Area - 18.1 million km2, with islands - 18.3 million km2

The highest peak is Mount Aconcagua, 6960 m

The deepest depression is on the Valdes Peninsula, -42 m

The greatest length: from north to south - 7640 km, from west to east - 4990 km.

Features of nature

A continent distinguished by many natural records. This is the wettest and greenest continent; it has the world's largest lowland and the longest land mountains, the deepest river and the highest waterfall.

Geographical position

South America is located almost entirely in the Southern Hemisphere.

The coasts of South America are mostly straight. Large cities are located on the coasts of a few bays. Only the southern part of the Pacific coast is strongly dissected. Here, off the coast of the mainland, the archipelago of the Chilean Islands stretches. In the extreme southeast, the Strait of Magellan separates the archipelago from the mainland.

Surface nature

The elevation difference in is 7 km: from 6960 m (Mount Aconcagua in the Andes) to -42 m (depression on the Valdes Peninsula). This is the most contrasting relief, compared with the relief of all the southern continents. The longest land mountain system stretches along the Pacific coast for 9000 km -. The eastern part of the mainland is mostly flat.

The relief reflects the features of the structure of the earth's crust. The eastern part of the mainland is located on the ancient South American platform. On its shields, the Brazilian and Guiana plateaus were formed, and on the plates - lowlands: Amazonian, Orinokskaya, La Platskaya. In the south of the mainland between the Andes and is located - a stepped plateau up to 2000 m high.

The Andean fold belt began to form when South America was still part of Gondwana. Mountain building caused by convergence continues to this day, so the Andes are experiencing strong earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Climate

The main part of the territory of South America is in hot weather, and only the narrowest southern part is in temperate. Therefore, high temperatures prevail on the mainland, and even in the temperate zone in winter, their average monthly values ​​​​exceed 0 ° C.

Due to the strong warming over the surface of the mainland, atmospheric pressure is usually lower than over the surrounding oceans. This causes an influx of moist oceanic air masses onto the mainland. The entire northern part of South America is under the influence of trade winds blowing from the Atlantic. Western winds dominate in temperate latitudes. However, the high Andes prevent the penetration of air from deep into the mainland, and its influence extends only to the climate of the narrow coastal plains and adjacent mountain slopes. Air currents from the Atlantic Ocean, on the contrary, freely penetrate westward up to the eastern foothills of the Andes, and even the hinterland receives a sufficient amount of precipitation. Therefore, South America is the most humid continent in the world.

Inland waters

Due to abundant moisture, South America is rich in surface and. It accounts for 1/5 of the volume of water carried by all the rivers of the world. The main watershed is the Andes, so the largest part of the mainland belongs to the Atlantic Ocean basin. He also owns the largest rivers:, Orinoco. They are predominantly rain-fed and are most full-flowing in summer, when precipitation falls in the subequatorial belts.

There are few large lakes in South America. In the Andes, at an altitude of 3812 m, lies the highest mountain lake in the world - Titicaca. On the coast of the Caribbean Sea is a large lagoonal lake Maracaibo. In there are glacial lakes, in the floodplains of the rivers there are numerous small lakes - oxbow lakes.

Glaciers are found at altitudes of more than 5000 m; in the south of the mainland, they sometimes descend to the level of the Pacific Ocean.

Organic world and natural areas

Differs in diversity and the presence of a large number of endemics. This is due to the meridional extent of the mainland and its long-term isolation from other continents.

The set of natural zones generally corresponds to climatic zones and regions. The zonality is greatly influenced by the oceans, the position of the southern part of the mainland in temperate latitudes, and the presence of a belt of high mountains. In the Andes and on high parts of the plateaus, altitudinal zonation is pronounced.

About 40% of the world's forests are concentrated in South America. Forest natural zones exist in all climatic zones, they cover almost half of the mainland area. Forests - wet or variable wet, depending on the mode of precipitation. Where there is not enough rainfall, they are located towards the savannah or steppe (pampa).

Natural resources

There are many in South America. The Brazilian Plateau contains iron, uranium ores and rare metals, while the Guiana Plateau contains iron and aluminum ores. The strata of sedimentary rocks in the Amazonian lowland, in the foothills and intermountain depressions of the Andes (especially in) are rich in oil and gas. In the Andes, there are large reserves of ores of non-ferrous and precious metals, especially tin and copper. Extraction and export to other countries are the basis of the economy of some states.

The hot and humid tropical climate is favorable for growing many crops: coffee, cocoa, sugar cane, cotton, tobacco, bananas, pineapples. But for the life of people, the climate of the subtropical zone is more favorable, as well as territories at altitudes of more than 1000 m, where summers are not very hot and winters are warm.

Forests are of great economic importance. Especially durable, colored and fragrant woods are harvested here. The hard wood of quebracho and araucaria is highly valued. Resin, vegetable oil and wax, medicinal substances (caffeine, quinine) are mined in subtropical and mountain forests.

natural areas

The largest natural areas allocated on the mainland are the flat East and the mountainous West (Andes). Within these areas, smaller natural complexes are distinguished, differing in relief, climate features and the organic world.

South America is the fourth largest continent, stretching from the Gulf of Darien in the northwest to the Tierra del Fuego archipelago in the south. South America has a variety of biological resources, vast mineral reserves and a significant amount of fresh water. Fishing is well developed here, and there are also many ports in the Caribbean, Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The continent's economy is largely focused on the export of natural resources.

Water resources

South America is perhaps the most diverse continent in terms of. Here is the largest water-bearing river on the planet (Amazon), the driest place on Earth (Atacama Desert) and the longest mountain system (Andes). Geographic diversity results in extreme gradients in water availability and quality. Much of the north and northeast of the continent, including the Amazon and Orinoco basins and the Colombian and Ecuadorian Pacific coasts, receive abundant rainfall while being relatively sparsely populated.

At the other end is the Pacific coast of Peru, northern and central Chile, which are densely populated but have little or no rainfall except during El Niño. Large economic operations take place here, including water-intensive farming and mining. In this region, the availability of water is a major barrier to socio-economic development.

The southeast of the continent, including southern Brazil, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Argentina, is characterized by large-scale agriculture and livestock production, as well as increasing urbanization and intense economic activity. The region is mostly semi-arid, and its variability, and therefore water availability, is influenced by the South American monsoons.

Finally, the highlands of the Andes present significant challenges for water management due to topographical barriers and the effects of local precipitation gradients. Regions with severe water scarcity exist, especially where high population density and economic activity (e.g. in cities such as Bogotá, Quito, La Paz) are associated with small river basins, erratic weather patterns, shrinking natural wetlands and glaciers.

Water quality often depends on topography, land use and human economic activities. In the Andes, water chemistry problems place additional pressure on natural water resources, often exacerbated by agricultural practices. This creates serious problems for the extraction and use of water, in particular for the production of hydroelectric power. In the humid tropics, oxygen depletion and water quality problems can occur in basins and branched river branches. However, the main problems of water quality deterioration are associated with human activities.

forest resources

A significant part of the reserves is concentrated in South America. In 2010, the total forest area of ​​the mainland (both natural and planted) was over 874 million hectares, equivalent to 23% of the world's forests.

The forests of South America are divided into two groups: and. Rainforests make up 94% of the mainland's forests. Brazil is the largest country among the tropical South American countries, with a forest cover of 60.9%.

The Amazon rainforest is the largest and most famous rainforest in the world. They cover an area of ​​550 million hectares and are located in eight South American countries: Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana and Suriname.

Outside the Amazon, rainforests are located in the coastal regions of Brazil, northern and western South America (from Peru to Venezuela).

Today, the American rainforest is most threatened by large-scale agriculture (especially soybeans), deforestation for cattle grazing, and logging operations. Each year, the Amazon loses more than 2 million hectares of forest due to these activities.

Forestry

Forestry ensures the rational use of trees and other forest vegetation. It is an important economic activity for tropical South America, especially the Amazon Basin. Many valuable tree species, such as mahogany and rosewood, are native to the rainforest. Lumber from these trees is exported to overseas markets for furniture and flooring. For example, Chile is an important exporter of wood chips, plywood and paper pulp.

Mineral resources

South America is relatively wealthy. However, they are highly localized: few countries have a good balance between fuel and raw materials within their borders, and two countries, Uruguay and Paraguay, are almost devoid of mineral wealth. Nevertheless, South America's economy is heavily dependent on the mining industry.

Oil and natural gas

Large quantities of oil and natural gas are found in several areas of South America. The largest quantities are concentrated in the sedimentary layers surrounding Lake Maracaibo, in Venezuela and the adjacent coastal margin of the Caribbean Sea. Venezuela also has large deposits of oil and natural gas in the El Tigre region. The country is one of the largest oil exporters in the world.

Since 1972, Ecuador has also been a major oil exporter, exploiting fields in the Amazonian region east of the Andes. Argentina and Chile have significant oil deposits on the border with the Strait of Magellan in Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Colombia is a self-sufficient country in oil and gas production, with the main deposits concentrated in the central valley of the Magdalena River and in the Putumayo region, adjacent to the border with Ecuador.

Coal

South America is poor in coal. Colombia exports coal from the La Guajira peninsula and the lower Magdalena River basin south of Barranquilla, while Argentina receives high-quality coal from mines at El Turbio in the far south. Brazil produces relatively small amounts of coal in its southern states. In northwest Venezuela and south of Concepción in Chile, there are also coal mines that once provided fuel for steamboats.

Iron ore

South America contains about one-fifth of the world's iron ore reserves. The most important deposits are located in Brazil and Venezuela. Iron ore is used in the domestic metallurgical and steel industries, and a significant part is also exported. The vast majority of the continent's reserves are found in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Para and Mato Grosso do Sul. In Venezuela, sites such as Cerro Bolivar and El Pao, at the foot of the Guiana Highlands, have ore reserves with a high percentage of iron.

In addition, important iron ore deposits are located in Marcon, Peru, and along a narrow belt in northern Chile. Also, lateritic deposits of iron hydroxides are widespread, mainly in Colombia, Brazil and Argentina.

Ferroalloys

Among ferroalloys, manganese is found in sedimentary forms of the Brazilian states of Amapa and Minas Gerais, as well as in mountainous Bolivia. It is also common, in much smaller quantities, in Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, and Uruguay. Nickel, chromite (chromium ore), and cobalt are generally deficient in South America, although small amounts of all these minerals occur with other minerals in the central Andes of Peru, several areas of eastern Brazil, and the central and northern Argentine Andes. Chile has the second largest molybdenum reserves in the Americas, behind the United States.

Non-ferrous metals

Copper reserves on the continent account for more than a quarter of the world's reserves and almost all of them are located in Chile and Peru.

Bolivia is among the four or five largest tin producers in the world. Sedimentary deposits are located in the eastern part of the Andes. Significant deposits of tin are also found in the western Amazon in Brazil, near the Madeira River.

Lead and zinc are scattered across many countries, but are most abundant in the central Andes of Peru, the state of Minas Gerais in Brazil, mountainous Bolivia, and the northern Andes of Argentina.

Bauxite is mined in Guyana and Suriname; there are also large production facilities near Ciudad Guayana in Venezuela and several locations in the eastern Amazon in Brazil.

Even though South America was Europe's gold and silver treasure trove from the 1530s until the late 1700s, the continent only makes a minor contribution to the world's production of these precious metals in the early 21st century.

Land resources

Of the total area of ​​the continent (17.8 million km²), only one eighth of South America is suitable for permanent use in the national economy (growing crops and grazing animals). The continent has some of the largest reserves of suitable arable land. However, such reserves have been facilitated by large-scale deforestation (cutting or burning of forest resources) on the mainland.

In countries with poor economies, people turn to agriculture for their daily needs. Poor farmers destroy hectares of forests for agricultural use. They also burn stumps to replenish the soil with the nutrients they need to grow crops.

In the poor countries of South America, agriculture is the only way for people to survive: they grow crops to feed themselves and sell something for profit. However, without protecting the trees, the nutrients in the soil are soon washed away by rain. This can happen in as little as three years, and farmers are forced to move to new lands as the depleted land becomes barren and unable to produce crops. Trees and shrubs are re-growing on abandoned sites, but as the quality of the soil has deteriorated, it will take a significant amount of time for fertility to return.

"Intensive" farming in South America also occurs on a large scale. Large companies are clearing vast areas of land, often for cattle grazing, to fill the world market with beef. They also use the land for plantations, using pesticides and irrigation systems that damage the land. However, pest control chemicals also kill other animals and cause great environmental damage. Rain washes toxins into the water system, killing fish, and the use of irrigation systems in banana plantations affects the natural water balance of the soil, which can lead to other devastating effects.

biological resources

Fauna

The South American fauna is especially rich and varied due to the wide range of different habitats. In addition, due to the isolation of the mainland from the rest of the world in Paleogene and Neogene times (about 66-2.6 million years ago), the South American continent is characterized by significant originality. Many animals belong to exclusive groups, and even at the family level there is a high percentage of endemic species.

In South America, this specification has reached a higher degree than in other parts of the world. However, there are some similarities between the fauna of South America and other continents as a result of past geological events. Ancient groups of animals, including mollusks, chilopods, some fish, reptiles and amphibians, show similarities with New Zealand animals. Later species, mainly vertebrates, migrated from North America. Animals such as armadillos, anteaters, porcupines and opossums migrated in both directions.

The Amazonian rainforest is considered the richest in the world in terms of biodiversity. It is believed that about 10% of the world's animal species are found in this area. Some of the more famous animals found in the Amazon include the tapir, and many types of monkeys. Read about other animals of the Amazon basin.

Flora

South America has a unique flora. There are some similarities between the vegetation of South America and other continents as a result of past geological events. The northern tropical regions are considered the richest in flora diversity, while the southern regions and the western Andean highlands are significantly depleted.

animal husbandry

Animal husbandry is an important branch of agriculture in South America. Several areas stand out as major commercial livestock centers, notably the Pampas (Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil) and the Llanos Orinoco (Colombia and Venezuela). Brazil has the largest number of cattle, followed by Argentina. Both countries export large quantities of beef. Sheep breeding is widespread in regions where the cultivation of cattle is difficult.

In areas of South America with cold climates, grazing animals such as sheep, llamas, alpacas, and vicunas thrive. These animals are raised for their meat and wool, which are used in high quality textiles exported all over the world.

crop production

Corn is a staple in countries around the world and is the most widely cultivated crop in South America. Argentina was a major exporter of corn in the 20th century. Beans, including several species of the genus Phaseolus, are common on the continent and form an important food item in most countries. Cassava and sweet potatoes are also mainland staples. Cashew nuts, grown in most tropical countries, and Brazil nuts, harvested from trees in the Amazon, are considered delicacies throughout the world. Cacao, native to the Amazon, was prized by indigenous peoples and is still cultivated in many parts of South America, especially in the state of Bahia, Brazil.

Europeans introduced a number of plants to the continent. Sugarcane has been cultivated in the humid tropics of South America since early colonial times, especially in the northern part of Brazil, where it became the mainstay of the economy. Under these conditions, bananas have long been an important local staple, and since the early 1970s, Ecuador has become one of the world's largest exporters of bananas. Mangoes, oranges, lemons and grapefruits are also widely distributed.

Among cereals, rice, which was introduced from Asia, has become a valuable commodity in several countries of the continent. It is widely grown in the irrigated desert oases of the Peruvian coast, in the savannah and tropical regions of Brazil and Colombia.

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South America: natural areas.

SELVA.

Wet equatorial forests, or selva, are located in the Amazon basin, on both sides of the equator and occupy almost half the area of ​​the mainland. This is the largest forest area on Earth. High average annual temperatures and air humidity create conditions for the formation of impenetrable Amazonian forests. At least 40 thousand species of plants grow on fertile red-yellow ferralitic soils. Ficuses, heveas (rubber-bearing plants), various types of palms, creepers, "mahogany" (paubrazil), cinchona - this is not a complete list of representatives of the flora of the selva. Many of them are the most valuable tree species, medicinal plants, as well as natural dyes. The impenetrability of the Amazonian forests led to the adaptation of animals to an arboreal lifestyle - sloths, chain-tailed monkeys, jaguars. Agouti is found here - an animal of a detachment of rodents, whose teeth are strong as a chisel, capable of cracking the tree peel of an American walnut. Also typical representatives of the selva are porcupines, armadillos, anteaters, numerous bird species (hummingbirds, toucans, parrots).

SAVANNES.

The Orinoc lowland and most of the Guiana and Brazilian highlands are occupied by savannah zone , which forms on red ferrallitic and red-brown soils. On the Orinok lowland they are called llanos (from Spanish - plains). Here, among the tall grasses, individual trees grow - palm trees, acacias. On the Brazilian plateau, the savannas are called campos(from Portuguese - plain). There is less woody vegetation here, mostly shrubs, cacti, and grasses. Of the animals, ungulates (deer, wild pigs-bakers), cougars, armadillos, jaguars are common.

PAMPA.

South of the savannas is steppe zone , or pampas (on the La Plata lowland). Due to the rich cereal vegetation cover, fertile red-black soils are formed here. In this zone there are pampas deer, pampas cat, many rodents, birds. The drier western part is a livestock area. Good natural pastures have been preserved here, but due to intensive grazing in the pampas, there are no longer such thick and tall grasses as in the days of free gaucho. Cattle are bred here.

DESERT.

Semi-desert and desert zone not widely used in South America.

In desert Atacama(tropical zone) desert soils, ephemera and cacti are formed. Once upon a time, a date palm was brought here, and it grows here in a wild state. But mostly the surface of the Atacama is rocky. During the day, the sun mercilessly heats the stones, and after its setting, within an hour, the air temperature can drop from +40 to 0 °C. This leads to very strong physical weathering. Sometimes in the mountains an echo is heard, as if from thunder, but these rocks are cracking from stress, unable to withstand such temperature changes. The Atacama is an extremely arid desert. There are areas here that have never been rained on, and they are compared to the lifeless lunar surface.

semi-desert Patagonia(temperate zone) occupies 1/3 of the area of ​​Argentina. Strong southern Antarctic winds in summer bring sharp cold snaps and frosts. In winter, they can change the 30-degree frost with a thaw. The strength of the wind here is great not only in open spaces, but also in rare cities. The cars parked along the sidewalks are rocked by the wind like boats on the waves. Due to strong winds and lack of moisture, there are almost no trees here and only thorny shrubs, fleshy cacti grow, and wild cereals in some areas. Over 100 years ago, the first sheep were brought here. Now there are much more sheep than people (the ratio is about 10 to 1). The famous Australian merinos, which give very expensive fine-fibered wool, have perfectly taken root here.

COAST.

Common on the Pacific coast hardwood evergreen forests and shrubs.

ANDES.

in the Andes altitudinal zonality differs in the composition of natural zones and depends on the latitudinal position of the mountains. In the region of the equator, the altitudinal zonality is most fully expressed. At an altitude of 2800 m, mountain evergreen forests grow, which at an altitude of 3400 m are replaced by mountain alpine meadows - paramos. The amount of precipitation decreases to 250 mm, the air here is the driest in the world and rarefied, the rays of the sun are burning. Typical inhabitants of the highlands are the spectacled bear, chinchilla, llama, condor.

South American population

The mainland is relatively sparsely populated. live here for about 387 million person (2011). Most live on the coast of the oceans. The population density is also high on the central plateaus of the Andes.

From the 16th century European colonization of South America began. Spaniards and Portuguese began to settle on the mainland, and later immigrants from other European countries. The arrival of Europeans caught most of the Indian peoples at the level of the tribal system. The most powerful in that era was state of the incas.

The conquest of the mainland by Spain and Portugal brought incalculable misfortune to its native population. The state of the Incas was plundered. The Indians of the Atlantic regions were enslaved, partially exterminated. To work on the plantations began to import blacks - slaves from Africa. Now in South America live representatives of all three races of mankind. Among the population of the mainland there was a process of mixing of races, languages, customs, traditions, mores.

Descendants from marriages of Europeans with Indians are called mestizos. They form the main population of many Andean countries. Descendants from marriages of Europeans and blacks are called mulattoes, and Indians and blacks - sambo. Blacks and mulattoes live mainly in the East of the mainland.

Most people in South America speak Spanish, in Brazil - on Portuguese. Indians speak hundreds of different languages. The most common languages ​​of the peoples of Quechua, Aymara, etc.

South American countries

There are not as many countries in South America as there are in Africa. The borders of modern states were formed at the beginning of the 19th century. as a result of the struggle of peoples for independence against the Spanish and Portuguese colonialists.

Almost all countries in South America, except for two, have access to the oceans. The largest countries by area lie within plain East mainland - Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela. Groups Andean countries are Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chile. The smallest country on the continent is Suriname.

(Test)

Introduction

South America is almost completely isolated from other continents. From the west it is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, from the east and north by the Atlantic. In the south, the wide Drake Passage separates South America from Antarctica, in the north, the mainland is washed by the waters of the Caribbean Sea. Only the narrow Isthmus of Panama connects South America with North America.

Most of South America lies in the southern hemisphere, in the equatorial and subequatorial belts. Only the narrowed part of the mainland enters the subtropical and temperate latitudes of the southern hemisphere.

The formation of the animal world of the mainland was influenced by the contrasts of natural conditions, the features of paleogeographic development and the long-term isolation of the continent from the main land mass. Therefore, the Neogean fauna is distinguished by a high level of endemism, great originality, and, along with this, defectiveness.

The modern fauna, like the flora of the mainland, was formed starting from the end of the Cretaceous period.

In this control work, a description of the natural conditions of South America is given, a general description of the animal world is given, examples of species endemism of animals characteristic of this continent are considered, features of the Neogean fauna are shown, examples of the main national parks and protected areas of the continent are given, a map of the animal world and the main national parks in South America.

The purpose of this examination is to conduct characteristics of the animal world of South America.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were set:

1. Consider the geographical location of South America.

2. Describe the geological structure.

3. Show the significance of the relief in the formation of the mainland.

4. Reveal the features of climatic conditions.

5. Consider the hydrographic network.

6. Describe the land cover.

7. Show the originality of the Neogean fauna.

8. Give examples of the main national parks in South America and show their importance.

1. Geographical location and features of natural conditions

South America is now almost completely isolated from other continents. Only by the narrow Isthmus of Panama, finally formed only in the Pliocene, is it connected with Central and North America. Vast oceanic expanses separate South America from other continents. South America includes the Falkland (Malvinas) Islands, the islands of Trinidad and Tobago lying on the shelf of the Atlantic Ocean, in the Pacific Ocean - the Galapagos Islands, Juan Fernandez and the coastal Chonos archipelago with the large island of Chiloe.

The area of ​​South America with the islands is 17.8 million km 2. The border of South America in the north is considered to be a conditional line passing along the Atrato River, and offset to the Darien Gulf.

The northern extremity of the mainland is Cape Galinas (12 0 28 / N), the southern one is Cape Frouerd in the Strait of Magellan (53 0 54 / S). Further south on the island of the same name is Cape Horn (56 0 S), which is also sometimes considered the southern limit of the continent. The extreme western point is Cape Parinhas (81 0 20 / W), the eastern one is Cape Cabo Branco (34 0 47 /). The mainland reaches its greatest width (more than 5000 km) at 5 0 S.l. Thus, most of South America is located mainly in the equatorial and tropical latitudes of the Western Hemisphere. In shape, the mainland resembles a triangle with a base in the northern part, near the equator, and a top in the south. This configuration of the mainland has a significant impact on its natural features. South America also includes the island of Tierra del Fuego, separated from the mainland by a narrow and long (550 km) Strait of Magellan, which connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific. At its narrowest point, the strait is up to 3.5 km wide and up to 35 m deep. The strait is a flooded fjord with high steep banks. The shores of South America are slightly indented, only in the southwest the fjord type prevails, and in the north the wide bay of Maracaibo juts out into the mainland, connected to the lake of the same name.

The geological structure of South America is determined by two large structural elements of the earth's crust: the ancient, Precambrian, South American platform and the geosynclinal belt of the Andes, which has been actively developing since the Late Precambrian.

Mineral deposits are also closely related to the geological structure. The richest iron ore deposits are confined to the ancient shields of the platform - in the center and on the outskirts of the Brazilian Plateau (in Bolivia) and in the north of the Guiana Plateau (in Venezuela). In the ancient weathering crust of the crystalline basement on these plateaus, there are large reserves of manganese and nickel. As a result of weathering on the wet outskirts of the plateaus, especially the Guiana, bauxite deposits with an alumina content of up to 67% were formed. The total bauxite reserves in South America are equal to 2500 million tons. In the depressions of the plateaus, in the troughs of the Amazon and the Patagonian plate, there are deposits of oil, natural gas and coal. The main oil and gas deposits are confined to foothill foredeep and intermountain depressions of the Andes. Oil reserves are especially rich in the depression of Maracaibo and the Magdalena River, in the area of ​​the Gulf of Guayaquil. Oil fields have been discovered in the southeast of the mainland - in Patagonia and on the adjacent shelf, but unlike the northern ones, they have only focal distribution.

The Andes mountain ranges are rich in non-ferrous and rare metals. The largest reserves of copper and molybdenum ores are known in southwestern Peru and western Chile. Bolivia has significant reserves of tin. Brazil holds a leading position in the reserves of bauxite, titanium, copper, lead, zinc, tin, manganese ores.

The bowels of South America are rich in iron, manganese, tungsten, nickel and molybdenum. The total iron ore reserves of South America account for 38% of all the resources of the capitalist world. Brazil, Venezuela, Peru and Chile are richest in iron ores. Brazil ranks first in the capitalist world in iron ore reserves. Most of the deposits are located in the eastern part of the country. More than 100 iron ore deposits have been discovered in the state of Minas Jeiras. Iron ore mining in the country is 90-95%. Venezuela has the second largest iron ore resources in Latin America. The largest deposits are located in the lower reaches of the Orinoco River.

The relief of South America has some similarities with the relief of North America, which is associated with the presence of a wide geosynclinal zone in the west of both continents. The Andes of South America are a continuation of the Cordilleras of North America. The western parts of the continents are occupied by extensive mountain systems, while the eastern parts are much lower. The Andes of South America are on average taller than the Cordilleras.

The relief of South America is represented by two unequal parts: the plain-flat-mountain Out-Andean East; mountainous Andean West. In the east, vast plains stand out - the Amazonian, La Platskaya, Orinokskaya, the stepped plateau of Patagonia and the Guiana, Brazilian plateau. The average height of the mainland is 580 m, which is lower than Asia, North America, Antarctica, but higher than Europe and Australia. The main peak of the mainland - Mount Aconcagua (6960) is inferior to many of the highest peaks in Asia.

Several large morphostructural regions are distinguished in the Out-Andean East. These include: Amazonia, which occupies a vast territory from the foothills of the Andes to the Atlantic Ocean with an area of ​​over 5 million km 2, lying in the trough of the South American platform; the Orinoco Plain, stretching from the foothills of the Andes to the Orinoco Delta, is a low stratified plain composed of Tertiary sandstones; the Guiana coast, up to 200 km wide, serves as its continuation; The internal plains occupy a trough between the Andes, the Brazilian Plateau and Patagonia, composed of a thick layer of continental sediments, from Devonian to Quaternary with a flat, slightly dissected relief. In the north and south there are mid-altitude remnant massifs. Along the central part of the trough of the rivers of Paraguay and the lower Parana, the La Plata lowland stretches. In the north, it begins with a young tectonic depression (Pantanal), the Chaco plains, and in the south it ends with Pampa. The uniformity of the relief of the Eastern Pampas is broken in the south by two groups of low mountains and hills - the Sierra del Tandil and the Sierra de la Ventana. These mountains are highly flattened, eroded and affected by tertiary faults and uplifts. In the southwest, the region of the Cis-Cordillera and the Pampina Sierras adjoins the internal plains, blocky flat-topped massifs 2000-6000 m high.

The most extensive uplift of the South American Platform forms the Brazilian Plateau, which gradually rises from north (100 m) to south (600 m) and forms the Goias plateau in the south (1000-1200 m). The table-like surfaces of individual plateaus are ancient leveling surfaces, limited by vertical ledges - chapads. In the south, the plateau breaks off with a series of ledges. The highest point of the Brazilian plateau is the Bandeira massif (2890 m). The Guiana Highlands in the north are framed by the Guiana Lowland. In the north, the relief is represented by gently undulating peneplain. To the west of the Orinoco River, ancient crystalline rocks in the form of remnant mountains come to the surface. The Patagonian plateau forms a system of ledges, gradually descending towards the Atlantic Ocean; in the west, the plateau gradually rises to the Andes.

The Andean West is one of the highest mountain systems in terms of height, extent and expression of alpine landforms, second only to the Tibetan-Himalayan, 20 peaks rise in them to a height of more than 6000 m. The entire Andean mountain system serves as an important climate divide, is difficult to pass, creates a general impression of asymmetry macrorelief.

The climate of South America is determined by the geographical position of this territory, the planetary system of atmospheric circulation, and the features of the relief.

Most of South America is located in the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical and subtropical zones, only a narrow southern part of the mainland, not exceeding 600 km wide, goes into temperate latitudes. Almost on the entire continent, the radiation balance reaches 111-355 kJ/cm 2 .

The main part of the mainland is located in the zone of trade wind circulation with a predominance of northeast winds to the north of the equator, and southeast winds to the south. Air masses move towards South America from the peripheral regions of the Azores (in the north) and South Atlantic (in the south) anticyclones. Therefore, the types of climate in South America are determined by the influence of the air masses of the Atlantic, and not the Pacific Ocean. The absence of large orographic barriers inside the mainland allows the Atlantic masses to go far to the west, to the very slopes of the Andes. Vast areas of South America are constantly exposed to significant heating, the pressure over a wide part of the mainland at the level of the earth's surface is much lower than over the oceans washing it.

The south of the mainland is located in the zone of westerly winds, under their influence is Southern Chile and part of Patagonia. To the south of the mainland there is a wide strip of low pressure of a planetary character.

The system of ocean currents associated with the general circulation of the atmosphere affects the climate of the coastal regions of the mainland. The warm Brazilian Current increases the moisture content of trade wind air masses, the cold Falkland Current increases the aridity of the Patagonian climate, and the cold Peruvian Current contributes to the formation of desert landscapes.

The atmospheric circulation system changes with the seasons. In December-February, the northeast trade wind crosses the equator, the area of ​​the southeast trade wind narrows, and the westerly wind zone shifts to the south. At this time, it is summer in the Southern Hemisphere. Equatorial air masses recede to the south, to the northern, northwestern and western parts of the Brazilian Highlands, to the depression of the upper Parana and to the Gran Chaco plains, causing seasonal rains characteristic of subequatorial latitudes.

In June-August (winter in the Southern Hemisphere), the atmospheric circulation system shifts to the north. From the southern and southwestern periphery of the Azores High, northeastern trade winds come to the shores of South America, which, moving over heated waters, are saturated with moisture. In the Western Amazon, equatorial air prevails, causing showers. The dry southeast trade wind from the Brazilian Highlands penetrates into the Eastern Amazonia, which does not bring a significant amount of precipitation. The southeast trade wind from the northern periphery of the South Atlantic High irrigates the northeast ledge of the Brazilian Highlands. And the winds from the western edge of the South Atlantic High carry moist and warm tropical air, which penetrates the interior of the mainland and irrigates the eastern outskirts of the Brazilian Highlands.

Along with the shift of the air circulation system to the north in June-August, the influence of the westerly winds of the Southern Hemisphere increases, which affect a significant part of Chile. In connection with the shift to the north of the South Pacific anticyclone, the air masses flowing from its periphery moisten Central Chile, replenishing the moisture brought by the western winds of the Southern Hemisphere. West coast, slopes and intermountain plateau of the Andes from 30 0 S.l. to the equator in winter are under the influence of the eastern periphery of the South Pacific anticyclone. All west between 30 0 S.l. and the equator turns out to be sharply arid and anomalously cooled. North of the equator, northwesterly winds bring heavy rainfall to the northwest Cordillera.

The thermal regime of South America is characterized by slight fluctuations. The entire north of the mainland, the Amazon and the west of the Brazilian Highlands are very warm throughout the year; the average July temperature is +25 0 C. Winter cooling affects the mountainous east of the Brazilian Highlands and the plains of Pampa, the average July temperature is +10-+12 0 C, on the high plateaus of Patagonia - about +5 0 C. Intrusions from the south of cold air temperate latitudes cause irregular frosts in the Pampas. The average July temperatures on the island of Tierra del Fuego are +2 0 C. In the summer months of the Southern Hemisphere, the southern parts of the mainland receive more heat, but there are no high temperatures here, since cold currents limit the summer heat. The hottest places at this time of the year are in the central regions of the Gran Chaco, in the north of Argentina and Paraguay (maximum up to +40 0 C). This is below the maximum in Africa (+58 0), North America or Asia.

Most of South America has sufficient moisture. The wettest areas of the mainland are Western Colombia and Southern Chile, where the annual precipitation reaches 5000-8000 mm. Up to 2000-3000 mm of precipitation falls in the western Amazon and on the adjacent slopes of the Andes, the windward eastern slopes of the Guiana Highlands and the central part of the eastern slopes of the Brazilian Highlands. The remaining parts of the slopes receive less than 1000 mm of precipitation per year. Insufficient moisture in the Pampas (300-400 mm) and in Central Chile (200-300 mm). Patagonia and the Precordillera region are very arid (150-200 mm per year). The Pacific coast areas between 5 and 28 0 S are especially arid. with adjacent western slopes and intermountain plateaus of the Andes (Atacama Desert).

Colombia and the Western Amazon receive rainfall throughout the year. In Central Chile, precipitation falls in winter.

In South America, three climatic sectors can be distinguished with different types of climate: the climate of the east, the climate of the Pacific coast and the mountain climate.

The equatorial constantly humid climate is typical for most of the Amazon and the adjacent slopes of the Andes.

Throughout the year, equatorial air masses dominate with temperature (+25-+27 0 C) and significant humidity (precipitation is 2000-4000 mm per year). Humidification is uniform, but there are two precipitation maxima. The weather regime during the day is the same. Usually in the morning hours, temperatures gradually increase and the moisture content in the air increases. There are thunderstorms in the afternoon.

The seasonally humid subequatorial climate is established in the territories located to the north and south of the equator. These include the lowlands of the Orinoco and Magdalena rivers, the coastal regions of Venezuela, the Guiana Highlands, most of the Brazilian Highlands (except the east and south). Equatorial air masses dominate in summer, tropical air masses dominate in winter. This type of climate is characterized by humid, hot summers and dry, hot winters. The average summer temperatures are +25-+28 0 C, winter - +20 - +30 0 C. The amount of precipitation reaches 1500 mm per year. With distance from the equator, the duration of the dry period increases, and with approaching the equator, the duration of the wet period increases. The northeast of the Brazilian Highlands is characterized by a sharp aridity.

The tropical climate is typical for areas located south of territories with a subequatorial climate. Tropical air masses dominate throughout the year. There are tropical humid and tropical dry climates.

The subtropical climate is confined to the interfluve of the Parana and Uruguay, the plains of the Pampas and the Precordillera region up to - 41 0 S.l. Tropical air masses dominate in summer, moderate air masses in winter. Humidification in these areas is uniform. Hot summer. Winter is mild and cool. The flat character of the interfluve contributes at this time of the year to the invasion far to the north of the cold air masses of the Antarctic. Cold gusty winds blow two or three times during the winter in the Pampas and in the south of the Brazilian Highlands, which causes frost and snowfall.

A temperate climate is formed on the plains of Patagonia. The amount of precipitation is negligible. The minimum is -35 0 С. With a small amount of precipitation, temperature contrasts are small; this is explained by the fact that Patagonia is located in the zone of influence of the westerly winds of the Southern Hemisphere. But the heavy rainfall brought by these winds is delayed by the Andes mountain ranges. In terms of moisture, Patagonia resembles a desert, in terms of temperature amplitude, it resembles a maritime climate. The equatorial humid climate is established on the Pacific coast from 6 0 S.l. to the equator; it is characterized by high

uniform temperatures throughout the year (+25-+27 0 C), heavy rainfall of 5000 mm or more.

A subequatorial seasonally humid climate is formed in the territories located south of the equator up to 4 0 30 / S; characterized by dry hot winters (June-November) and humid hot summers (November-May).

The tropical trade wind climate is the climate of the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile. These include Sechura and Atacama. This part of the mainland receives precipitation in the form of abundant dew, formed by dense fog, often enveloping the slopes of the Peruvian and Chilean Andes at an altitude of 400-1000 m.

The subtropical (Mediterranean) climate is typical for territories located from 28 to 37 0 30/S, with a clearly pronounced seasonality of precipitation and temperatures. This area is characterized by hot dry summers (December-February) and relatively cool rainy winters (June-August). The Mediterranean type of climate is formed because in summer the air masses of the South Pacific Ocean High (eastern periphery) move to this area; in winter, this area is under the influence of cyclonic rains brought by westerly winds.

To the south, the characteristic features of the Mediterranean climate gradually disappear, westerly winds play an increasingly important role, and features of a humid oceanic temperate climate appear (Southern Chile). The western transfer of air masses contributes to abundant precipitation - up to 6000 mm per year. Especially a lot of precipitation falls on the western slopes of the Andes (on average, it rains 325 days a year). Precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the seasons. Cool rainy weather prevails with strong western winds.

The Andes mountain system, due to its height, serves as a climatic boundary separating the Pacific air masses from the Atlantic ones, and forms a mountain climate. Temperatures gradually decrease with height, the amount of precipitation increases to 1000-1500 mm, and starts to decrease higher, which contributes to the formation of a dry climate.

The equatorial Andes (from 5 0 N) are under the influence of equatorial air. On the eastern slopes, up to 400 mm of precipitation falls annually; on the western slopes - more than 8000. In the capital of Ecuador, Quito, the temperature is about +13 0 С; light frosts are set at night, during the day it rises to + 22- + 24 0 С.

The mountain variety of the subequatorial and tropical climate is typical for mountainous regions lying between 5 and 30 0 S.l.

The climate of the intermountain plateaus is arid, but relatively high temperatures persist.

South of 40 0 ​​S The Andes are characterized by a cold damp climate with large clouds, strong, frequent precipitation. A stable snow cover and modern glaciation form in the mountains. The eastern slopes are characterized by an arid climate, so the Pacific air, crossing the mountain range and descending the eastern slope, becomes drier. Precipitation falls 200-400 mm per year. Summer is cold. In winter, frosts in the valleys reach -40 0 С.

The formation of a dense, well-developed river network of South America is favored by the configuration of the mainland, climatic conditions and the nature of the relief, in particular the Andes mountain system, which forms the main watershed. The watershed line coincides with the largest uplifts, and only in the Andes of Patagonia passes to the east.

South America accounts for 8% of the earth's land mass and 14% of its runoff. Under the influence of the moist winds of the Atlantic, South America receives twice as much precipitation as the average of the entire land mass of the Earth. South America is richer in water resources than other continents. The total and underground runoff of this continent is almost twice as much as in Europe, which ranks second in terms of wealth in water resources.

Most of the rivers of the continent are rain-fed, glacial is important only in the south of the Andes; the role of snow nutrition is negligible. As a result of the abundant moisture of the mainland and the shift of the watershed to the extreme west in South America, great water systems were formed despite the relatively small size of the mainland.

The largest river in South America is the Amazon. The length of the Amazon (Maranion) is 6437 km. Despite a slight average slope, the river has a strong current due to its water content. The area of ​​the catchment basin is 7 million km2. The average flow of the river at the mouth is 120 thousand m 3 /s, the maximum is about 200 thousand m 3 /s. The average annual flow of the Amazon is 5000 km 3, which makes up most of the flow of the entire South America and 15% of the flow of all the rivers of the globe. The Amazon is the most abundant river in the world in terms of water volume. The Amazon is the second longest river in the world.

The source of the Amazon is the Marañon River, which flows out of Lake Patacocha, located in the Peruvian Andes at an altitude of over 4000 m. The Amazon has more than 17 tributaries. In the lower reaches of the river, tides have a great influence on its regime and formation. The tidal wave penetrates upstream for about 1400 km and causes strong waves on sandbars and banks, destroying the banks. Thanks to the tides and full water of the Amazon, the largest ocean-going ships can reach the city of Manaus, and sea ships can reach Iquitos. The largest tributary of the Amazon is the Madeira. The right tributary of the Amazon is larger than the left. In addition to Madeira, these are Zhurua, Purus, Tapajos, Xingu. Twice a year the level of the Amazon rises by several meters. These highs are associated with rainy periods in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. At this time, the river in the middle reaches floods a huge territory, then gradually it enters the banks (August-September). Then the second maximum occurs, associated with the summer rains in the Northern Hemisphere. On the Amazon, it appears in November. When it flows into the ocean, the Amazon divides into many branches and forms an archipelago. The largest among the islands is Marajo.

The Paraguay-Parana river basin is the largest in South America after the Amazon basin. The basin area of ​​the entire system is 4 million km 2, the length of the Parana is 4700 km. These, as well as other rivers of the system, originating in the Brazilian Highlands, form waterfalls in their upper reaches, the largest of which is Iguazu, 72 m high.

The most important tributary of the Parana is Paraguay, which opens waterways to the central parts of the mainland and the Amazon.

The Uruguay River in its upper course flows through the trap plateau, following the general slope to the west and descending from a height of 1000 m to 100 m. Below the confluence of the Rio Negro, it is replete with rapids and rapids.

La Plata, which collects the waters of Parana and Uruguay, resembles a giant funnel open to the Atlantic Ocean. Its width at the mouth is 222 km, length 320 km.

The Orinoco River originates in the Guiana Highlands. The Orinoco regime is fickle. The level of the river depends on the rainfall that falls in the northern part of its basin in the summer (May-September). The largest waterfalls in the world are located in the Orinoco basin on the Guiana Plateau. Angel Falls is widely known.

Lake Titicaca is the largest alpine lake in the world. It is located at an altitude of 3812 m above sea level on the border between Peru and Bolivia. The area of ​​the lake is 8300 km 2, the maximum depth is 304 m. Terraces are pronounced on the shores of the lake, indicating a repeated decrease in its level.

Lakes of glacial origin are concentrated in the Southern Andes. These are freshwater lakes with very dissected shores. For example, lakes Nahuel Huapi, San Martin). They were formed as a result of the damming of the runoff of glacial melt waters by terminal moraines, which filled wide trough valleys.

Along the shores of the Atlantic Ocean there are large lagoon lakes, the largest of which is Maracaibo, connected to the Gulf of Venezuela.

Groundwater is an important source of South America's water resources. The total underground runoff of the mainland is 3740 km 3.

The formation of the rich and diverse flora of South America is closely connected with the history of the geological development of the mainland, modern orography and climatic conditions.

Young types of meadow-steppe, semi-desert shrub formations of Patagonia formed in the post-glacial period from the Antarctic flora, forming in the south of the continent the second center of speciation of the South American flora - the Antarctic one, which was preserved mainly in Tierra del Fuego and in the Patagonian Andes. In the Antarctic floristic kingdom, a very peculiar endemic flora, not rich in species composition, has formed.

The formation of the soil cover is closely related to the climate, moistening of the territories and the development of vegetation.

The soils of South America do not form continuous homogeneous spaces, such as on the plains of Eurasia and North America. In South America, various types of lateritic soils are predominant, confined to hot areas with constant and abundant moisture. For territories with seasonal moisture, red, brown-red and brown soils are typical, which are successively replaced by gray-brown and gray soils to the west inland. Reddish-black and chernozem-like fertile soils are formed in the pampas. In cool temperate latitudes, soils are represented by brown forest soils in the west, chestnut and desert-steppe soils in the east, turning into swampy meadow and peaty soils in Tierra del Fuego.

In the Andean mountain system, the features of the soil cover are associated with altitudinal zonality, exposure of slopes, the presence of high mountain plateaus, and the location of mountain ranges. Each latitudinal geographical zone in the Andes has its own type of soil. Significant territories are occupied by mountain red soils, brown forest, podzolic and mountain meadow soils. Brownish, desert and alpine desert-steppe soils are widespread in the Andes.

Desert and high-mountain desert-steppe soils are developed in the Patagonian Andes, Precordillera and Pampina sierras.

South America is entirely in the Western Hemisphere. In the north, South America is connected to North America through the Isthmus of Panama. The southern, narrowed and dissected part of the mainland is known as Central America. North America reaches its greatest width in temperate and subpolar latitudes.

Of all the continents, North America extends farthest to the north. Its elongation from the polar latitudes almost to the very equator led to a huge variety of natural conditions. And a significant length from west to east led to the formation of a continental climate in the interior of the mainland. Its length is the largest of all the continents of the Earth and is 75,600 km. The mainland is washed by three oceans: the Pacific in the west, the Atlantic in the east and the Arctic in the north.

Geographic research

The mainland is crossed by the Southern Tropic. The coastline is very poorly indented. Only in the southeast there are several not very large bays: La Plata, San Matias, San Jorge and Baia Grande. Together they form a single part of the world - America. Cape Froward is considered the southernmost point of the mainland, Cape Gallinas is the northernmost point, Cape Cabo Branco is the easternmost point, and Cape Parinas is the westernmost point. Thus, most of the mainland is in the southern hemisphere.

The southern part is dominated by the tropical zone, which leads to a large amount of precipitation. Due to the fact that there are plains in this territory, moist air masses penetrate South America without obstacles.

general characteristics

Famous bays of South America: San Jorque, La Plata, Bahia Grande and San Matias, but none of them can be called large. The influence of the Pacific Ocean falls on the southern and western coasts of the mainland. And the extreme southern strip of the mainland is separated from Antarctica by the Drake Passage, and, despite this, the influence of the natural conditions of this mainland on the nature of this part of South America is quite noticeable.

North and South America, together with the adjacent islands, are traditionally combined into one part of the world, called America. But according to natural conditions, these continents are two completely different worlds, due to differences in geographical location and in the history of their development. North America stretches from the polar latitudes almost to the equator.

To the north are Greenland and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Many islands adjoin North America in the northwest and west: the Aleutian, Queen Charlotte, Vancouver, the Alexander Archipelago. The northernmost island point in North America is Cape Morris Jesup in Greenland (83° 39′ N). This is the land closest to the pole in the northern hemisphere. The seas deeply dissect the eastern and northern coasts of the mainland, and to a much lesser extent, its western coast.

Spanish expeditions XV-XVI

The waters of the Arctic Ocean, washing the northeastern and northern coasts of the mainland, constantly have a low temperature. The Baffin Inter-Island Sea washes the eastern shores of the Baffin Islands and Devon Islands and the southeast of Ellesmere Island. The Baffin Sea is connected by a system of narrow straits to the northernmost of all Arctic seas, the Lincoln Sea.

The Pacific coast of North America, with the exception of the northern segment, is much less dissected than the Atlantic. Almost everywhere at a relatively short distance from the mainland in the Pacific Ocean, great ocean depths prevail. The area of ​​the mainland together with the islands is 24,247 thousand km2, the area of ​​the islands is 3,890 thousand km2. In the extreme north and south, the land is heavily dissected by water basins. All the main orographic zones of North America are extended along the strike of the continent itself.

In terms of geographical location and features of development, North America has much in common with Eurasia. These continents are characterized by common patterns of climate formation and the same types of climate, similar types of zonal landscapes, relief, etc.

North America is similar to Eurasia, but at the same time it has its own unique geographical features. The coast of the mainland is indented quite weakly. Most of the bays are not large, they are formed at the mouth of the rivers when the ocean moves deep into the mainland. The average height of the mainland is quite small, which is explained by the large territory occupied by the lowlands: the Amazonian, Orinoco and La Plata.

brazilian plateau

In Chile there are huge deposits of saltpeter. South America is extremely rich in inland waters due to the humid climate and the abundance of plains. The Amazon collects water from 40% of the territory of South America, in the lower reaches its width reaches 20 km, the river is also very deep, which allows even ships to pass far inland.

The geographical location and topography of the mainland lead to the fact that the climate of South America is warm and very humid. The entire northern and most of the central part of the mainland are in the equatorial and subequatorial climatic zones.

Between these zones there is a zone of continental subtropical climate, here it is dry, hot (+25°С) summer and warm (+10°С) winter. The temperate belt occupies the southern tip of the mainland. A temperate maritime climate is formed on the west coast, with warm winters, cool summers and abundant rainfall.

The shores of North America are washed by the waters of three oceans: the Atlantic, the Arctic and the Pacific. From west to east in the widest part about 5 thousand, however, for the most part its extent is small, and the continent narrows towards its southern tip. South America is crossed by the equator, and 10% of its territory is located in the northern hemisphere.