A feature of communication at depth is the impossibility of transmitting information by voice and facial expressions. Divers / divers have developed their own system of gestures to indicate typical situations and transmit commands at depth. Their origin in most cases is obvious, and is the development of gestures adopted in land life. However, like everywhere else, it has its own specifics. For example, it is not uncommon for beginners, who show their thumbs in delight, to be immediately pulled to the surface, because it means “We surface” among divers. The set of gestures used by scuba divers to communicate underwater is called dive signals. Let's get acquainted with the most basic and most common gestures.
Hand signals
| Image | Description | Meaning |
| thumb up | "We pop up" | |
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thumb down | "Dive" |
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Circle of thumb and forefinger, other fingers extended | "I'm fine" or "Are you okay?" |
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Circle of hands above the head. If one hand is busy, then the signal is performed with one hand, depicting a semicircle. Fingertips touch the top of the head | Similar in meaning to the previous signal. It is applied at a great distance or on the surface. |
| "Cutting" or "chopping" the neck with an open palm | "I have no air", "Nothing to breathe" | |
|
Wiggle with open palm, palm down | "I have a problem's" |
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Waving your hand in a circle, clapping your hand on the water. | "Diver in danger!" / "Trouble!" |
|
Hug yourself with your arms | "Freeze" |
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Repeated clenching and unclenching of the fist | "I'm having a cramp" |
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Index fingers pressed together | "You go together", "You are partners." This sign means that divers should be next to each other at a distance of a meter and a half, in order to help each other if necessary. |
| Shaking each other with left and right hands | Similar in meaning to the previous signal | |
| Boat-shaped palms | “Boat”, “Ship”, “Boat” / Can be used as a question: “Where is the boat, ship, boat?” | |
|
Palm, clenched into a fist, on an outstretched hand. | "Danger". The hand indicates the direction of danger. |
|
It is shown by applying the index and middle fingers to the nose, folded in a V-shape. | "Look!" If the speaker wants to show something, the second gesture should be an indication of the direction, but if he tries to draw attention to himself, then he should then put his hand on his chest. |
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Open palm pointing towards the one to whom the signal is given | Stop, stop. |
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The palm is clenched into a fist, the thumb indicates the direction | "Let's go in that direction" |
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Swinging with an open palm towards you - away from you horizontally | "Standing at This Depth" / "Zero Buoyancy" |
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Index fingers describe a circle | "Repeat" (last move, gesture, etc.) |
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Index finger curled | “I have a question”, “What are we going to do?”, “What was that?” etc. |
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The index and middle fingers of one hand folded together are applied to the palm of the other | "How much gas is left?" / "Show the pressure gauge" |
|
Showing one finger | "ten". (Can be used with other gestures to display the desired number) |
| Showing two fingers | "20". (Can be used with other gestures to display the desired number) | |
| A clenched fist is shown with the palm away from you | "fifty". (Can be used with other gestures to display the desired number) | |
|
The palm of one hand is placed vertically, the tips of the fingers are covered with the second palm | "100". (Can be used with other gestures to display the desired number) |
|
The palm of one hand is placed vertically | "200". (Can be used with other gestures to display the desired number) |
Lantern signals
Rope signals. Signal End Communication
Typically used in low visibility conditions or when diving with an overhead environment. When a diver is tied with a rope to a partner or to a diver providing descent under water.- One tug: "Is everything all right?" or "I'm fine"
- Two jerks: "Stay where you are" or "I've stopped"
- Three pulls: "Dive in" or "Dive in"
- Four pulls: "Get up" or "Get up"
- Frequent jerks: "Danger: raise to the surface" or "Danger: raise to the surface"
Signals, depending on the composition of the group, its nationality, the training of the participants, may differ. If you happen to dive, then do not forget to clarify the meaning of the gestures used. Remember that diving to depth is always associated with a risk to the life of the participants. Images taken from Wikipedia, the people's encyclopedia.
Biology. General biology. Grade 11. Basic level Sivoglazov Vladislav Ivanovich
20. Human races
20. Human races
Remember!
What races of man do you know?
What is a nation?
All modern humanity belongs to the same species Homo sapiens (reasonable man), within which there are large systematic divisions - race. Each race is characterized by a set of hereditary characteristics, such as the color of the skin, hair, eyes, shape of the nose and lips, height, structural features of the skull, etc. Not all morphological features of a person are racial, for example, the development of muscles and body fat often depend on individual characteristics.
Big races. Usually there are three big races: Eurasian (Caucasian), Asian-American (Mongoloid) and Australo-Negroid (Equatorial) (Fig. 64). Large races are divided into races of the second and third order, the so-called small races. Sometimes Australoids and American Indians are separated into separate large races.
Rice. 64. Representatives of the Mongoloid, Equatorial and Caucasoid races
Caucasian race. Members of this race are mostly fair-skinned, with soft straight or wavy, often blond hair. Most Caucasians have thin lips, a narrow protruding nose, as a rule, a strongly protruding chin. Men usually grow beards and mustaches well. Within the Caucasoid race, there is a very large variability in hair and eye color, so this large race is divided into three large parts: light-colored northern, dark-colored southern and Central European with an intermediate type of pigmentation. Now Caucasians live on all continents, but initially they formed in Europe and Western Asia.
Mongoloid race. Typical representatives of this race have dark, yellowish skin, dark brown eyes, coarse, straight, dark hair. In men, the hairline on the body is very poorly developed, the beard and mustache, as a rule, do not grow. The face is rather flat, the cheekbones are wide, the chin protrudes slightly forward. Most Mongoloids are characterized by a highly developed and peculiarly located fold of the upper eyelid (epicanthus), which covers the inner corner of the eye, thereby causing a somewhat oblique position of the palpebral fissure. At present this race predominates in Asia.
equatorial race. Characteristic features of Negroids are black curly hair, very dark skin and brown eyes. The beard and mustache, like those of the Mongoloids, usually grow weakly. The nose is rather flat, slightly protruding, with wide wings. Most of the representatives have thick lips and protruding jaws of the skull. The most striking signs of this race are expressed among the Sudanese Negroes.
Race and nation. Races are biological formations, but there are human communities based on other principles, to which people often attach more importance. It is necessary to clearly distinguish between the concepts of "race" and "nation". National differences are formed on the basis of economic, political, religious and other factors. For a nation, self-consciousness and cultural heritage is important, and not genetic inheritance, as for a race. The concepts of race and nation do not coincide, therefore it is strictly forbidden to use such combinations as “Japanese race”, “French race”, “Polish race”, etc.
Similarly, there is no connection between race and linguistic community. For example, peoples who speak Turkic languages belong to Caucasians (Turks and Azerbaijanis), Mongoloids (Yakuts), and mixed racial types (Uzbeks, Turkmens). For a person of any race, the native language will be the one in whose environment he grew up.
Origin of races. Among scientists there is no consensus on the time of formation of modern races. It is known that already among neoanthropes there was a wide variety of physical types. About 40 thousand years ago, the rapid settlement of neoanthropes around the globe began. Apparently, as a result of these migrations, individual populations of people found themselves in different natural and climatic conditions. Geographical isolation contributed to the fixation in populations of those traits that had an adaptive value and allowed the population to adapt to local conditions as much as possible.
The dark skin of Negroids, for example, absorbs ultraviolet rays, so it protects well from the rays of the tropical sun. Curly hair forms an air layer around the head that protects against overheating. The narrow palpebral fissure and epicanthus protect the eyes of the Mongoloids from dust carried by the wind in the steppes, or from snowstorms and bright rays reflected from snow-covered spaces in the north. The light skin of Caucasians as a result of exposure to ultraviolet rays forms vitamin D, thereby protecting the body from rickets, and the large size of the nose of the inhabitants of high mountain regions is important when breathing cold rarefied air.
Over time, the intensity of the action of biological factors of evolution decreased, social relationships were formed, and not one of the races reached the level of a species in its development. As society developed, racial characteristics lost their adaptive significance, for example, differences in thermoregulation among representatives of the Negroid and Caucasian races become insignificant if a person lives in a house, wears clothes, uses air conditioners and heaters. For a modern person, the determining factor is not the color of the skin and the shape of the eyes, but the ability to realize oneself as a person, the opportunity to develop and show one's intellectual qualities.
Species unity of mankind. All human races are equal biologically and psychologically. The signs by which we differ from each other do not have a fundamental species value and do not represent a biological value for human existence in any environment. Therefore, from a biological point of view, these differences by no means allow us to speak of the general superiority or inferiority of one or another race.
In the composition of any human race, one can find more typical and less typical representatives of it. Since absolutely identical people in the human population do not exist, the assertion of the so-called "pure races" has no basis. In the same way, it makes no sense to talk about "inferior" and "superior" races, because under equal conditions, representatives of any race are able to achieve the same success. Even Nikolai Nikolaevich Miklukho-Maclay proved that there are no fundamental differences in the structure of the brain of the Papuans of New Guinea, Australian Aborigines and Europeans.
The disappearance of class and religious barriers, the freedom of movement of people throughout the globe increase the number of mixed marriages, which leads to a mixture of racial characteristics and an increase in the genetic diversity of mankind. For example, in our country now more than 45 million people belong to the transitional Caucasoid-Mongoloid type. The mixing of races speaks of the species unity of mankind. The species community of mankind is one of the proofs of the unity of the origin of the human races, since in the case of origin from different animal species, the human races would at present be at least different species.
The great genetic diversity of mankind is a guarantee of prosperity and a guarantee of its further progress. It is the diversity of gene pools that ensures the survival of communities, and social evolution creates optimal opportunities for revealing the individual abilities of each person.
Well-known researchers A. Jacard and R. Ward wrote: “... the strength of our species is not so much in favorable alleles, gifted individuals or specific achievements of social systems, but in the diversity of people and their genes ... It is necessary to convince each person and each group that another person is rich to the extent that it differs from them…”
Review questions and assignments
1. What are the major races within the Homo sapiens species?
2. What mechanisms underlie the formation of human races?
3. Give evidence of the unity of the origin of the races.
4. Why in the process of evolution none of the races has reached the level of the species in its development?
5. What are the differences between race and nation?
Think! Execute!
1. Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens. Explain the failure of racism.
2. In your opinion, will racial signs be strengthened or smoothed out in the future human society? Justify your opinion.
3. How can one imagine the future development of man? Write an essay on this topic.
4. Compare the concepts of "race", "nation", "linguistic community". What are their similarities and differences? Which of these three categories is more meaningful to you personally? Explain your point of view.
5. In the "round table" mode, discuss the problem of interracial contradictions that currently exist in a number of states. Express your opinion on this issue. What measures, in your opinion, can mitigate racial hostility and normalize human relations in modern society?
6. Prepare a presentation or essay on the topic "Modern racism as a global problem."
7. Take part in the organization of the school exhibition "I am a citizen of planet Earth."
Work with computer
Refer to the electronic application. Study the material and complete the assignments.
Your future profession
1. People of what professions contribute to the development of the synthetic theory of evolution? Choose one of these professions that you are most interested in and prepare a short (no more than 7-10 sentences) message about it.
2. Find out what the science of paleobotany studies. How does the work of specialists in this field relate to the topic of this chapter?
3. Prove that basic knowledge about evolution is necessary not only for biologists, but also for specialists in other areas of the natural sciences.
This text is an introductory piece. From the book Naughty Child of the Biosphere [Conversations on Human Behavior in the Company of Birds, Beasts and Children] author Dolnik Viktor RafaelevichRaces of man In the most visible form, the action of selection manifested itself at the last stage of human evolution - in the formation of races. Outwardly, representatives of some races differ greatly, more strongly than many species. But the genetic basis for these differences is small. If taken for
From the book Races and Peoples [Gene, Mutation and Human Evolution] author Asimov IsaacChapter 10 Present and Future Races What to Say About Racism In Chapter 9, we listed six races that differ from each other in gene frequency and blood type. Among these races there are also differences in the frequencies of other genes. We are sure of all this. However, the question arises: what
From the book Anthropological Detective. Gods, Humans, Monkeys... [Illustrated] author Belov Alexander IvanovichGIANTS AND RACES Ethnographers, historians and anthropologists who study the tribes living on the Pacific Islands note the same way of life, culture, similar beliefs. Darwin's co-author on his theory, among other things, is also a mystic and spiritualist, A. R. Wallace, many
From the book The Human Race author Barnett AnthonyRaces It is customary to subdivide the human species into three main groups, differing mainly in the shape of the hair. The first group is the Negroids, who have a spiral shape of hair and a wide nose in the wings. This includes Africans who speak Bantu languages,
From the book Forbidden Archeology the author Cremo Michel A From the book Biology [A complete guide to preparing for the exam] author Lerner Georgy Isaakovich From the book We and Her Majesty DNA author Polkanov Fedor MikhailovichRaces and genes There is no race problem for a geneticist. Differences between races are only in genes. Here is the inheritance scheme for skin color. The difference is in the two gene pairs. In white people, these two genes are represented by "light" variants, in blacks - "dark". As a result
From the book A Treatise on Love as the Creepy Bore Understands It (4th Edition) author Protopopov AnatolyAbout our primitive “I”, or in general terms about human instincts There are two “Selves” in me - two poles of the planet Two different people, two enemies When one aspires to ballets The other aspires directly to the races ... V. Vysotsky to the order of primates, species HOMO
From the book Neanderthals [History of failed humanity] author Vishnyatsky Leonid Borisovich From the book of Race. Peoples. Intelligence [Who is smarter] by Lynn Richard5. Are there races? From the eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth century, anthropologists, biologists, and sociologists have all recognized that the human race consists of a series of biologically distinct races. So, in the 1920s. British anthropologist Sir Arthur Keith wrote: "Human types
Anthropology has presented much evidence in favor of the species unity of mankind: for example, the fact that all races, when mixed, produce fertile offspring. Thus, on the Cape Verde Islands, there are approximately 100,000 mestizos per 150,000 people. In Brazil, according to approximate estimates, the number of "pure" Indians is 2% of the total population, and the number of mestizos from whites and Indians, whites and blacks is 33%. All human races are intimately related to each other through transitional forms. The confusion of modern humanity makes in many cases to draw boundaries, both between the areas of races and between their morphological types, only very conditionally. Artificially erected social barriers and measures taken to preserve the “purity” of the race could never completely stop the process of racial mixing (Fig. 6.20.).
The biological unity of human races is confirmed by the identity of the structure of vital organs in representatives of different races, primarily in terms of a set of properties associated with upright walking and the performance of labor processes.
The position of the foramen magnum, which is typical for man as an erect walking creature, sharply distinguishes him from all anthropomorphic apes, and is very similar in all human races. The balance of the head, balancing on the cervical spine, is ensured in humans by a larger mass of the brain and a relatively small mass of the facial region.
Proximity is also noted by the structure of the foot and hand. So, the greater length of the first ray of the brush in relation to the rest is present in all representatives of the races. This property is very essential for the labor activity of a person, as it is associated with the grasping ability of his hand. Australians have this figure of 61%, Africans - 62%, Eskimos - 62%, Europeans - 64% - racial differences in this regard are negligible.
The grasping ability of their legs was very widely used to prove the closeness of the dark-skinned races to monkeys. For example, among the Papuans, the big toe has greater mobility than among other races, so they widely use this property when performing various jobs. But even Miklukho-Maclay showed that the Papuans did not always possess this ability, it was acquired as a result of the peculiarities of their culture and way of life.
When doing crafts, the use of the foot as an organ of work was also used in ancient Egypt, India and Japan. At the same time, it was morphologically proven that the freedom of movement of the big toe is limited by the transverse metatarsal ligament and the structure of the joint, both in the Papuans and in any other representative of the human races. The foot of the monkey has a different structure. The dexterity of the natives of Australia when running up the smooth trunks of eucalyptus trees has nothing to do with monkey climbing, since they use a special ax and loops to do so.
The similarity and unity of races in the structure of the brain is also an argument in favor of the biological unity of mankind. Supporters of the polyphyletic origin of human races and racial inequality tried to prove that the brain of the European race has a more perfect structure than the brain of any other race. It has been especially often claimed that Europeans have heavier brains. However, anatomical studies have shown that the average brain weight of a Japanese is 1374 g, a Russian is 1380 g, a Ukrainian is 1366 g, an African is 1316 g, and an Eskimo is 1563 g. their brains varied from 1359 to 1402. Thus, the differences obtained by comparing the brains of Europeans and Africans are no greater than the differences between different groups of Japanese. Therefore, they cannot be taken into account as significant indicators of racial characteristics.
Some researchers have tried to prove the presence of a "lower" type of structure of the furrows and convolutions of the brain in races of non-European origin. One of the characteristic features of the furrows of the human brain is the presence of two anterior branches extending from the Sylvian furrow. However, sometimes only one branch is observed. This feature was found in 20% of Poles, 28% of Estonians, 18% of Dutch, 10% of Chinese, and 27% of Africans. It is obvious that there is no need to talk about any persistent and significant racial differences in the frequency of this feature.
Back in 1870, the Russian anatomist Betz confirmed the position that the distribution of convolutions on the brains of African Negroes is the same as that of Europeans.
Data on the cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex indicate that racial differences do not concern the subtle structures of the central nervous system.
There are no superior and inferior races in terms of the intellectual and moral characteristics of people.
All modern people belong to the same species, called Homo sapiens, and come from the same root, have common essential qualities: consciousness, speech, labor activity, individuality, freedom to choose the meaning of life and behavior.
Rice. 6.20. Representatives of various peoples and ethnic groups.
Between populations - races living in different parts of the globe, only differences in the average values of secondary physical characteristics are found: hair shape, skin color, etc., therefore, from a biological point of view, these differences cannot create superiority or inferiority of the race.
In humans, the genetic composition of each population is subject to the influence of various factors of natural selection, acting in the direction of adaptation to the geographical environment, random mutations, which consist in changing genes, DNA molecules, and finally, random changes in the frequency of qualitative hereditary traits, the probability of which depends on the size of the population and on family composition within this population.
Large races occupy vast territories, covering peoples differing in language, culture, economy, etc. No national, religious, geographic, linguistic or cultural group constitutes a race by itself. The concept of race refers only to biological properties, not to psychological or cultural properties.
On the basis of one race, hundreds of different peoples and ethnic groups are formed. The most detailed classifications of anthropological types of the entire population of the Earth do not exceed one hundred morphological variants. The number of ethnic groups is much larger - over 2000. Hence the general conclusion: many ethnic groups have a similar anthropological composition.
The factual data accumulated by the social and natural sciences prove the patterns of the formation of races and peoples, which in turn show the complete failure of racist concepts.
In the UNESCO Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice of October 26, 1967, one of the final points reads: “Racial prejudice and racial discrimination in the modern world stem from historical and social phenomena, falsely covered by the authority of science. Therefore, biologists, sociologists, philosophers and scientists of related branches of science must do everything possible to ensure that the results of their research are not misused by those who intend to propagate racial prejudice and encourage discrimination. The fight against racism is the most important task of the entire progressive society of the world.
Questions and tasks for self-control
Give answers to security questions
1. By what signs can humanity be classified, which of them are racial?
2. How is a race different from a nation?
3. Can different races be part of one nation? Explain.
4. What factors of racial genesis do you know?
5. What classifications of races exist?
6. Is it possible to determine the race of a particular person?
7. Name the time of the birth of the first racial theories, give arguments.
8. What is racism?
9. What is the geographical distribution of the main racial divisions of mankind?
10. Do you think race is a myth or a reality?
Choose the correct answer
1. What physical features of people can be considered racial
Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens. Explain the failure of racism. and got the best answer
Answer from Igor Zolotarev[guru]
so no one has proved, and some even vice versa. I will try to explain: if you cross a donkey with a horse, you get a mule that is incapable of reproduction, a rabbit and a hare will not give offspring at all, and you can still give a number of examples, but the point, I think, is clear. Negroids, Caucasians, Asians, when mixing races, give quite viable offspring capable of reproduction, and there are enough fools, lazy people in all races. although I personally don’t like blacks or Asians much.
Answer from Marina Karpukhina (Masko)[guru]
The failure of racism is presumed. It is the racists who must prove their position.
Answer from Alex[guru]
Homo sapiens, as a biological species, arose about 200 thousand years ago in Africa.
The division into races began about 40 thousand years ago and is associated with the colonization of new territories by humans.
The Australian Aborigines, Bushmen and Indians branched off from the common trunk somewhat earlier and can be considered independent minor races.
All races belong to the same species and are biologically and intellectually equal.
It is possible to predict a tendency to smooth out interracial differences due to the ever-increasing panmixia in human society.
Answer from Leonid Dolinskiy[guru]
Einstein, Mendeleev, Martin Luther King, Chaplin, Kurosawa, Dante... What is there to explain?
Answer from Yörgey[active]
Of course, I’m not a racist, but I can say that people live in different climatic zones, and this greatly affects mental abilities, and not necessarily in the whole world, just take our country
Answer from Bobruisky Sergey[guru]
All people are brothers! It's just that at some stage of evolution, some races went along a progressive path of development, others - along a regressive one. And there is nothing offensive in stating this fact.
And the fact that the fact itself is undeniable is an objective reality.
After all, no one argues that all the achievements of mankind in the field of science, culture and technology are the merit of the white race. That the bloodiest bacchanalia of our time is the merit of adherents of the radical branch of Islam. That in Africa you can’t even force anyone to work, and that the most efficient and enterprising people are representatives of the white race, and not black and yellow. I think we will not go down to examples? Again, not to offend anyone...
Answer from Ddddddd[active]
1. Lack of genetic isolation
2. The existence of intermediate races
3. Morpho-functional similarity among representatives of different races
4. The same level of development
Answer from 2 answers[guru]
Hey! Here is a selection of topics with answers to your question: Prove that all human races belong to the same species - Homo sapiens. Explain the failure of racism.
