Psychology of human development. Cultural-historical concept and narrative psychology

Psychology of human development, Sapogova Elena Evgenievna

From the publisher

The proposed original textbook widely covers the socio-cultural, historical, ethnographic, psychobiological and psychological aspects of human development. Particular attention is paid to general theoretical problems of development and the analysis of age stages in the context of cultural sociogenesis. For students of psychological specialties of higher educational institutions.

Section I GENERAL QUESTIONS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 1. Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Chapter 2. The concept of development

Chapter 3 Periodization of development

Chapter 5 Historiography of human development

Chapter 6 The formation of human development psychology

Chapter 7 Theories of development of endogenous and exogenous directions

Chapter 8 Interpretation of development in psychoanalysis

Chapter 9 Problems of socialization

Chapter 10 Cognitive direction in developmental psychology

Chapter 11 Cultural-historical direction in developmental psychology

INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology of development and developmental psychology. Developmental psychology as an applied branch. The main tasks of developmental psychology. Connections of developmental psychology with other sciences. Methods of developmental psychology.

Modern psychology is a branched system of scientific disciplines, among which a special place is occupied by developmental psychology or, more correctly, the psychology of human development, associated with the study of age-related dynamics of the development of the human psyche, the ontogenesis of mental processes and the psychological qualities of the personality of a person qualitatively changing in time. The concept of developmental psychology in principle already concepts of developmental psychology, since development is considered here only as a function or chronological age, or age period. Developmental psychology is connected not only with the study of the age stages of human ontogeny, but also considers various processes of macro- and micropsychic development in general. Therefore, strictly speaking, developmental psychology can only be part of developmental psychology, although they are sometimes used interchangeably.

Like any science, developmental psychology has functions descriptions, explanations, forecasts, corrections. In relation to a certain area of research (in our case, to mental development), these functions act as specific scientific tasks, those. common goals that science seeks to achieve.

Description of development involves the presentation of the phenomenology of development processes in its entirety (from the point of view of external behavior and internal experiences). Unfortunately, a lot of developmental psychology is at the level of description.

degree of deviation) or absent altogether. It can be single (which is very rare) or multiple (which is usually the case in developmental studies).

If an explanation answers the question “why did this happen?” by revealing the causes for an already existing effect and identifying the factors that caused it, then forecast answers the question "what will it lead to?", pointing to the consequences that follow from this cause. Thus, if in the explanation of development thought moves from effect to cause then in the development forecast we go from cause to effect. This means that when explaining the changes that have occurred, the study begins with a description of them and continues with a transition to a description of possible causes and their connection with the changes that have occurred. When forecasting, the study also begins with a description of the changes that have occurred, but they are no longer considered as a consequence, but as the cause of possible changes, the description of which must be compiled. The development forecast always wears hypothetical, because it is based on an explanation, on the establishment of links between the ensuing consequence and possible causes. If this connection is established, then the fact of its existence allows us to consider that the totality of the identified causes will necessarily entail a consequence. This, in fact, is the meaning of the forecast.

If the development description is creating his image in the mind of the researcher, the explanation - establishing links consequences with possible causes, and the development forecast - prediction it, based on already established causal relationships, then development correction there is management through a change in possible causes. And since development is a branching process that has nodes of qualitative and lines of quantitative changes, the possibilities of correction are theoretically unlimited. Restrictions are imposed here to a greater extent by the possibilities of description, explanation and forecast, which and provide information about the nature of the ongoing processes and the nature of the object as a whole. It is important to note the special place of the forecast and correction of development in solving applied problems of developmental psychology.

The result of the description, explanation, forecast and correction is model or theory development.

The basis of any scientific discipline is its theory. It is she who performs the main functions of science (description, explanation, forecast, correction).

In the methodology of science, it is customary to single out the concepts scientific direction, theory and model. Under scientific direction understand a group of theories united by a common idea. At the same time, it is not at all necessary that these theories belong to the same scientific school. Within the framework of the scientific direction, in turn, it is possible to single out sub-directions that differentiate the original idea, creating derivative ideas that are not yet theories.

Yu. N. Karandashev proposes to divide all theories of development into 2 large classes: ordinary and scientific. Conventional theories of development are not realized by their authors, but have a great influence on the worldview of a person; often they are popularizations of outdated theories of development. Therefore, ordinary theories of development act, at best, as pre-theories. scientific theory- this is a consistent, coherent, simple system of rules that generates a model of an object based on its empirical image.

Model performs in relation to the object the functions of a reliable description, a logical explanation, a confirmed forecast and an effective correction (control) of its behavior. To differentiate the concepts of theory and model, 2 criteria are used: systematic and empirical. On this basis, a classification arises: 1) there is neither systemicity nor empiricism - conventional theories development; 2) there is no consistency, but there is empiricism - traditional theories development; 3)

there is a system, but there is no empiricism - models development; 4) there is both consistency and empiricism - modern theories development.

All developmental theories use the subject-environment system as their starting point. Without defining the relationships within this system, no theory can be constructed. The nature of the relationship between the subject and the environment, postulated by each author, determines the content of the theory and its theoretical affiliation (scientific direction).

According to Yu. N. Karandashev, the following combinations of relations between the subject and the environment can be built:

1) attitude exceptions subject and environment - development is determined by non-subject
and non-environment;

2) relationship additivity between the subject and the environment - development is determined
subject and/or medium taken in different proportions;

3) attitude environment exceptions (subject and non-environment) - defining is
subject only;

4) attitude subject exclusion (non-subject and environment) - defining jav
only the environment is left;

5) attitude multiplicativity between the subject and the environment (subject and
environment) - both the subject and the environment are decisive in full measure. Last
its relation, depending on its content, is differentiated into
dy in the direction of increasing development of the environment by the subject: 5.1) the subject by
crushes environment; 5.2) subject studies environment; 5.3) subject turns on on wed
du; 5.4) subject grows in on Wednesday; 5.5) subject overcomes Wednesday.

Relations "subject-environment" are realized in various theories of development, forming scientific directions.

The relation of exclusion rarely occurs in scientific theories. However, it takes place in ordinary theories of the fatal predetermination of human destiny by God, fate, fate, etc. Conventionally, theories of this type form nihilistic (nihilism - negation) direction.

The relation of additivity, addition, summation considers development according to the principle of critical mass, according to which only a certain sum of contributions from the subject and the environment can ensure development. It does not matter how much is the share of heredity (subject), and how much is the share of the environment. The main thing is the amount, which must exceed a certain value. We find a moderate ratio of the contributions of heredity and environment, on the one hand, in ordinary theories of development, and on the other, in practical theories focused on solving applied psychological problems that do not require complex constructions. Theories of this group can be conditionally referred to as syncretic (syncretism - fusion, indivisibility) direction.

Proceeding from the relations of opposition of the subject and environment, there are two scientific areas: endogenous, where the main driving force is the subject, and exogenous, where the driving force is the environment.

The relation of multiplicativity considers development as the result of the interaction in full measure of both the subject and the environment. It is this attitude that underlies most theories. According with relations 5.1-5.5 they are classified in the following areas:

1) psychoanalytic direction, in the theories of which the subject develops
suppressed by the environment;

2) cognitive direction: the subject develops, knowing the environment;

3) direction of socialization: the subject develops, being included in the social
environment and "assimilating" it, i.e. socializing;

4) socio-ecological direction: the subject develops, growing into everything

wider layers and levels of the social environment;

5) direction of self-development, the subject develops, mastering the social environment, overcoming it.

In modern psychology, more and more gaining weight system direction, which considers the "subject-environment" system not from the inside, but from the outside. There are no systemic theories of the development of the psyche yet, although there are enough prerequisites for their creation: the theory of higher nervous activity by IP Pavlov and his collaborators; theory of functional systems P. K.

Anokhin, the theory of dynamic localization of mental functions by V. M. Bekhterev, A. R. Luria, the theory of N. A. Bernshtein, the cultural and historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky, etc.

Developmental psychology is primarily fundamental theoretical discipline, but the knowledge gained in it and the methods developed are used in applied areas. L. Montada proposes to single out 6 main tasks related to the scope of application of developmental psychology in practice*.

1. Orientation in life path. This task is to answer the question
“What do we have?”, i.e. determination of the level of development. Sequence of age
changes in the form of a description of quantitative development functions or qualitative
stages of development is a classic issue of developmental psychology. In this
based on statistical age development standards, thanks to koto
eye, it is possible to give a general assessment of the course of development both in individual cases and
in relation to various educational and educational issues. For example,
knowing what tasks children of 7 years old independently solve, it is possible to determine whether
whether a particular child is below, above or on par with the norm. At the same time you can
determine whether the educational and educational requirements comply with this norm
independence.

2. Determining the conditions for development and change. This task requires the answer
to the question “how did this come about?”, i.e. what are the causes and conditions leading to this
mu level of development. Explanatory models of developmental psychology are oriented
first of all, on the analysis of the ontogeny of personality traits and its disorders, taking into account the mouth
new developmental environments, interactions with caregivers, special events, and -
as an ideal case - the interactions of all these variables. At the same time, psycho
gov are interested not so much in short-term as in long-term influences of the fact
development tori. Also taken into account

* The following materials are used in the presentation: Yu. N. Karandashev Psychology of development. Introduction. Minsk, 1997. - Ch. 1.1.

the cumulative nature of the influence of development factors and the discrete nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Knowledge of the conditions allows you to delay developmental disturbances (prevention) and make appropriate decisions to optimize the course of development. Of particular importance for obtaining the desired effect is the determination of the correspondence of the conditions of development and possible options for intervention to the current level of development of the individual, his personal properties.

3. Prediction of stability and variability of personality traits. This task involves answering the question “what will happen if ..?”, i.e. a forecast not only of the course of development, but also of the intervention measures taken. Many activities in the practice of educational and educational work - explicitly or implicitly - suggest a forecast for further development. Thus, for example, the right to take care of a child after the divorce of the parents is retained by the mother only if it is considered that this will be best for the further development of the child. To make such predictions,

knowledge about the stability or instability of the properties and conditions for the development of both the individual in itself and the individual in the group. Due to the numerous factors involved, such psychological forecasts are often erroneous.

4. Explanation of development and correction goals. This task involves the answer to
the question “what should be?”, i.e. determines what is possible, real, and what should
be excluded. As an empirical science, developmental psychology, in contrast to pedagogical
geeks, neutral in relation to the social order, public and private
opinion. Therefore, it is able and obliged to resist them, if this is contrary to
established facts and patterns. However, it performs the function
substantiation of certain proposals and projects if they are consistent with its knowledge
niami. And finally, it acts as the initiator of the correction of decisions already made,
if studies show they are unfounded. Falsely set norm
development leads to significant distortions in the practice of educational and upbringing
solid work.

5. Planning for corrective actions. This task involves
answer to the question “how can the goals be achieved?”, i.e. what needs to be done to
get the desired effect from the intervention. So corrective actions
are needed only if the set development goals are not achieved, if
the tasks of development have not been mastered or there is a fact that the conditions of development lead to
his desired move. Here one should distinguish between: 1) the goals of development of the individual himself;
2) development potentials of the individual himself; 3) social requirements for development; 4)
development opportunities. Accordingly, corrective actions
differentiate according to their purpose. Often between these goals there is
discrepancy, which should be the object of correction. The purpose of the planned
correction may be prevention of developmental disorders, developmental correction, or
optimization of development processes. In any case, it must be accepted
decisions about when an intervention promises to be successful, where it
must be attached and which method should be chosen.

6. Evaluation of developmental correction. This task involves answering the question "why
did it lead?”, i.e. that the corrective action has taken. Modern psychology
development refrains from a hasty assessment of the effectiveness of certain
corrective action. She believes that the actual assessment can be
obtained only as a result of long-term observation of the individual, in progress
which should be established as a positive effect and side effects
niya. It is also believed that the evaluation of effectiveness is largely determined by the scientific
new paradigm that the psychologist adheres to.

In recent decades, developmental psychology has changed both in its content and interdisciplinary connections. On the one hand, it influences other scientific disciplines, and on the other hand, it itself is influenced by them, assimilating everything that expands its subject content.

Of particular interest here is the development of the central nervous system, sensory organs and endocrine glands. In addition, the discoveries of biology are of particular importance for understanding the issues of "subject-environment", i.e. explanations of similarities and differences in the development of different individuals.

imprinting). No less valuable is the methodological possibility of conducting observations and experiments on animals, and especially in cases where their conduct on humans is prohibited for ethical reasons. The ability to transfer findings from animals to humans is essential to understanding human development.

Cultural anthropology and ethnology. The subject of study of cultural anthropology and ethnology are supracultural universals and intercultural differences in behavior and experience. These disciplines allow, on the one hand, to test the patterns identified in the American-European cultural environment in other cultures (for example, East Asian) and, on the other hand, due to the expansion of the cultural environment, to identify intercultural differences that cause different development processes. Of particular importance in recent years is

study of children's folklore (subculture).

Sociology and social disciplines. These sciences acquire their significance for developmental psychology both due to certain theoretical premises (role theory, theory of socialization, theories of the formation of attitudes and norms, etc.), and due to the analysis of the processes of social interaction in the family, school, group of the same age, and also through the study of the socio-economic conditions of development.

Psychological disciplines. The sciences of the psychological cycle are most closely related to developmental psychology. Sciences united by name "General psychology", allow you to better understand the mental processes of motivation, emotions, cognition, learning, etc. Pedagogical psychology closes developmental psychology to pedagogical practice, the processes of education and upbringing. Clinical (medical) psychology helps to understand the development of children with disorders of various aspects of the psyche and merges with developmental psychology along the lines of child psychotherapy, psychoprophylaxis, and psychohygiene. Psychodiagnostics goes hand in hand with developmental psychology in the field of adaptation and application of diagnostic techniques in a comparative analysis of intellectual, personal, etc. development and to determine the age norms of development. Links between developmental psychology and psychology of creativity and heuristic processes(in the line of gifted and advanced developmental children); psychology of individual differences, etc. In recent years, the volume of interaction between developmental psychology and pathopsychology(oligophrenopsychology, childhood neurosis) and defectology (work with hearing-impaired and visually impaired children, children with mental retardation, etc.).

One can detect the merging of developmental psychology with psychogenetics, psycholinguistics, psychosemiotics, ethnopsychology, demography, philosophy, etc. Almost all progressive and interesting work in developmental psychology, as a rule, is carried out at the intersection of disciplines.

Over the long period of its existence, developmental psychology has assimilated general psychological methods observation and experiment applying them to the study of human development at different age levels.

observation, as we already know, it is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of a person's external behavior for the purpose of its subsequent analysis and explanation. In developmental psychology, this is one of the first and most accessible methods, especially necessary in the study of children in the early stages of development, when it is impossible to take a verbal report from the subjects and it is difficult to carry out any experimental procedure. And although observation seems to be a simple method, when properly organized, it makes it possible to collect facts about the natural behavior of a person. When observing, a person does not know that someone is following him, and behaves naturally, which is why observation gives vital truthful facts. Fixing the behavior of a preschooler in the game, in communication, a schoolchild - in the classroom, a teenager - in a peer environment, an adult - in a professional

sphere, etc., the psychologist receives data about a person as holistic personality and, consequently, intellect, memory, emotions, personal characteristics are not perceived in isolation, but in connection with actions, statements, deeds. Observations allow systemically analyze the psyche of a developing person.

The limitation of using the observation method is due to several reasons. Firstly, the naturalness and fusion of social, physical, physiological and mental processes in human behavior makes it difficult to understand each of them separately and prevents the isolation of the main, essential. Secondly, observation limits the researcher's intervention and does not allow him to establish the child's ability to do something better, faster, more successfully than he did. In observation, the psychologist himself does not have to cause the phenomenon he wants to study. Thirdly, when observing, it is impossible to ensure the repetition of the same fact without changes. Fourthly, observation allows only fixing, but not forming mental manifestations. In child psychology, the matter is further complicated by the fact that the psychologist has to record the observation data in writing, since cameras, tape recorders, any equipment affect the naturalness of the child's behavior, so the analysis and generalization of data is difficult (which is why the need to develop and use hidden equipment like the famous Gesell mirror). Here, most clearly, a serious shortcoming of the method of observation is revealed - it is difficult to overcome subjectivity. Since observation itself is studied in psychology, it was found that it largely depends on the personality of the observer, his individual psychological characteristics, attitudes and attitudes towards the observed, as well as on his powers of observation and attentiveness. To make the results of observation more reliable and stable, it is necessary to use not one, but several researchers to observe the same fact, which reduces the efficiency of the method. Finally, fifthly, observation can never be a single fact, it must be carried out systematically, with repetition and a large sample of subjects.

Therefore, there are longitudinal (longitudinal) observations, allowing one (or several) subjects to be observed for a long time (in this sense, A. Gesell's observations of 165 children over 12 years are unprecedented). Of similar value are the diary entries of parents, fixing the development of one child day by day, and historical diaries, memoirs and fiction allow a deeper understanding of the attitude towards children of different ages at different historical stages.

The type of observation is introspection in the form of a verbal report about what a person sees, feels, experiences, does - it is better to apply it only to subjects who are already able to analyze their inner world, understand their experiences, evaluate their actions. Another observation option is psychological analysis of products of activity, successfully applied at all age levels. In this case, it is not the process of activity that is studied, but its result (children's drawings and crafts, diaries and poems of adolescents, manuscripts, designs, works of art by adults, etc.). Psychologists often use generalizations of independent characteristics, obtained by observing a person in various activities.

Most often, observation is an integral part of experimental psychological research. In particular, this can be done in the form biographical method. AT as an independent method, observation is of little value, except in rare cases of its use in relation to infants and non-speaking young children.

For more than 100 years in psychology, there have been experimental methods, pre-

assuming the active intervention of the researcher in the activity of the subject in order to create conditions in which the desired psychological fact is revealed. Let me remind you that the first experimental methods were developed specifically for children.

The experiment differs from observation in 4 features: 1) in the experiment, the researcher himself causes the phenomenon he is studying, and the observer cannot actively interfere in the observed situations; 2) the experimenter can vary, change the conditions for the flow and manifestation of the process under study; 3) in the experiment, it is possible to alternately exclude individual conditions (variables) in order to establish regular relationships that determine the process under study; 4) the experiment also allows you to vary the quantitative ratio of conditions, allows mathematical processing of the data obtained in the study.

In developmental psychology, both traditional types of experiment - natural and laboratory - are successfully used, and most developmental studies include a stating and formative form of experiment. AT ascertaining experiment certain psychological features and levels of development of the corresponding mental quality or property are revealed. Still, a formative experiment (which can be educational or educative) is becoming more important in developmental psychology. Formative experiment involves purposeful influence on the subject in order to create, develop certain qualities, skills. In fact, this is a developing method in the conditions of a specially created experimental pedagogical process. In a certain sense, similar problems are solved in trainings, which are adapted or specially developed for children of different ages (for example, personal growth training for teenagers, communication training for schoolchildren, psycho-gymnastics for preschoolers, etc.), and correctional systems.

As varieties of objective experimental methods of psychology are twin method, sociometry, performance analysis, modeling, questioning and testing (for the purpose of diagnosis or prognosis).

Most of the above methods are research. They allow you to get something new as a result (facts, patterns, mechanisms of mental processes). But sometimes in psychology is required to compare some parameters of personality, human activity with some existing standards, regulations, i.e. persecuted purpose of the test. Then we are talking about diagnostics, in which it is widely used testing- a short, standardized, usually time-limited test designed to establish individual differences in compared values.

Notable contribution to diagnostic testing children and adolescents were introduced by the works of D. M. Cattell (it was he who introduced the term “mental test” in 1890), E. Krepelin (the first tests of memory, fatigue and distractibility) and his student A. Ern, who created tests of perception, memory, associations and motor functions to study the relationship of mental functions in the analysis of personality and intelligence. First school tests were developed by G. Ebbinghaus: he offered schoolchildren tests of arithmetic counting, memory capacity and completion of sentences. But only the most difficult of them (completion of sentences) is the only one that corresponds to the real educational achievements of children.

he was appointed to the Commission for the Study of Mentally Retarded Children and, together with T. Simon, created the first Binet intelligence scale

Simone. It consisted of 30 problems arranged in increasing difficulty. The level of difficulty is determined empirically by the presentation of 50 children from 3 to 11 years old, several mentally retarded children and adults.

Since 1905, the development of various tests has exploded. Currently existing battery of test methods for different ages can be classified on different grounds: for example, according to the purpose of application- tests of professional selection, aptitude, school selection, etc.; by procedure- individual, group, verbal, effective, etc.; content- to determine the level of development of intelligence, abilities, skills, personality traits, character, temperament, etc. Tests can be divided into analytical and synthetic, instrumental and pencil-and-paper tests, etc. The most common are intelligence tests, aptitude and achievement tests, professionalized tests, personality tests etc. Batteries are used in pathopsychological research clinical tests etc. It should be noted that for developmental psychology, researchers in recent years have not only adapted adult methods to the capabilities of childhood or adolescence (there are "children's" TAT - CAT, children's and adolescent versions of tests by M. Luscher and S. Rosenzweig, options for several ages 16- PF Cattell, etc.), but also design special age-specific methods (Wechsler's children's test, school readiness tests, R. Gilles' interpersonal communication test, "Family Drawing", "Village", doll-play methods, children's projective methods etc.).

The advantages of the experimental method are undeniable. It allows the psychologist: 1) not to wait until the studied feature manifests itself in the activity of the subject, but to create the conditions for its maximum manifestation; 2) repeat the experiment the required number of times (for this there are different forms of the same test, for example, several forms of 16-PF Cattell, forms A-B-C of Eysenck, etc.); 3) the identified feature can be measured in different children under the same conditions and in one child in different conditions, which increases the reliability of the data obtained; 4) the experiment is more convenient in terms of standardization of the obtained materials, their quantitative calculation.

At the same time, the experiment also has a number of shortcomings: 1) any experiment is always limited to a certain set of actions, tasks, answers, and therefore never gives rise to broad generalizations in terms of a holistic view of a developing person; 2) an experiment is always only a cut from the activity, the personality of the child at this particular moment, therefore it requires mandatory repetition.

Findings and Conclusions

1. The psychology of human development is associated with the study of age dynamics
ki development of the human psyche, features of onto- and microgenesis
mental processes and psychological qualities of a person qualitatively
time-changing person in the context of diverse
tal and sociocultural processes.

2. As a science, developmental psychology performs the function of describing the explanation
niya, forecast, correction of development processes.

3. Theories of development use the system
"subject-environment". The nature of the relationship postulated by the author between
subject and environment determines the content of the theory of development and its theo
rhetic affiliation (scientific direction).

4. The practical application of knowledge in developmental psychology is associated with re-

the solution of six main tasks: orientation in the life path; determining the conditions for development and change; forecast of stability and variability of personality traits; explanation of development and correction goals; planning of corrective measures; assessment of developmental correction. 5. The main methods of developmental psychology are observation and experiment in their many varieties.

The concept of development

Development as growth, maturation, improvement, universal change, qualitative, structural change, quantitative and qualitative change, as a change that entails new changes. The main categories of developmental psychology: growth, maturation, differentiation, learning, imprinting, socialization.

Developmental psychology as subject studies the natural changes of a person in time and the related facts and phenomena of mental life. Almost all researchers agree that development can be defined as change over time: the idea of change and its course in time undeniable. Another thing is to answer questions what and as changes. This is where the differences begin.

Using the scheme proposed by Yu. N. Karandashev, we will consider what options are possible here.

First: development as growth. Such an understanding is almost never found in modern science. Under growth process is understood quantitative changes (accumulation) of the external features of the object, measured in height, length, width, thickness, weight, etc. This means that, firstly, growth is just one of the aspects of development, i.e. remain and other; secondly, that growth is only external an indicator of development that does not say anything about its essence; thirdly, growth can only be quantitative characteristic of development.

Second: development as maturation. This definition of development is used primarily in everyday thinking. Under ripening refers to the reduction, curtailment of development to morphological changes, proceeding under the direct control of the genetic apparatus. This means that such a definition exaggerates the significance of biological heredity and, accordingly, underestimates the significance of other aspects of development.

Third: development as improvement. This definition is often used in pedagogy and is teleological character, those. it initially assumes the presence of a goal (teleo), which acts as a "perfect" those. the best, exemplary, ideal form of development. In this case, first of all, it is not clear who can set such a goal: is it externally(God, upbringing, environment) or internally given (through the hereditary apparatus). And secondly, it is not clear why just such the form of development should be considered as the best, perfect, and not any other (who sets the criteria for "perfection"?).

Fourth: development as a universal change. AT as one of the criteria for determining development, the requirement is put forward generality, universality the changes taking place. It means that the same changes must take place among people of different cultures, religions, languages, levels of development. With clear evidence of this requirement, it turns out to be not feasible. First, it is impossible to really establish which changes are classified as general, universal, and which ones are considered as private. And, secondly, with such an approach, a large mass of particular changes will be generally denied to be considered the subject of developmental psychology.

Fifth: development as a qualitative, structural change. The definition of development through qualitative changes is connected with the understanding of the object as sweep-

we. If the essential improvement(deterioration) of its structure, we thereby return to the definition of development through perfection, keeping his shortcomings. The only difference is that the subject of improvement narrows. If there is no question of improvement (deterioration), then it is not clear where development is directed. And finally, if earlier it was about improving the object as a whole, now it is only about improving only it. structures. In other words, the quantitative measure of improvement is excluded and only the qualitative measure is preserved.

Sixth: development as a quantitative and qualitative change. In the previous case, the qualitative nature of the changes was taken as a basis, and the quantitative nature was leveled. However, the very idea of their connection is present in all variants of definitions. For example, growth can be viewed as a quantitative change, but some qualitative transitions stand out in it. Maturation is closer to a qualitative change, but it also contains a quantitative aspect. confining only quantitative changes, we take an unconditional step back in the understanding of development. However, by excluding quantitative changes from the definition of development, we lose the opportunity to establish what caused these qualitative changes themselves.

Seventh: development as a change that entails new changes. Dissatisfaction with the existing definitions of development stimulated the search and emergence of new ideas. So, G.-D. Schmidt postulates the presence of a close, existential connection between the changes that follow one after another. A. Flammer writes that development should be considered only such changes that entail new changes (“an avalanche of changes”). This definition carries the idea evolutionary succession changes.

Developmental changes can be: 1) quantitative/qualitative, 2) continuous/discrete, spasmodic, 3) universal/individual, 4) reversible/irreversible, 5) purposeful/non-directed, 6) isolated/integrated, 7) progressive (evolutionary) / regressive (involutionary). In addition, development can be considered in different temporal dimensions, forming changes at the phylo-, an-tropo-, onto- and micro-levels.

For a general integral characteristic of development processes, categories are used that do not relate to individual features, but to development as a whole. These are the categories of growth, maturation, differentiation, learning, imprinting (imprinting), socialization (cultural sociogenesis).

Growth. Changes that occur in the course of development can be quantitative or qualitative. An increase in body height or an increase in vocabulary represent quantitative changes. Physiological changes at the age of puberty or gaining an understanding of the polysemy of words in sayings are, on the contrary, qualitative changes. Therefore, in the "quantity-quality" pair category, the concept of growth refers to the quantitative aspect of development.

Growth is only a separate aspect of the course of development, namely, a one-dimensional quantitative consideration of development processes. To consider development in the aspect of growth means to confine ourselves to the study of purely quantitative changes, when knowledge, skills, memory, content of feelings, interests, etc. considered only from the point of view of increment of their volume.

Maturation. The maturational approach to development has dominated psychology for quite some time. It is customary to refer to biological maturation as all processes occurring spontaneously under the influence of endogenously programmed, i.e. hereditarily determined and internally controlled growth impulses.

These processes include physical changes that are important for mental

development - maturation of the brain, nervous and muscular systems, endocrine glands, etc. Based on the psychophysical unity of man, i.e. connections between somatic and mental processes, biologically oriented models of development represented mental development by analogy with anatomical and physiological maturation as an internally regulated maturation process.

We usually talk about maturation when past experience, learning or exercise (exogenous factors) do not affect (or have an insignificant effect) on the nature of the changes taking place. Along with the restriction of external conditions of development, a number of signs are distinguished that indicate the presence of maturation processes: 1) similarity of occurrence and course; 2) occurrence at a strictly defined age; 3) catching up; 4) irreversibility.

Differentiation. Authors who understand by development qualitative changes dependent on maturation readily turn to the concept of differentiation. In a narrow sense, differentiation means the progressive separation of heterogeneous parts from the original undivided whole, following the example of such somatic processes as cell division and the formation of tissues and organs. It leads to an increase, on the one hand, in structural complexity, and, on the other hand, to the variability and flexibility of behavior. This also includes the growing diversity, specialization and autonomization of individual structures and functions. In a broad sense, differentiation simply means the general content of the progressive fragmentation, expansion and structuring of mental functions and modes of behavior.

Learning is a generalized category denoting a set of processes leading to changes in behavior. The latter are understood in the broadest sense as the acquisition of knowledge, memorization, assimilation of attitudes, motives, etc. Since the source of changes during learning is the external environment (exogenous regulation of development), learning is a concept opposite to maturation (endogenous regulation of development).

In a general sense, learning refers to the achievement of progress through purposeful efforts and exercises (for example, learning verbs, learning to read, ride a bike, etc.). The psychological concept of learning is broader: it includes all more or less long-term changes in behavior that occur on the basis of experience, exercise or observation. It does not matter whether any success has been achieved or whether the changes that have occurred have arisen unintentionally, spontaneously. Learning includes both mastering new forms of behavior and changing the repertoire of existing forms.

We do not speak about learning in those cases when a new behavior (or a change in the previous one) is caused by: 1) the maturation of a function that does not depend on experience and exercise; 2) a transient psychological state (fatigue, sensory adaptation, drug influence, etc.); 3) innate response tendencies (unconditioned reflexes, or instinctive behavior).

Of particular interest to the psychology of learning are its types - classical conditioning(I.P. Pavlov), operant conditioning(E. Thorndike), model learning(A. Bandura), learning through mediation(K. Hull).

Imprinting (imprinting). The concept of imprinting is used to denote the processes of direct, not controlled by consciousness, assimilation of any norms, requirements, ways of behavior as a result of a short-term (less often - long-term) impact of a particular sample. It is in this way, for example, that parental patterns of behavior inherited in childhood, problematic character traits, are explained. In reality, it is difficult to determine what is the nature of the origin of this or that behavioral scheme. It can equally be explained by other mechanisms not related to imprinting.

It is customary to characterize imprinting with the following 6 features: 1) a kind of fixing of given patterns of reactions with a system of environmental stimuli; 2) the possibility of exposure to the outside world is limited to a genetically determined age interval (critical or sensitive period); 3) once the impression has taken place, it is outwardly stable and even irreversible; the ensuing imprinting is resistant to new influences; 4) through imprinting, species-specific, and not individual, features of the stimulus object are “learned”; 5) the connection of a behavioral pattern with a specific stimulus object does not at all require functional capacity or external expressions of behavior during the imprinting phase; 6) imprinting effects are reproduced not only in response to reinforcement or reduction of the motive, but also to food, warmth, and tactile stimuli.

Findings and Conclusions

1. The development at different stages of the formation of this concept is considered
elk as growth, maturation, improvement, differentiation, science
chenie, imprinting, socialization.

2. The subject of developmental psychology is regular changes in human
mentality in time, entailing new changes, and
the facts and phenomena of mental life related to this.

my consciousness assimilation of any norms, requirements, ways of behavior as a result of short-term (less often - long-term) exposure to a particular sample. It is in this way, for example, that parental patterns of behavior inherited in childhood, problematic character traits, are explained. In reality, it is difficult to determine what is the nature of the origin of this or that behavioral scheme. It can equally be explained by other mechanisms not related to imprinting.

It is customary to characterize the imprinting with the following 6 features: 1) peculiar

noe fixing of the given patterns of reactions with the system of stimuli of the external environment; 2) the possibility of exposure to the outside world is limited to a genetically determined age interval (critical or sensitive period); 3) once the impression has taken place, it is outwardly stable and even irreversible; the ensuing imprint is resistant to new influences; 4) through imprinting, species-specific, and not individual, features of the stimulus object are “learned”; 5) the connection of a behavioral pattern with a specific stimulus object does not at all require functional capacity or external expressions of behavior during the imprinting phase; 6) imprinting effects are reproduced not only in response to reinforcement or reduction of the motive, but also to food, warmth, and tactile stimuli.

Socialization (cultural sociogenesis). Obviously, under normal conditions, each person is “born” into an already existing society with certain norms of behavior and experience. Starting from birth, the growing child interacts with his social environment, first of all with his parents, later with individuals and groups - at school, at work, etc. As a result, he acquires values, norms and roles typical of his environment. Thanks to this experience of behavior and experience, forms of behavior and experience that are significant for a particular society are gradually mastered. This general process of the influence of sociocultural factors on development in the sense of growing into the surrounding society and culture is described by the concept of socialization.

There are two sides to the concept of socialization. The first is the social development of a person, i.e. the process of spontaneously growing into the social environment. The second is the social formation of a person, i.e. the process of its purposeful adaptation to existing values, norms, ideals. The concept of socialization was first proposed by C. Cooley in the term "socialized consciousness". Depending on the science in which this term is used, it acquires the appropriate meaning. Thus, psychology is primarily interested in the development of personality, the social development of various individuals and the learning processes underlying them. The most preferred topics here are: the socialization of dependence, aggressiveness, sexist behavior, moral attitudes, etc.

In modern psychology, socialization is considered as a general name for a hypothetical process of social learning, which is characterized by the mutual interaction of persons who depend on each other or who are related to each other.

conclusions and conclusions

3. Development at different stages of the formation of this concept was considered as growth, maturation, improvement, differentiation, learning, imprinting, socialization.

4. The subject of developmental psychology is the regular changes in the human psyche over time, entailing new changes, and related facts and phenomena of mental life.

E. E. Sapogova

Developmental psychology

human

Approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions studying in the direction and specialties of "Psychology"

Aspect press Moscow 2001

UDC 159.9

BBC 88.37

Reviewers:

head of the laboratory of the PI RAO, corresponding member of the RAO, Doctor of Psychology, prof. I. V. Dubrovina

Doctor of Psychology, Professor of the Department of Developmental Psychology, Lomonosov Moscow State University M. V. Lomonosov L. F. Obukhova;

Head of the Department of Developmental and Pedagogical Psychology, Belarusian State Pedagogical University named after M. Tanka, Doctor of Psychology, prof. Yu. N. Karandashev;

Sapogova E. E.

From 19 Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. – M.: Aspect Press, 2001.- 460 p.

ISBN 5-7567-0154-0.

The proposed original textbook widely covers the sociocultural, historical, ethnographic, psychobiological and psychological aspects of human development. Particular attention is paid to general theoretical problems of development and the analysis of age stages in the context of cultural sociogenesis.

For students of psychological specialties of higher educational institutions.

Udk 159.9

BBC 88.37

ISBN 5-7567-0154-0 "Aspect Press" 2001.

All textbooks of the publishing house "Aspect Press" on the site www. aspectpress . en

Initiation into Developmental Psychology: Instead of a Preface

Probably, for someone who studies, there is no book more important than a textbook. But any textbook is a text that is universal and somewhat impersonal, and I would like to dedicate it to all my students - past, present, and future. I am pleased to realize that together with this book someone will discover the world of developmental psychology for the first time, and I, at least virtually, will be able to become a pilot for him, a navigator in such an exciting process. Many years ago, the lectures of D. B. Elkonin at the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University performed the same function for me. M. V. Lomonosov and his wonderful textbook "Child Psychology".

A textbook is not only a collection of modern "knowledge and misconceptions" in some discipline, it is also a system of the author's attitudes towards the material selected for him. It seems to me that the psychology of human development is a very special area of knowledge, so I am not addressing the casual reader at all: I don’t want to lower the professional bar too much and explain issues that are important to me to those with whom I can only discuss simple topics.

I would like the reader, like me, to be interested in development processes, to be surprised at comprehended patterns, to rejoice at independent microdiscoveries and generalizations, and, as a result, to build their own understanding of the essence of human development. At the same time, I did not want to leave some explanatory and stylistic paradigms, the presence of which gives a large amount of information the form of a textbook.

I express my gratitude to psychologists, philosophers, ethnographers, anthropologists, embryologists, doctors, sociologists and historians, whose ideas and works were used in writing the textbook and are presented in its text. This is the gratitude of the reader and student, colleague and like-minded person*.

* Work on the manual was carried out in 1998–2000. with the financial support of the grant of the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation No. 97-28-3. 1-213

E. E. Sapogova

Tula, 2001

Section I. General issues of developmental psychology

Chapter 1 . Introduction to Developmental Psychology

Chapter 2. The concept of development

Chapter 3. Periodization of development

Chapter 5 Historiography of human development

Chapter 6 The formation of human development psychology

Chapter 7 Theories of development of endogenous and exogenous directions

Chapter 8 Interpretation of development in psychoanalysis

Chapter 9 Problems of socialization

Chapter 10 . Cognitive direction in developmental psychology

Chapter 11 Cultural-historical direction in developmental psychology

Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology of development and developmental psychology. Developmental psychology as an applied branch.

The main tasks of developmental psychology. Connections of developmental psychology with other sciences. Methods of developmental psychology.

Modern psychology is a branched system of scientific disciplines, among which a special place is occupied by age-related psychology or, more correctly, human Development Psychology, associated with the study age-related dynamics of the development of the human psyche, the ontogenesis of mental processes and the psychological qualities of the personality of a person qualitatively changing in time. The concept of developmental psychology in principle already concepts of developmental psychology, since development is considered here only as a function or chronological age, or age period. Developmental psychology is connected not only with the study of the age stages of human ontogeny, but also considers various processes of macro- and micropsychic development in general. Therefore, strictly speaking, developmental psychology can only be part of developmental psychology, although they are sometimes used interchangeably.

Explain development- means to identify the causes, factors and conditions that led to the onset of changes in behavior and experience. The explanation is based on a scheme of causality, which can be strictly unambiguous (which is extremely rare), probabilistic (statistical, with varying degrees of deviation) or absent altogether. It can be single (which is very rare) or multiple (which is usually the case in developmental studies).

If the development description is creating his image in the mind of the researcher, the explanation - establishing links consequences with possible causes, and the development forecast - prediction it, based on already established causal relationships, then development correction there is management through a change in possible causes. And since development is a branching process that has nodes of qualitative and lines of quantitative changes, the possibilities of correction are theoretically unlimited. Restrictions are imposed here to a greater extent by the possibilities of description, explanation and forecast, which provide information about the nature of the ongoing processes and the nature of the object as a whole. It is important to note the special place of the forecast and correction of development in solving applied problems of developmental psychology.

The result of the description, explanation, forecast and correction is model or theory development.

The basis of any scientific discipline is its theory. It is she who performs the main functions of science (description, explanation, forecast, correction).

Yu. N. Karandashev proposes to divide all theories of development into 2 large classes: ordinary and scientific. Conventional theories of development are not realized by their authors, but have a great influence on the worldview of a person; often they are popularizations of outdated theories of development. Therefore, ordinary theories of development act, at best, as pre-theories. scientific theory is a consistent, coherent, simple system of rules that generates a model of an object based on its empirical image.

According to Yu. N. Karandashev, the following combinations of relations between the subject and the environment can be built:

1) attitude exceptions subject and environment – development is determined by non-subject and non-environment;

2) relationship additivity between the subject and the environment – development is determined by the subject and/or the environment, taken in different proportions;

3) attitude environment exceptions (subject and non-environment) - only the subject is decisive;

4) attitude subject exclusion (non-subject and environment) - only the environment is decisive;

5) attitude multiplicativity between the subject and the environment (subject and environment) - both the subject and the environment are fully determining. The last relation, depending on its content, is differentiated into subspecies in the direction of increasing mastery of the environment by the subject: 5.1) subject suppressed environment; 5.2) subject studies environment; 5.3) subject turns on on Wednesday; 5.4) subject grows in on Wednesday; 5.5) subject overcomes Wednesday.

Relations "subject-environment" are realized in various theories of development, forming scientific directions.

The relation of additivity, addition, summation considers development according to the principle of critical mass, according to which only a certain sum of contributions from the subject and the environment can ensure development. It does not matter how much is due to heredity (subject), and how much is to the share of the environment. The main thing is the amount, which must exceed a certain amount. We find a moderate ratio of the contributions of heredity and environment, on the one hand, in ordinary theories of development, and on the other hand, in practical theories focused on solving applied psychological problems that do not require complex constructions. Theories of this group can be conditionally referred to as syncretic (syncretism - fusion, indivisibility) direction.

Proceeding from the relationship of the opposing subject and the environment, two scientific directions are distinguished: endogenous, where the main driving force is the subject, and exogenous, where the driving force is the environment.

The relation of multiplicativity considers development as the result of the interaction in full measure of both the subject and the environment. It is this attitude that underlies most theories. In accordance with relations 5.1–5.5, they are classified in the following areas:

1)psychoanalytic direction, in the theories of which the subject develops, suppressed by the environment;

2)cognitive direction: the subject develops, knowing the environment;

3)direction of socialization: the subject develops by being included in the social environment and "assimilating" it, i.e. socializing;

4)socio-ecological direction: the subject develops, growing into ever wider layers and levels of the social environment;

5)direction of self-development: the subject develops, mastering the social environment, overcoming it.

In modern psychology, more and more gaining weight system direction, which considers the "subject-environment" system not from the inside, but from the outside. There are no systemic theories of the development of the psyche yet, although there are enough prerequisites for their creation: the theory of higher nervous activity by IP Pavlov and his collaborators; the theory of functional systems by P. K. Anokhin, the theory of dynamic localization of mental functions by V. M. Bekhterev, A. R. Luria, the theory of N. A. Bernshtein, the cultural-historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky, etc.

Developmental psychology is primarily fundamental theoretical discipline, but the knowledge gained in it and the methods developed are used in applied areas. L. Montada proposes to single out 6 main tasks related to the scope of developmental psychology in practice*.

* The following materials are used in the presentation: Yu. N. Karandashev Psychology of development. Introduction. Minsk, 1997. - Ch. 1.1.

1. Orientation in life path. This task involves answering the question “what do we have?”, i.e. determination of the level of development. The sequence of age-related changes in the form of a description of quantitative developmental functions or qualitative developmental stages is a classic issue in developmental psychology. On this basis, statistical age development standards, thanks to which it is possible to give a general assessment of the course of development both in individual cases and in relation to various educational and educational issues. So, for example, knowing what tasks children of 7 years old independently solve, it is possible to determine whether a particular child is below, above or on par with the norm. At the same time, it is possible to determine whether the educational and educational requirements correspond to this norm of independence.

2. Determining the conditions for development and change. This task presupposes the answer to the question “how did this arise?”, i.e. what are the causes and conditions that led to this level of development. Explanatory models of developmental psychology are focused primarily on the analysis of the ontogenesis of personality traits and its disorders, taking into account attitudes, the development environment, interaction with educators, special events, and also, as an ideal case, the interaction of all these variables. At the same time, psychologists are interested not so much in short-term as long-term influences of developmental factors. The cumulative nature of the influence of development factors and the discrete nature of causal relationships are also taken into account. Knowledge of the conditions allows you to delay developmental disturbances (prevention) and make appropriate decisions to optimize the course of development. Of particular importance for obtaining the desired effect is the determination of the correspondence of the conditions of development and possible options for intervention to the current level of development of the individual, his personal properties.

3. Prediction of stability and variability of personality traits. This task involves answering the question “what will happen if ..?”, i.e. a forecast not only of the course of development, but also of the intervention measures taken. Many activities in the practice of educational and educational work - explicitly or implicitly - suggest a forecast for further development. Thus, for example, the right to take care of a child after the divorce of the parents is retained by the mother only if it is considered that this will be best for the further development of the child. To make such predictions, knowledge is needed about the stability or instability of the properties and conditions for the development of both the personality itself and the personality in the group. Due to the numerous factors involved, such psychological forecasts are often erroneous.

4. Explanation of development and correction goals. This task involves answering the question “what should be?”, i.e. determines what is possible, real, and what should be excluded. As an empirical science, developmental psychology, in contrast to pedagogy, neutral in relation to the social order, public and personal opinion. Therefore, it is able and obliged to resist them, if this contradicts the established facts and laws. At the same time, it performs the function of substantiating certain proposals and projects, if they are consistent with its knowledge. And finally, it acts as the initiator of the correction of decisions already made, if studies show their unreasonableness. A falsely established norm of development leads to significant distortions in the practice of educational and upbringing work.

5. Planning of corrective actions. This task involves answering the question “how can the goals be achieved?”, i.e. what needs to be done to get the desired effect from the intervention. So, corrective measures are needed only if the set development goals are not achieved, if the development tasks are not mastered, or if there is a fact that the development conditions lead to its undesirable course. Here one should distinguish between: 1) the goals of development of the individual himself; 2) development potentials of the individual himself; 3) social requirements for development; 4) development opportunities. Accordingly, corrective measures should be differentiated according to their purpose. Often there is a discrepancy between these goals, which should be the object of correction. The purpose of the planned correction may be the prevention of developmental disorders, the correction of development, or the optimization of developmental processes. In any case, informed decisions must be made about when the intervention promises to be successful, where it should be applied, and which method should be chosen.

6. Evaluation of developmental correction. This task involves answering the question “what did it lead to?”, i.e. that the corrective action has taken. Modern developmental psychology refrains from a hasty assessment of the effectiveness of certain corrective actions. She believes that a real assessment can only be obtained as a result of long-term observation of the individual, during which both positive effects and side effects should be established. It is also believed that the evaluation of effectiveness is largely determined by the scientific paradigm that the psychologist adheres to.

Biology, genetics, developmental physiology. These disciplines are important, first of all, for understanding prenatal development, as well as for the subsequent stages of ontogeny from the point of view of its early foundations. They play a significant role in the analysis of the adaptive capabilities of newborns, as well as general physical and motor (motor) development, especially in relation to subsequent changes in behavior and experience. Of particular interest here is the development of the central nervous system, sensory organs and endocrine glands. In addition, the discoveries of biology are of particular importance for understanding the issues of "subject-environment", i.e. explanations of similarities and differences in the development of different individuals.

Ethology. The importance of ethology, or the comparative study of behavior, has grown considerably in recent years. It shows the biological roots of behavior by providing information about the interaction between the environment and the individual (for example, the study of imprinting). No less valuable is the methodological possibility of conducting observations and experiments on animals, and especially in cases where their conduct on humans is prohibited for ethical reasons. The ability to transfer findings from animals to humans is essential to understanding human development.

Cultural anthropology and ethnology. The subject of study of cultural anthropology and ethnology are transcultural universals and intercultural differences in behavior and experience. These disciplines allow, on the one hand, to test the patterns identified in the American-European cultural environment in other cultures (for example, East Asian) and, on the other hand, due to the expansion of the cultural environment, to identify intercultural differences that cause different development processes. Of particular importance in recent years is the study of children's folklore (subculture).

observation, as we already know, it is a deliberate, systematic and purposeful perception of the external behavior of a person with the aim of its subsequent analysis and explanation. In developmental psychology, this is one of the first and most accessible methods, especially necessary in the study of children in the early stages of development, when it is impossible to take a verbal report from the subjects and it is difficult to carry out any experimental procedure. And although observation seems to be a simple method, when properly organized, it makes it possible to collect facts about the natural behavior of a person. When observing, a person does not know that someone is following him, and behaves naturally, which is why observation gives vital truthful facts. By fixing the behavior of a preschooler in a game, in communication, a schoolchild in the classroom, a teenager in a peer environment, an adult in a professional field, etc., the psychologist receives data about a person as holistic personality and, consequently, intellect, memory, emotions, personal characteristics are perceived not in isolation, but in connection with actions, statements, deeds. Observations allow systemically analyze the psyche of a developing person.

The type of observation is introspection in the form of a verbal report about what a person sees, feels, experiences, does - it is better to apply it only to subjects who are already able to analyze their inner world, understand their experiences, evaluate their actions. Another observation option is psychological analysis of products of activity, successfully applied at all age levels. In this case, it is not the process of activity that is studied, but its result (children's drawings and crafts, diaries and poems of adolescents, manuscripts, designs, works of art by adults, etc.). Psychologists often use generalizations of independent characteristics, obtained by observing a person in various activities.

Most often, observation is an integral part of experimental psychological research. In particular, this can be done in the form biographical method. As an independent method, observation is of little value, except in rare cases of its use in relation to infants and non-speaking young children.

For more than 100 years in psychology, there have been experimental methods involving the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions in which the desired psychological fact is revealed. Let me remind you that the first experimental methods were developed specifically for children.

In developmental psychology, both traditional types of experiment - natural and laboratory - are successfully used, and most developmental studies include a stating and formative form of experiment. AT ascertaining experiment certain psychological features and levels of development of the corresponding mental quality or property are revealed. Still, a formative experiment (which can be educational or educative) is becoming more important in developmental psychology. Formative experiment involves purposeful influence on the subject in order to create, develop certain qualities, skills. In fact, this is a developing method in the conditions of a specially created experimental pedagogical process. In a certain sense, similar problems are solved in trainings, which are adapted or specially developed for children of different ages (for example, personal growth training for teenagers, communication training for schoolchildren, psycho-gymnastics for preschoolers, etc.), and correctional systems.

As varieties of objective experimental methods of psychology are twin method, sociometry, performance analysis, modeling, questioning and testing(for the purpose of diagnosis or prognosis).

Most of the above methods are research. They allow you to get something new as a result (facts, patterns, mechanisms of mental processes). But sometimes in psychology it is required to compare some parameters of a person, human activity with some existing standards, norms, i.e. persecuted purpose of the test. Then we are talking about diagnostics, in which it is widely used testing- a short, standardized, usually time-limited test designed to establish individual differences in compared values.

Notable contribution to diagnostic testing children and adolescents were introduced by the works of D. M. Cattell (it was he who introduced the term “mental test” in 1890), E. Kraepelin (the first tests of memory, fatigue and distractibility) and his student A. Ern, who created perception tests, memory, associations and motor functions to study the relationship of mental functions in the analysis of personality, intelligence. First school tests were developed by G. Ebbinghaus: he offered schoolchildren tests of arithmetic counting, memory capacity and completion of sentences. But only the most difficult of them (completion of sentences) is the only one that corresponds to the real educational achievements of children.

The real era of testing begins around 1895 with the work of A. Binet and his collaborators, who devoted many years to developing intelligence tests for children and the search for criteria for assessing the development of intelligence. A. Binet led to the desired goal by chance. In 1904, he was appointed to the Commission for the Study of Mentally Retarded Children and, together with T. Simon, created the first Binet-Simon intelligence scale. It consisted of 30 problems arranged in increasing difficulty. The level of difficulty is determined empirically by the presentation of 50 children from 3 to 11 years old, several mentally retarded children and adults.

Since 1905, the development of various tests has exploded. Currently existing battery of test methods for different ages can be classified on different grounds: for example, according to the purpose of application - tests of professional selection, aptitude, school selection, etc.; by procedure - individual, group, verbal, effective, etc.; content - for determining the level of development of intelligence, abilities, skills, personality traits, character, temperament, etc. Tests can be subdivided into analytical and synthetic, instrumental and "pencil-paper", etc. The most common are intelligence tests, aptitude and achievement tests, professionalized tests, personality tests etc. Batteries are used in pathopsychological research clinical tests etc. It should be noted that for developmental psychology, researchers in recent years have not only adapted adult methods to the capabilities of childhood or adolescence (there are "children's" TAT - CAT, children's and adolescent versions of tests by M. Luscher and S. Rosenzweig, options for several ages 16- PF Cattell, etc.), but also design special age-specific methods (Wechsler's children's test, school readiness tests, R. Gilles' interpersonal communication test, "Family Drawing", "Village", doll-play methods, children's projective methods etc.).

The advantages of the experimental method are undeniable. It allows the psychologist: 1) not to wait until the studied feature manifests itself in the activity of the subject, but to create the conditions for its maximum manifestation; 2) repeat the experiment the required number of times (for this there are different forms of the same test, for example, several forms of 16-PF Catgell, forms A-B-C of Eysenck, etc.); 3) the identified feature can be measured in different children under the same conditions and in one child in different conditions, which increases the reliability of the data obtained; 4) the experiment is more convenient in terms of standardization of the obtained materials, their quantitative calculation.

The proposed original textbook widely covers the socio-cultural, historical, ethnographic, psychobiological and psychological aspects of human development. Particular attention is paid to the general theoretical problems of development and the analysis of age stages in the context of cultural sociogenesis. For students of psychological specialties of higher educational institutions.

Section IGENERAL QUESTIONS OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

Section II PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE AGE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT /

Books and textbooks on discipline Psychiatry - Psychology:

ANDREY IVANCHENKO. The doctor's notes are just about the main thing. Chicago 2013 - 2013
Eidemiller E. G. Analytical-systemic family psychotherapy in schizophrenia / E. G. Eidemiller, S. E. Medvedev. - St. Petersburg: Speech, 2012. - 207 p. - year 2012
Kukhareva L.V. The practice of spiritual purification. From resurrection to resurrection / L.V. Kukharev. - M.: Amrita, 2012. - 272 p. - year 2012
Zamalieva S.A. Man decides everything himself. Logotherapy and Existential Anthropology by Viktor Frankl. - St. Petersburg: University book, 2012. - 142 p. - year 2012

4. Reader on child psychology / Ed. G.V. Burmenskaya. - M., 1996. - S. 4-16.

Workshop #3 (2 hours)

Topic: The ratio of learning and development.

1. The concepts of "training" and "development" in psychological science.

2. L. S. Vygotsky on the zone of proximal development and the level of actual development. The psychological meaning of the concept of "zone of proximal development".

3. The problem of the relationship between learning and development in modern psychology.

Practical task

1. Make up a "terminological nest" for the topic "The relationship between learning and development."

Main literature

2. Vygotsky L.S. Pedagogical psychology. - M., 1996. - S. 321 - 355.

3. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: 2001. - S. 161-162.

4. Shiyanov E.N., Kotova I.B. Development of personality in learning. - M., 1999. - S. 20 - 29.

additional literature

1. Developmental and educational psychology. Reader / Comp. I.V. Dubrovina, A.I. Parishioners, V.V. Zatsepin. - M., 1998. - S. 18 - 24.

2. Psychology of development: A textbook for students. higher psychol. and ped. textbook institutions / T.M. Maryutina, T.G. Stefanenko, K.N. Polivanova and others; Ed. T.D. Martsinkovskaya. - M.: Academy, 2001. - S. 133-134.

3. Human psychology from birth to death. / Ed. A.A. Rean. - St. Petersburg. - M., 2001. - S. 81 - 88.

Seminar session No. 4 (2 hours)

Topic: The leading role of education in development. Periodization of child development (L.S. Vygotsky)

1. The meaning of the concepts "social situation of development" and "new formation" for understanding the essence of ontogeny.

2. L.S. Vygotsky about the source, driving forces of development and the problem of age dynamics.

3. The law of mental development. Periodization of child development.

Practical task

1. Make a summary of the work of Vygotsky L.S. "The problem of age".

The main criterion for identifying specific epochs of child development;

The psychological essence of lytic and critical periods (find a definition for lytic and critical periods; highlight their features - duration, nature of development during these periods);

Age periodization according to L.S. Vygotsky;

The concept of age, the structure of age (interaction of central and
side lines of development);

The concept of the social situation of development, the significance of this concept for understanding the dynamics of mental development;

The general scheme of the dynamic development of age;

The concept of the level of actual development and the zone of proximal development;

Practical and theoretical significance of the discovery by L.S. Vygotsky
zones of proximal development and level of actual development.

Main literature

1. Vygotsky L.S. Age problem. - Collection. op. in 6 vols. - T. 4. - M., 1984. - S.244-269.

2. Obukhova L.F. Age-related psychology. - M., 2006. - S. 177-186, 188-192.

additional literature

1. Leontiev A.N. The doctrine of the environment in the pedological works of L.S. Vygotsky // Questions of Psychology. - No. 1, 1998. - S. 108-124.

- S. 159-177.

Workshop #5 (2 hours)

Topic: Mental development at an early age

1. The social situation of development at an early age.

2. The logic of the development of objective activity of an early age child.

3. Mental development of a young child:

Development of perception and ideas;

trends in the development of speech and the formation of a sign-symbolic function;

development of memory and imagination.

4. Neoplasms of early age.

Practical task

Draw up a thesis plan for the topic: “Development of objective activity” (according to P.Ya. Galperin).

Main literature

pp. 255-260.

2. Elkonin D.B. Child psychology: Textbook for students of higher education. uch. establishments / Ed. - comp. B.D. Elkonin. - M., 2004. - S. 50-94.

3. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 226-251.

additional literature

1. Vygotsky L.S. Early childhood. Sobr. op. in 6 volumes. T. 4. - M., 1984.

Workshop #6 (2 hours)

Topic: Psychological characteristics of adolescence and youth

1. The social situation of development in adolescence and youth (comparative approach).

2. The problem of leading activity in adolescence and youth.

3. Psychophysiological features of development in adolescence and youth.

4. Development of the personality of a teenager and a young man.

Practical task

Fill in the table:

table 2

Characteristics of communication with peers
in adolescents and young adults

Main literature

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001.

additional literature

1. Kon I.S. Psychology of early youth: Book. For the teacher. – M.: Enlightenment, 1989.

2. Mukhina V.S. Psychology of childhood and adolescence. Textbook for students. - M., 1998.

3. Rais Philip F. Psychology of adolescence and youth: Textbook: TRANS. from English. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

Workshop #7 (2 hours)

Topic: Psychological features of maturity

1. Age-related crises of adulthood, their psychological meaning.

2. Tasks of development in the period of maturity. Features of changes in the cognitive sphere.

3. Problems related to family and marriage during adulthood.

4. The essence of changes in the professional sphere during the period of maturity.

Practical task

Compose a "terminological nest" for the topic: "Psychology of adulthood."

Main literature

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001.

additional literature

1. Gamezo M.V., Gerasimova V.S., Gorelova G.G., Orlova L.M. Developmental psychology: personality from youth to old age. - M., 1999. - S. 15 - 49.

2. Ananiev B.G. Some problems of adult psychology // Developmental Psychology. Reader. – SPb., 2001. – |S. 298.

Workshop #8 (2 hours)

Topic: Period of gerontogenesis

1. Aging and types of old age.

2. Physical and cognitive changes during aging.

3. Neoplasms of old age.

4. Death as a crisis.

Practical task

Comment on the opinion: M.M. Bakhtin noted that "old age is one of the most paradoxical and contradictory periods of life."

Main literature

1. Grace Craig. Psychology of development. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001.

additional literature

1. Gamezo M.V., Gerasimova V.S., Gorelova G.G., Orlova L.M. Developmental psychology: personality from youth to old age. - M., 1999. - S. 49 - 73.

Practical session No. 1 (2 hours)

Topic: Methods of developmental and developmental psychology

Questions for self-control:

1. Methods of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.

2. Method of observation, its varieties.

3. Technique for standardized observation.

4. Questionnaire survey, areas of its application, principles for selecting respondents and asking questions.

Main literature

1. Abramova G.S. Workshop on developmental psychology. - M.: Academy, 1998. - S. 21-39; 56-76.

2. Gamezo M.V., Domashenko I.A. Atlas of psychology. - M., 1999. - S. 24-43.

3. Gorbatov D.S. Workshop on psychological research. - Samara: Bahram Publishing House, 2000. - S. 3-15.

additional literature

1. Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics. / Ed. A.G. Shmelev. - R-n-D, 1996. - S. 105-130.

Practical task

Make a standardized observation program according to your hypothesis. Tell us about how such observation can be carried out in practice.

Practical session No. 2 (2 hours)

Topic: Communication as a necessary condition for mental development

Questions for self-control:

5. The concept of communication in the activity approach (A.N. Leontiev, M.I. Lisina).

6. Describe the subject, product, motives and means of communication in childhood.

7. Development of forms of communication in children of the first seven years of life (M.I. Lisina).

8. The role of communication in the mental development of the child.

Main literature

1. Lisina M.I. Communication with adults in children of the first seven years of life // Reader on developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. I.I. Ilyasova, V.Ya. Laudis. - M .: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1981.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 52-65.

additional literature

1. Averin V.A. Psychology of children and adolescents. - SPb., 1998. - S. 9-52.

2. Psychology of development. Reader. - St. Petersburg, 2003. - S. 155-163.

3. Uruntaeva G.A. Preschool psychology. - M., 1996. - S. 7-28.

Practical task

Outline the work of Lisina M.I. "Communication with adults in children of the first seven years of life".

Definition of communication as a type of activity according to Lisina M.I.;

The structure of communication as a type of activity;

Subject, product, motives and needs of communication;

Means of communication, their characteristics;

Definition of the form of communication, types of forms of communication, their characteristics (time of appearance of the form of communication, leading need, motive, means of communication;

The influence of the form of communication on the development of the child.

Practical lesson No. 3 (2 hours)

Topic: Psychological meaning of critical ages.

Questions for self-control:

1. The concept of crisis (L.S. Vygotsky). crisis symptoms.

2. The critical period as an "act of development" (B.D. Elkonin).

3. Peculiarities of neoplasm formation in the critical period.

4. The structure of the age crisis.

5. Features of the behavior of children in transitional periods.

Main literature

1. Vygotsky L.S. Age problem. - Collection. op. in 6 volumes. - T. 4. - M., 1984.

2. Polivanova K.N. Psychology of age crises. - M., 2000. - S. 23-35.

3. Elkonin B.D. Psychology of development. - M.: 2001. - S. 98-111.

additional literature

1. Human psychology from birth to death. / Ed. A.A. Rean. - St. Petersburg. - M., 2001. - S. 63 - 64.

3. The doctrine of the environment in the pedagogical works of L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev / Questions of psychology. - No. 1. - 1998. - S. 108 - 124.

Practical task

Compare the views of L.S. Vygotsky on the nature of the crisis with the views of other researchers.

Definition, psychological meaning, in the understanding of L.S. Vygotsky;

Reasons for the emergence of crises A.N. Leontiev;

M.I. Lisin about crises;

The meaning of the crisis in the works of L.I. Bozhovich and T.V. Dragunova;

Differences in the understanding of age crises by different authors

Practical session No. 4 (2 hours)

Topic: The impact of deprivation on mental development.

Questions for self-control:

1. The concept of mental deprivation. Isolation and separation as causes of deprivation.

2. Types of deprivation, their characteristics.

3. The impact of deprivation on the intellectual, emotional-volitional and personal development of the child.

Main literature

1. Parishioners A.M., Tolstykh N.N. Children without a family. - M., 1991. - S. 30 - 151.

2. Psychology of development. Reader. - St. Petersburg. 2001. - S. 127 - 154.

3. Psychological development of pupils from the orphanage / Ed. I.V. Dubrovina, A.G. Ruzskaya. - M., 1990.

additional literature

1. Craig G. Psychology of development. - SPb., 2000. - S. 287 - 290.

2. Langmeyer I., Mateychek Z. Psychic deprivation in childhood. - Prague, 1984. - S. 25 - 165, 258 - 268.

3. Oslon V.N., Kholmogorova A.B. Problems of orphanhood in Russia: socio-historical and psychological aspects / Family psychology and family therapy. - M., 2001. - No. 1. - S. 5-38.

4. Human psychology from birth to death. / Ed. A.A. Rean. - St. Petersburg. - M., 2001. - S. 118 - 134, 153 - 155.

Practical task

Make a summary of 2,3, 4 chapters of the book by A.M. Parishioners, N.N. Tolstykh "Children without a family".

Definition of deprivation;

Sensory deprivation, the causes of its occurrence, the manifestation of sensory deprivation, the possibility of overcoming;

Maternal deprivation, the causes of its occurrence, the manifestation of maternal deprivation, the possibility of overcoming;

Motor deprivation, the causes of its occurrence, the manifestation of motor deprivation, the possibility of overcoming it;

Social deprivation, the causes of its occurrence, the manifestation of social deprivation, the possibility of overcoming;

The impact of deprivation on the mental development of the child (table page ....).

Practical session No. 5 (2 hours)

Topic: Mental development in the theories of Z. Freud and E. Erickson

Questions for self-control:

1. Z. Freud and E. Erikson on the structure of personality.

2. The essence of Z. Freud's and E. Erikson's ideas about mental development.

3. Z. Freud on the stages of child development.

4. Stages of the life path according to Erickson.

Main literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Age-related psychology. – M., 2006. - S. 65 - 103.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001. - S. 101-123.

additional literature

1. Martsinkovskaya T.D. History of child psychology. - M., 1998. - S. 135 - 167.

2. Psychoanalysis in development (collection of translations). - Yekaterinburg, 1998.

3. Khjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. - St. Petersburg, 1997. - S. 106 - 160, 214 - 246.

4. Zweig S. Treatment and psyche. Sigmund Freud. - St. Petersburg, 1992. - 236 p.

5. Erickson E. Childhood and society. - St. Petersburg: Rech, 2000. - S. 249-252.

Practical task

Make a written conclusion to the topic “Z. Freud and E. Erikson on development: common and different.

Practical session No. 6 (2 hours)

Topic: Features of the child's thinking at different stages of development (J. Piaget)

Questions for self-control:

1. Key ideas of the concept of J. Piaget. School of genetic psychology about the problem of development.

2. Phenomena of children's thinking.

3. Periodization of intellectual development according to J. Piaget. Characteristics of the main stages of development of the child's intellect:

a) sensorimotor intelligence;

preoperative stage;

Stage of specific operations;

Main literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. - M., 1995. - S. 133 - 177.

2. Piaget J.: theory, experiments, discussions. Collection of articles / comp. and general ed. L.F. Obukhova and G.V. Burmenskaya. - M., 2001. - S. 46-72.

3. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001. - S. 142-159.

additional literature

1. Craig Grace. Psychology of development. - St. Petersburg, 2000. - S. 254 - 263, 363 - 373, 467 - 472, 586 - 587.

2. Piaget J. Speech and thinking of the child. - M., 1996. - S. 346 - 372.

3. Flake-Hobson K., Robinson B.E., Skin P. Incoming world. - M., 1992. - S. 31-60, 205-208, 286-331, 456-461.

Practical task

Based on the article by J. Piaget (see collection - in the main literature No. 2 - pp. 46-72), write down and comment on the main phenomena of children's thinking.

Practical session No. 7 (2 hours)

Topic: Development of L.S. Vygotsky in the Soviet period

Questions for self-control:

1. Age in the understanding of A.N. Leontiev.

2. Leading activity, its criteria, types of activity (A.N. Leontiev).

3. "Appropriation" as the content of mental development (A.N. Leontiev).

Main literature

2. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. - M., 1995. - S. 177-186, 188-192.

additional literature

Practical task

Make a summary of the work of A.N. Leontiev "On the theory of the development of the child's psyche"

Practical session No. 8 (2 hours)

Topic: Periodization of child development according to Elkonin D.B.

Questions for self-control:

1. Identification of the leading type of activity as a system-forming criterion for the periodization of child development in the theory of activity.

2. Characteristics of the motivational-need and operational-technical aspects of activity (D.B. Elkonin). The law of alternation of activities.

3. Theory of mental development according to D.B. Elkonin. Periodization of mental development.

Main literature

1. Leontiev A.N. On the theory of the development of the child's psyche // Reader in child psychology / Comp. and ed. G.V. Burmenskaya. - M., 1996. - S. 20-27.

2. Obukhova L.F. Age-related psychology. - M., 2006. - pp. 177-186, 188-192.

additional literature

1. Zaporozhets A.V. Selected psychological works: In 2 vols. - Vol. 1. - M, 1986. - S. 223-257.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 159-177.

Practical task

Make a summary of the work of D.B. Elkonin "On the theory of the development of the child's psyche".

Describe the law of alternation of types of activity underlying the periodization of development;

The meaning of mastering the motivational-need side of activity;

The meaning of mastering the operational and technical side of the activity;

The main criterion for the periodization of child development in the approach of D.B. Elkonin;

Periods of ontogeny of the psyche;

Stages of the ontogeny of the psyche;

Criteria for the selection of psychological age by D.B. Elkonin;

Types of crises according to Elkonin.

Practical session No. 9 (2 hours)

Subject: Infancy.

Questions for self-control:

1. "The essence and meaning of helplessness" (Bruner) in the development of the child's psyche.

2. Neonatal crisis. The beginning of the mental life of the child.

3. Structure and dynamics of infancy.

4. Basic psychological neoplasms of infancy.

Main literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Age-related psychology. - M., 2006. - pp. 177-186, 188-192.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - pp. 245-251.?????

additional literature

Practical task

Conduct an observation and describe the features of the manifestation of crises of one and three years (one of them).

Practical lesson No. 10 (2 hours)

Topic: The personality of a young child

Questions for self-control:

1. Development of links of self-consciousness at an early age.

2. Emotional development of a young child.

3. Characteristics of the crisis of 3 years.

Main literature

1. Elkonin D.B. Child psychology: Textbook for students of higher education. uch. establishments / Ed. - comp. B.D. Elkonin. - M.: Academy, 2004. - S. 50-94.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 245-251.

additional literature

1. Vygotsky L.S. Early childhood. Sobr. op. in 6 volumes. T. 4. - M., 1984. - S. 340.

2. Obukhova L.F. Age psychology. - M., 2006. - S. 255-260.

Practical task

Make a generalized "psychological portrait" of a young child.

1. Features of personal development:

Development of self-awareness (level of claims, self-esteem; development of self-control; awareness of moral standards);

Moral traits;

motives of behavior;

Features of the development of emotions and feelings;

Manifestations of temperament and character.

2. Features of the development of activities:

Object-manipulative;

Fine;

Communication with parents.

3. Features of speech development:

Dialogic;

Monologic (connected).

4. Features of the development of the cognitive sphere:

Attention;

Perception;

Imagination;

Thinking.

Practical session No. 11 (2 hours)

Topic: The role of the game in the mental development of the child

Questions for self-control:

1. The concept and structure of the game (D.B. Elkonin).

2. Stages of game development.

3. The role of the game in the mental development of the child:

a) the impact of the game on the motivational-need sphere of the child;

b) playing and overcoming "cognitive egocentrism";

c) play and development of mental actions (development of symbolism in play);

d) development of arbitrary behavior in the game.

Main literature

1. Elkonin D.B. The psychology of the game. – M., 1999 . - S. 37-74, 319-336.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001.

additional literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Age-related psychology. - M., 2006. - pp. 222-255.

2. Mukhina V.S. Psychology of childhood and adolescence. Textbook for students. - M., 1998. - S. 235-259.

Practical task

Describe the stages of game development (in writing), based on the work of D.B. Elkonin "Psychology of the game".

Practical session No. 12 (2 hours)

Topic: Sensory development of the child.

Questions for self-control:

1. The logic of the development of actions of perception at the early stages of ontogenesis.

2. Teaching the child's sensory actions.

3. Assimilation of sensory standards.

4. The essence and significance of sensory education for the mental development of the child.

Literature

1. Zaporozhets A.V. Development of perception / Psychology of action. - M. - Voronezh, 2000. - S. 88-154.

2. Mukhina V.S. Psychology of childhood and adolescence. - M., 1998. - S. 141-153.

3. Uruntaeva G.A. Preschool psychology. - M., 1996. - S. 145-157.

Practical session No. 13 (2 hours)

Topic: Diagnostics of school readiness

Questions for self-control:

1. The concept of psychological readiness for school.

2. General characteristics of approaches to determining the psychological readiness of the child to study at school.

3. Components of psychological readiness for school.

4. Analysis of role-playing as a diagnostic tool for a child's readiness to study at school.

Main literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. - M., 1995. - S. 255-260.

2. Fundamentals of psychodiagnostics / Ed. A.G. Shmelev. - M., 1998. - S. 211-223.

3. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001. - S. 287-301.

additional literature

1. Afonkina Yu.A., Uruntaeva G.A. Workshop on child psychology. - M., 1995. - S. 116-120, 163-176.

2. Bezrukikh M.M., Efimova S.P. Do you know your student? - M., 1991. - S. 9-26, 58-68, 112-164.

3. Bogdanova T.G., Kornilova T.V. Diagnostics of the cognitive sphere of the child. - M., 1994.

Practical task

1. Choose a set of methods for diagnosing a child's readiness for school and justify your choice.

2. Prepare a dramatization of a role-playing game for children of 6 years of age with different levels of readiness for school. Comment on the features of playing the chosen role (a group of students).

Practical session No. 14 (2 hours)

Topic: Neoplasms of primary school age

Questions for self-control:

1. Features of the development of the motivational sphere in primary school age.

2. The structure of educational activity, the patterns of its formation.

3. The influence of educational activities on the development of the cognitive sphere of the younger student.

4. Neoplasms of personality in primary school age.

Practical task

Compare (in writing) neoplasms in preschool and primary school age.

Main literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Age-related psychology. - M., 2006.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M., 2001.

additional literature

1. Ilyin E.P. Motivation and motives. - SPb., 2000. -S. 253-264.

2. Mukhina V.S. Psychology of childhood and adolescence. Textbook for students. - M., 1998.

Practical session No. 15 (2 hours)

Topic: Behavioral disorder in adolescence and young adulthood

Questions for self-control:

1. Deviance, delinquency, asociality.

2. Accentuation of character and behavioral disorders.

3. Forms of manifestation of behavioral disorders in adolescence and youth

Practical task

Fill in the table: "Accents of character and behavioral disorders of adolescents"

character accentuation	Types of behavioral disorders
For example: hysterical type	Demonstrative escapes, demonstrative suicide, ....

Main literature

1. Lichko A.E. Types of character accentuation and psychopathy in adolescents. - M., 1999. - 416 p.

2. Kon I.S. Psychology of early youth. - M., 1989. - S. 69-78, 106-206.

3. Remshmidt H. Teenage and youthful age. Problems of personality formation. - M., 1994. - S. 93-189.

additional literature

1. Bayard R., Bayard D. Your restless teenager. A practical guide for desperate parents. Per. from English. - M., 1991.

2. Developmental psychology: Childhood, adolescence, youth: Reader: Proc. allowance for students. ped. universities / Comp. and scientific ed. V.S. Mukhina, A.A. Tails. - M., 1999. - 624 p.

3. Kon I.S. Adolescent sexuality at the threshold of the 21st century. Socio-psychological analysis. - Dubna, 2001.

Practical session No. 16 (2 hours)

Topic: Old age as a social problem

Questions for self-control:

1. Adaptive and non-adaptive aging.

2. Factors that determine behavior in old age (gender and individual characteristics; financial situation; loss of loved ones and loneliness; awareness of the finiteness of existence).

3. Death and dying. Voluntary retirement.

4. Social protection of the population in the period of aging.

Practical task:

Formulate (in writing) the conclusion - What is the social problem of aging?

Main literature

1. Craig G. Psychology of development. - SPb., 2000. - S. 743-825.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 407-426.

additional literature

1. Alperovich V.D. Gerontology. Old age. Sociocultural portrait. - M., 1998.

2. Human psychology from birth to death // Ed. A.A. Rean. - M., - St. Petersburg, 2001. - S. 546-614.

3. Psychology of development: A textbook for students. higher psychol. and ped. textbook institutions / T.M. Maryutina, T.G. Stefanenko, K.N. Polivanova and others; Ed. T.D. Martsinkovskaya. - M.: 2001. - S. 243-261.

Approved at the meeting of the department "____" ______________2012

Protocol________

CONTROL MATERIALS

to check the independent work of students in the discipline

"Psychology of Development and Developmental Psychology"

Direction of training: 030300 - "Psychology"

Qualification (degree) of the graduate: bachelor

INDEPENDENT WORK OF STUDENTS
IN DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
AND AGE PSYCHOLOGY

Homework

Topic: Patterns of mental development

Compose abstracts for this topic, taking into account the following mandatory substantive provisions:

· The concept of "development" and "pattern of development";

Uneven and heterochronous development;

Stages of development;

development sensitivity;

· Differentiation and integration of mental properties;

· Cumulative, plasticity of development;

· Manifestation of regularities of development in ontogeny.

Main literature

1. Averin V.A. Psychology of children and adolescents. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - S. 311-314.

2. Human psychology from birth to death // Ed. A.A. Rean. - M., - St. Petersburg, 2001. - S. 198-203.

additional literature

1. Uruntaeva G.A. Preschool psychology. - M., 1996. - S. 145-157.

Questions for the mini-offset:

1. The subject and methods of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.

2. Childhood as a subject of psychological analysis. The specificity and uniqueness of childhood.

3. The concepts of "social situation of development", "psychological neoplasm", "age crisis" in the works of L.S. Vygotsky.

4. The concept of communication, its subject, motives and means. Forms of communication with adults in childhood (M.I. Lisina).

5. Development of forms of communication in childhood (M.I. Lisina). The role of communication with adults in the development of the child.

6. Mental deprivation and its types.

7. The impact of deprivation on the mental development of the child.

8. Patterns of mental development.

9. The problem of the relationship between training and development

10. The concept of psychological age. Its definition in the work of L.S. Vygotsky.

11. Factors of mental development.

12. The psychological meaning of the critical age, its structure.

13. Features of the behavior of children in crisis.

Terminological minimum for block I:

Development, maturation, growth, social situation of development, psychological age, neoplasm, crisis, form of communication, deprivation, subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology, sensitivity, heterochrony and unevenness, stadiality.

Submit the following written works: abstracts for the topic “Patterns of mental development”, abstracts of the works of L.S. Vygotsky "The problem of age" and M.I. Lisina "Communication with adults in children of the first seven years of life".

Literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology. - M., 1995. - S. 65-158.

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 314-320.

3. Averin V.A. Psychology of children and adolescents. - St. Petersburg, 1998. - S. 254-281.

4. Lisina M.I. Communication with adults in children of the first seven years of life // Reader on developmental psychology. Textbook for students: Comp. L.M. Semenyuk / Ed. DI. Feldstein. - M.: International Pedagogical Academy, 1994. - S. 136-143.

5. Vygotsky L.S. Age problem. Collection, op.: In 6 vols. - Vol. 4. - S. 244-269

Block II. Foreign theories of ontogenesis

Colloquium (current control)

Topic: Comparative characteristics of theories of mental development

Questions for the colloquium

Questions and tasks for self-examination

5. Highlight the main areas of study of child development in various teachings of Western psychology. What are the differences in approaches to understanding child development in these areas?

6. What is the essence of the theory of recapitulation and who is its author?

7. Expand the content of the normative approach to the study of child development.

8. What is the significance of the concept of convergence of two factors for further study of mental development?

9. Formulate the concept of "development" according to Freud. What protective mechanisms of the EGO are distinguished by Z. Freud? Describe defense mechanisms.

10. What was the development of the ideas of classical psychoanalysis in the works of Anna Freud?

11. Z. Freud and E. Erikson on the structure of personality. Compare approaches.

12. Highlight the main provisions of E. Erickson's ego psychology?

14. How does Erickson's theory modify and/or expand Freud's psychoanalytic approach to development?

15. Periodization of mental development according to E. Erickson.

16. How did the representatives of social learning call the process that allows the child to take his place in society? Expand the content of this concept.

17. What are the concepts of learning?

18. What is the mechanism for acquiring new experience from the standpoint of the theory of R. Sears, B. Skinner, A. Bandura?

19. What is the essence of the socialization process according to J. Piaget? Explain the mechanism of this process.

20. Characteristics of the features (phenomena) of children's thinking.

21. Periodization of intellectual development according to J. Piaget. Characteristics of the main stages of the development of intelligence:

a) sensorimotor intelligence;

b) stage of specific operations:

preoperative stage;

Stage of specific operations;

c) the stage of formal operations.

Main literature

1. Obukhova L.F. Child psychology: theories, facts, problems. - M.: Trivola, 1995. - S. 33-102; 103-132;

2. Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - S. 159-177.

additional literature

1. Human psychology from birth to death. - St. Petersburg: Prime-Eurosign, 2001. - S. 66-68.

2. Kjell L., Ziegler D. Theories of personality. - St. Petersburg: Peter Press, 1997. - S. 106-151, 197-206.

Psychology of human development. Sapogova E.E.

Moscow: Aspect Press, 2005 - 460 p.

For students of psychological specialties of higher educational institutions.

Format: pdf/zip

The size: 3.18 MB

/ Download file

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Initiation into Developmental Psychology: Instead of a Preface 3
Section I. GENERAL DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY SURVEYS 5
Chapter 1 Introduction to Developmental Psychology 6
Chapter 2. The concept of development 18
Chapter 3. Periodization of development 24
Chapter 4. Age category 33
Chapter 5. Historiography of human development 52
Chapter 6. Formation of the psychology of human development 65
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9. Problems of socialization 123
Chapter 10. Cognitive direction in developmental psychology 142
Chapter 11. Cultural-historical direction in developmental psychology 159
Section II. PSYCHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AGE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 177
Chapter 12
Chapter 13 Prenatal Development and Birth 187
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
Chapter 19
Chapter 20
Chapter 21
Chapter 22
Chapter 23
Chapter 24
Chapter 25. Death as a Crisis of Individual Existence 426
Literature 443
Index 452

Portal for the student. Self-training

Aspect press Moscow 2001

Udk 159.9

Initiation into Developmental Psychology: Instead of a Preface

Section I. General issues of developmental psychology

Books and textbooks on discipline Psychiatry - Psychology:

Psychology of human development. Sapogova E.E.

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