the quality of individual performance;
when defending just goals in a conflict, the opponent increases his authority among others;
· interpersonal conflicts, being a reflection of the process of socialization, serve as one of the means of self-affirmation of the individual, the formation of its active position in interaction with others and can be defined as conflicts of formation, self-affirmation, socialization.
Negative Features interpersonal conflicts:
Most conflicts have a pronounced negative impact on the mental state of its participants;
Unfavorably developing conflicts can be accompanied by psychological and physical violence, and, therefore, traumatizing opponents;
Conflict as a difficult situation is always accompanied by stress. With frequent and emotionally intense conflicts, the likelihood of cardiovascular diseases, as well as chronic disorders in the functioning of the gastrointestinal tract, increases sharply;
· Conflicts are the destruction of the system of interpersonal relations that have developed between the subjects of interaction before it begins. The emerging hostility to the other side, hostility, hatred violate the mutual ties that developed before the conflict. sometimes, as a result of a conflict, the relationship of the participants ceases altogether;
· the conflict forms a negative image of the other - the "image of the enemy", which contributes to the formation of a negative attitude towards the opponent. This is expressed in a prejudiced attitude towards him and a readiness to act to his detriment;
Conflicts can negatively affect the effectiveness of the individual activities of opponents. Participants in the conflict pay less attention to the quality of work and education. But even after the conflict, opponents cannot always work with the same productivity as before the conflict;
Conflict reinforces violent ways of solving problems in the social experience of the individual. Having won once with the help of violence, a person reproduces this experience in other similar situations of social interaction;
14. To determine the conflict formula, one should skillfully operate with the main categories for a conflictologist:
« conflictogen"(Kg) - these are words, actions (or inaction) that can lead to conflict.
« incident”(And) is a coincidence, a reason for conflict.
« conflict situation"(CS) are the accumulated contradictions containing the true cause of the conflict.
« conflict"(K) is an open confrontation as a result of mutually exclusive interests and positions.
The degree of inevitability of the conflict clearly emerges from the analysis of the following conflict scheme:
Forms of conflict.
Type A. This type of conflict is random. First, because the first conflict is often accidental. Secondly, not every conflictogen leads to conflict. And, thirdly, there may not be a response conflictogen.
Type B. If you do not strive to prevent a conflict situation, then the conflict will occur sooner or later. After all, with the accumulated contradictions, an incident is enough for a conflict to arise. They can be any conflictogen.
Type B. In the presence of several conflict situations, conflict is inevitable. After all, each new conflict situation adds contradictions and thereby increases the likelihood of conflict.
Conflict Management involves the ability to maintain it below the level at which it becomes threatening to the organization, group, interpersonal relationships.
Conflict management is about transforming a potentially destructive, disruptive conflict into a constructive process of change and development, not necessarily accompanied by technical resolution or contention.
Conflict Management can be considered in two aspects: internal and external. The first of these is to manage one's own behavior in conflict interaction, that aspect is psychological in nature and is reflected in the next topic of our manual. The external aspect of conflict management reflects the organizational and technological aspects of this complex process, in which both the manager and the employee performing their official duties can act as the subject of management. It is in this aspect that we consider this problem.
15. The main content of conflict management:
Forecast- this is an indication with a certain probability of the place and time of the future conflict, based on the psychological diagnosis of all components and content of the conflict.
To improve the accuracy of forecasts for the emergence of conflicts and their development, it is necessary to:
· to develop descriptive models of conflicts, which involves the definition of their essence, classification features;
description of the structure, functions, evolution, dynamics;
· to form explanatory models to identify the causes and driving forces of the conflict.
Forecasting is based on an analysis of the structural components of the conflict to which they belong.
Forecasting, as well as prevention and prevention, are those types of influences that are appropriate in the early stages of the emergence of social contradictions. The earlier a problematic situation of social interaction is detected, the less effort must be made to effectively solve it. The function of timely detection of social contradictions, as well as a reasonable assumption of their occurrence and development on the basis of conflict situations, is provided by forecasting.
Conflict prevention- this is a system of various methods, methods of influence and knowledge that contribute to the prevention of an open conflict at the stage of a contradiction brewing. The conflict prevention technology can be used both by the participants in the emerging conflict, and by a third party - an invited expert, mediator, or an independent and objective person in a growing contradiction.
Techniques to help build conflict-preventing behavior:
The latent stage during which you can notice the beginning of pre-conflict interaction and change your behavior;
At the stage of unfolding the conflict, as accurately as possible find out the motives and interests of the opponent and express your own so that the usual misunderstanding of each other does not become the cause of the conflict;
Always remember that preventing conflict is easier in the early stages and very difficult in the open conflict phase;
Showing patience with the opposite opinion will cause your opponent to respect you and set him up for less conflict interaction;
Demonstrate your understanding of the opponent's views when he speaks;
Predict the possible course of development of the contradiction, this will help you minimize negative emotions and act rationally;
Do not continue a productive conversation if you are not in control of the situation.
Conflict Strategies -- this is a strategy for mobilizing the activity of a particular social entity in solving vital problems, a strategy for developing a positive initiative, achieving the optimal effect of social management.
Conflict management represents the action of the managing subject with the aim of mitigating, weakening or transferring it to another channel and to another level of relations. The problem of conflict regulation is the problem of limiting its negative impact on social relations and translating it into socially acceptable forms of development and resolution. A regulated conflict is a conflict that is controlled and, therefore, predictable.
16. Diagnosis and management of conflict
Conflict management algorithm.
* Studying the causes of the conflict.
* Limiting the number of participants.
* Additional conflict analysis with the help of experts.
* Decision-making.
a) Information technology provides for the elimination of the lack of information in the conflict, the exclusion of false, distorted information from information interaction, the elimination of rumors;
b) Communication technology focuses on the organization of communication between the subjects of conflict interaction and their supporters, as well as on ensuring effective communication;
c) Socio-psychological technology is focused on working with informal leaders and microgroups, on reducing social tension and strengthening the socio-psychological climate in the team;
d) Organizational technology is aimed at solving personnel issues, using educational methods of encouragement and punishment, and at changing the conditions for interaction between employees.
Personal behavior strategies in conflict
The main types of conflict personalities
If we rely on the scientific research of domestic psychologists, then the types of conflict personalities according to Emelyanov are divided into:
1. Demonstrative type.
2. Rigid.
3. Unmanaged.
4. Ultra-precise.
5. Conflict-free type of conflict personality.
Let's take a closer look at each type.
Under the technologies of rational behavior in a conflict, we will understand a set of methods of psychological correction aimed at ensuring constructive interaction between conflict parties, based on self-control of emotions.
A special place in ensuring self-control over emotions in conflict interaction is occupied by auto-training and socio-psychological training, as well as the formation of attitudes towards constructive behavior in conflict.
18. Negotiation- the process is heterogeneous in terms of tasks. And here it is necessary to proceed from different approaches to negotiating as such. For example, V.P. Sheinov (2004) points to three strategic approaches to negotiations. The first of them corresponds to the idea of confrontation between the parties, its character can be expressed in the words "who wins" or "tug of war".
Negotiation functions
1. Information and communication function. In this case, the parties are interested in exchanging views, points of view, establishing new connections and relationships. According to M.M. Lebedev, these are not negotiations yet, but rather negotiations.
2. The function of regulation and coordination of actions. Unlike the information and communication function, this function is implemented, as a rule, in the presence of well-established relations between partners, usually in cases where there are already agreements.
3. Control function. Negotiations are under way on the implementation of previously reached joint decisions. These functions take place where there is a desire of the parties to agree.
4. The function of distraction - often used to buy time for the onset of a more favorable situation for one of the parties.
5. Procrastination function. In this case, we are talking about the behavior of one of the parties, aimed at reassuring the opponent, creating in him the illusion of striving for a constructive solution to the problem.
Most experts agree that, in general, one can distinguish three main stages in the development of negotiations:
1) exchange of views - mutual clarification of interests and positions, the introduction of proposals from each of the parties and the definition of topics for discussion;
2) the polemic stage, during which the central issues are discussed and agreed upon, the general boundaries of the proposed agreements are determined;
Similar Documents
Analysis of the concept, structure and types of communication - social interaction between people through sign systems in order to translate social experience and organize joint activities. Psychology of communicative and professional communication of investigators.
abstract, added 04/20/2010
Reasons for the dual position of social psychology in the system of scientific knowledge. The study of psychological phenomena that characterize the individual and society as subjects of social interaction. Classification of methods of socio-psychological research.
control work, added 10/24/2011
The study of the development of the problem of human interaction in the psychological literature. Characterization of the main structural components of communication and its main functions. The problem of the formation of personality and self-consciousness in the process of social interaction.
abstract, added 01.10.2010
The concept of communication in psychology. Man as a subject of communication. Place of interaction in the structure of communication. Interaction as an organization of joint activities. The study of communication as an interaction on the example of a group of students. Sociability test.
term paper, added 01.10.2008
Objective relations and connections inevitably and naturally arise in any real group. The main way to study interpersonal interaction, relationships within a group is an in-depth study of various social facts, human interaction.
abstract, added 07/01/2008
The need for communication for the psychological development of a person, its types and functions. Levels of communication according to B. Lomov. Motivational and cognitive components in the structure of communication. The relationship of communicative, interactive and perceptual aspects of communication.
test, added 11/23/2010
The study of theoretical aspects of the psychology of pedagogical communication. Educational-disciplinary and personality-oriented model of communication. The style of pedagogical communication and leadership style as a prerequisite for productive interaction between the teacher and the student.
term paper, added 06/10/2014
The place and significance of interaction in the structure of communication. Approaches to the study of the structure of interaction: the theory of T. Parsons, J. Szczepanski, transactional analysis. Classification and characteristics of the main types of interaction: competition and cooperation.
presentation, added 08/27/2013
Structure, functions and basic concepts of communication. Communication as a psychological problem in the studies of L. Vygotsky. Comparative characteristics of the parties and types of communication. The problem of psychological influence, its types. The problem of communication barriers and its study.
abstract, added 10/19/2008
The study of communication as a process of interaction between people. Theoretical analysis of the problem of communication in foreign and domestic psychology. Characteristics of interpersonal relations as a socio-psychological phenomenon. Features of communication in a student group.
