I found an excellent work on scientific racism, I advise you to read it.

Races are the main groups of human beings. Their representatives, differing from each other in many small aspects, constitute one whole, containing certain features that are not subject to change and inherited from their ancestors, as well as their essence. These certain signs are most evident in the human body, where one can both trace the structure and make measurements, as well as in the innate abilities for intellectual and emotional development, as well as in temperament and character.

Many people believe that the only difference between races is the color of their skin. After all, we are taught this in school, and in many television programs that promote this idea of ​​racial equality. However, as we get older, and seriously thinking about this issue and considering our life experience (and calling for help from historical facts), we can understand that if the races were really equal, then the results of their activities in the world would be equivalent. Also, from contacts with representatives of other races, it can be concluded that their way of thinking and acting is often different from the way of thinking and acting of white people. There are definitely differences between us and these differences are the result of genetics.
There are only two ways for people to be equal. The first way is to be physically identical. The second is to be the same spiritually. Consider the first option: can people be the same physically? No. There are tall and small, thin and fat, old and young, white and black, strong and weak, fast and slow, and a host of other signs and intermediate options. No equality can be seen among the multitude of individuals.
As for differences between races, there are many, such as head shape, facial features, degree of physical maturity at birth, brain formation and cranial volume, visual acuity and hearing, body size and proportions, number of vertebrae, blood type, bone density, duration pregnancies, number of sweat glands, degree of alpha wave radiation in the brain of newborns, fingerprints, ability to digest milk, structure and arrangement of hair, smell, color blindness, genetic diseases (such as sickle cell anemia), galvanic resistance of the skin, pigmentation of the skin and eyes, and susceptibility to infectious diseases.
Looking at so many physical differences, it is foolish to say that there are no spiritual differences, and on the contrary, we dare to assume that they not only exist, but are of decisive importance.
The brain is the most important organ in the human body. It takes up only 2% of a person's weight, but absorbs 25% of all the calories we consume. The brain never sleeps, it works day and night, supporting the functions of our body. In addition to thought processes, it controls the heart, respiration and digestion, and also affects the body's resistance to disease.
In his epic book, The History of Man, Professor Carlton S. Kuhn (former president of the American Anthropological Association) wrote that the average black brain weighs 1249 grams compared to the 1380 grams of the average white brain, and that the average black brain size 1316 cu. cm., and a white man - 1481 cu. see He also found that the size and weight of the brain is largest in white people, then come the inhabitants of the east (Mongoloids), after them blacks, and lastly the aborigines of Australia. Differences between races in brain size are largely due to the structure of the skull. For example, any anatomist, looking at the skull, can determine whether a person belonged to the white or black race, this was discovered as a result of crime investigations, when it turned out that it was possible to determine the racial identity of the body found, even if it was almost completely decomposed and only the skeleton remained.
The Negro's skull is narrower with a low forehead. It is not only smaller but thicker than the average white skull. The stiffness and thickness of the Negro skull is directly related to their success in boxing, as they can take more blows to the head than their white opponents.
The part of the brain enclosed in the cerebral cortex is the most developed and complex part of it. It regulates the most essential types of mental activity, such as, for example, mathematical abilities and other forms of abstract thinking. Dr. Kuhn wrote that there is a big difference between the brain of a Negro and a white man. The anterior lobe of the Negro's brain is less developed than that of the white. Thus, their ability to think, plan, communicate, and behave is more limited than that of whites. Professor Kuhn also found that this part of the brain in blacks is thinner and has less convolutions on the surface than in white people, and the development of this area of ​​\u200b\u200bthe brain in them stops at an earlier age than in whites, thereby limiting further intellectual development.
Dr. Kuhn is not alone in his conclusions. The following researchers in the years listed, using various experiments, showed a difference between blacks and whites ranging from 2.6% to 7.9% in favor of whites: Todd (1923), Pearl (1934), Simmons (1942) and Connolly (1950) . In 1980, Kang-cheng Ho and his assistants, working at the Case Western Institute of Pathology, determined that the brains of white men are 8.2% larger than the brains of black men, while the brains of white women are 8.1% larger than the brains of black women ( A woman's brain is smaller than a man's brain, but larger as a percentage of the rest of the body.
Black children develop faster than white children. Their motor functions develop quickly along with their mental ones, but later there is a delay and by the age of 5 years white children not only catch up with them but also have an advantage of about 15 IQ units. The larger brains of white children by age 6 are further evidence of this. (Who would not be tested for IQ, they all showed results of differences from 15% to 23%, with 15% being the most common result).
The studies of Todd (1923), Vint (1932-1934), Pearl (1934), Simmons (1942), Connolly (1950) and Ho (1980-1981) showed important differences between races and in brain size and development, and hundreds psychometric experiments confirmed these 15 units of difference in intellectual development between blacks and whites more and more. However, such research is now discouraged, and such initiatives would be met with frenzied suppression efforts if they took place. Undoubtedly, the study of biological differences between races seems to be one of the first topics that is forbidden to speak in the USA today.
The findings of Professor Andrey Shuya in a monumental 50-year work on IQ tests called "Testing the Intelligence of Negroes" indicate that the intelligence score of blacks is on average 15-20 points lower than whites. These studies were recently confirmed in the bestselling book The Bell Curve. The amount of "overlap" (cases-exceptions when blacks score the same number of points as whites) is only 11%. For equality, this value must be at least 50%. According to Professor Henry Garrett, author of Children: White and Black, for every gifted black child, there are 7-8 gifted white children. He also found that 80% of gifted black children are of mixed blood. In addition, researchers Baker, Eisnek, Jensen, Peterson, Garrett, Pinter, Shuey, Tyler, and Yerkes agree that blacks are inferior in logical and abstract thinking, numerical calculation, and speculative memory.
It should be noted that people of mixed ancestry score higher than full-blooded blacks, but lower than full-blooded whites. This explains why light-skinned blacks are more intelligent than those with very dark skin. An easy way for you to check if this is true or not is to look at black people shown on TV, famous hosts or artists. Most of them have more white blood than black blood, and thus are more capable of dealing with whites.
The argument has been made that the IQ test is related to the culture of a certain society. However, this is easily refuted by the fact that Asians, who had just arrived in America and were far from the specifics of American culture (which, of course, cannot be said about American Negroes), were ahead of Negroes in tests. Also, the American Indians, who, as everyone knows, are a group of society that is not in the best social position, outstripped the Negroes. Finally, poor whites narrowly outperform even the upper class blacks, who are fully integrated into American culture.
In addition, every IQ test provided by the US Department of Education, all levels of the military, state, county and city education departments has always shown that blacks are, on average, 15% weaker than whites. If this test were even associated with white culture, then it would be almost impossible for every test containing a huge number of different questions to end up striving for the same number with such accuracy.
Below is a chart from the Society for Research on Child Development USA that shows that a large proportion of black children are in the low IQ region. Since an IQ of 85 to 115 is considered normal, it can be seen that most black children have lower IQs. It can also be seen that many more white children than black children have an IQ greater than 100.

The difference in mental strength is not the only mental difference between whites and blacks.
According to J.P. Rushton's analyses, Negroes are more excitable, more violent, less sexually reserved, more impulsive, more prone to crime, less altruistic, less willing to follow the rules, and less cooperative. Crime statistics, the impulsive and violent nature of the crimes that blacks commit, the fact that schools with mixed students require more discipline and police presence than schools with only white students, and the willingness of a certain part of blacks to take part in causing riots, all this was confirmed by observations. Mr Rushton.
Thomas Dixon, author of what is arguably the greatest event in The Birth of a Nation, probably best defined the idea of ​​racial equality between whites and blacks when he wrote the following:
"Education, sir, is the development of what is. From time immemorial, the Negroes owned the African continent - wealth beyond the limits of poetic fantasies, lands crunching with diamonds under their feet. But they never raised a single diamond from the dust until the white man showed them it shining light.. Their lands were crowded with powerful and obedient animals, but they did not think to harness a wagon or sleigh. Hunters out of necessity, they never made an ax, a spear or an arrowhead to save them after the moment of use. They lived like a herd of bulls, satisfied to pluck grass for an hour.On a land full of stone and forest, they did not bother to saw a plank, carve a single brick, or build a house not from sticks and clay.On the endless ocean coast, next to the seas and lakes, for four thousand years they observed ripples from the wind on their surface, heard the roar of the surf on the beaches, the howling of the storm above their heads, peered into the misty horizon calling them to the worlds beyond, and not once did the dream of sailing seize them!"

At one time, when there was more free-thinking expression and the media were not entirely under Jewish control, scholarly books and reference books unequivocally interpreted the above facts. For example, "Popular Science Collection" Volume 11, 1931 Edition, p. 515, states the following in the "Section of Primitive Peoples": respect, alcohol and other drugs that can paralyze self-control are his enemies." Another example is a direct quote from the "Negro" section of Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th edition, p.244:
"The color of the skin, which is also recognized by the velvety of the skin and a special smell, does not exist due to the presence of any special pigment, but due to the large amount of coloring matter in the Malpighian mucosa between the inner and outer layers of the skin. Excessive pigmentation is not limited to the skin, pigment spots are often they are also found in internal organs, such as the liver, spleen, etc. Other features found are modified excretory organs, a more pronounced venous system and a smaller brain volume compared to the white race.
Of course, according to the above characteristics, the Negro should be attributed to a lower stage of evolutionary development than the white, and being closer in terms of kinship with the higher anthropoids (monkeys). These characteristics are: the length of the arms, the shape of the jaw, a heavy massive skull with large superciliary arches, a flat nose, depressed at the base, etc.
Mentally, the Negro is inferior to the white. F Manetta's notes, collected after many years of studying Negroes in America, can be taken as the basis for describing this race: "Negro children were smart, quick-witted and full of liveliness, but as the period of maturity approached, changes gradually set in. Intelligence seemed to cloud over, revival gave way a kind of lethargy, energy was replaced by laziness.We must certainly understand that the development of blacks and whites occurs in different ways.While on the one hand, with the growth of the brain, there is an expansion of the cranium and its formation in accordance with the shape of the brain, on the other hand, there is a premature closure of the cranial sutures and subsequent compression of the brain by the frontal bones. This explanation makes sense and may be one of the reasons..."

Why was this information removed? Simply because it did not correspond with the plans of the government and the media. Please remember that prior to 1960, racial differences between whites and blacks were world-famous and accepted.
Here are the biological facts about races. We understand that they may be "politically incorrect", but the facts do not cease to be facts. There is no more "hate speech" in saying the biological facts that the white race is more intelligent than it is in saying that human beings are more intelligent than animals, or some animals are more intelligent than other animals. Science has nothing to do with "hate speech", it deals with reality.

The historical importance of the race.

History itself can be seen as the most significant evidence of the original differences between races in the ability to build and (or) attitude towards civilizations. Just as we characterize a student in school by the grades they get, we can characterize human races by what they have achieved through history.
Many people know about the origins of the white race from ancient Rome, Greece and the Sumerian civilization, but few know about the whites from ancient Egypt, Central America, Indian, Chinese and Japanese civilizations. In fact, by studying these civilizations, we can find not only that they were undoubtedly created by white people, but that their decline and fall was due to the fact that their creators created interracial and interethnic marriages, the descendants of which were not able to take care of what was created by their ancestors.
Although we do not touch on this huge topic here in the way that other sources do, we hope that the information below (from the book "White America") will make you realize that races have played a decisive role in history, the role that our people must be aware, in order not to continue our current path of "color blindness" - a path that will have only one result - the destruction of the civilization that our ancestors created for us.
The above records cover a small period in human history. To understand the result of contacts between races, it is necessary to remove the curtain of history and trace the early events. The ancient migrations of people of the white race from time immemorial carried with them the germs of intelligence and culture, which subsequently developed successfully.
When races are in constant contact, interracial marriages occur, creating a mixed race. However, the language, carvings, sculptures and monuments remain evidence that the representatives of the white race once created a civilization. People of the white race have always been on the move, being away from Europe almost as much as being in it.
Civilization originated along the rivers Nile and Euphrates. In ancient times, white people moved to Greece, Rome and Carthage. To the east they moved to India and further to Asia. These racial movements can be easily ascertained from skeletal remains, skull shapes, tools, grave mounds, and so on. The sign of the ancient white man is his grave and stone, to which modern crypts and monuments ascend. J. Macmillan Brown called it the "Caucasian Footprint on the Earth." The well-known British ethnologist Professor A. Kane wrote: "These Neolithic monuments, entirely of stone, similar to crypts and tombstones, were found in Asia, Iran, Syria, Palestine, the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, Ethiopia, the Crimea, the British Isles and China." These structures are not found among the yellow or black races.

How did racial differences develop? Different races developed and formed differently. Physical differences may be the result of natural selection, mainly due to adaptive evolution. That is, differences in the genotype of races and nations have accumulated over thousands of years in the process of adapting to the habitat, landscape, climate, lifestyle, dietary habits, past infections, diseases, inevitable genetic mutations, and many other factors. For example, most of the groups inhabiting the high Arctic latitudes are distinguished by a stocky torso and short limbs. This type of body leads to an increase in the ratio of its mass to the total area of ​​its surface and, consequently, to a decrease in thermal energy losses while maintaining body temperature. Tall, thin, long-legged Sudanese tribesmen, maintaining the same body temperature as the Eskimos, but living in extremely hot and humid climates, have developed a physique that implies the maximum ratio of total body surface area to its mass. This type of body is best suited for dissipating heat, which would otherwise lead to an increase in body temperature above normal.

Other physical differences between groups may arise from maladaptive, evolutionarily neutral changes in different groups. Throughout most of their history, people lived in small tribal populations (dims), in which the random variability of the gene pool, provided by the founders of a given dim, became fixed signs of their offspring. Mutations that arose within a dim, if they turned out to be adaptive, spread first within the given dim, then in neighboring dims, but probably did not reach spatially distant groups.

Racial differences are many, such as head shape, facial features, degree of physical maturity at birth, brain formation and cranial volume, visual acuity and hearing, body size and proportions, number of vertebrae, blood type, bone density, length of pregnancy, number of sweat glands, degree of alpha wave radiation in the brain of newborns, fingerprints, milk absorption capacity, hair structure and arrangement, smell, color blindness, genetic diseases (such as sickle cell anemia), galvanic skin resistance, skin and eye pigmentation, and susceptibility to infectious diseases.

Baxter, based on American military statistics, proved that representatives of the white races are superior to Negroes and Indians in lifetime lung capacity. This phenomenon is supposed to be due to the greater energy of metabolism and the greater development of strength in whites.

The frequency of pulse beats is also not the same in different races. Gould gives in this respect the following average values ​​(beats per minute):

In some peoples of tropical countries, Jousset notes a smaller lung capacity, a higher respiratory rate, a small chest volume, a more poorly expressed type of abdominal breathing, a higher frequency and lower pulse tension, compared to Europeans. Together with such features, a weakness in muscle strength, a decrease in urination and an increase in the separation of sweat are stated. However, it has not yet been sufficiently elucidated, since the phenomena observed by Jowsset depend on climate and geographical conditions, and since they really constitute a racial feature. The above data of Gould are more valuable for us in the sense of proving racial differences in the physiological functions of the body, since these data are based on the study of a very large number of individuals, approximately the same age and living in the same conditions of life.

In relation to the racial physiology of the nervous system, it is interesting that some peoples, such as Negroes, have a significantly lower pain sensitivity than whites. This peculiarity has been ascertained on the basis of accurate investigations and is well known to those surgeons who have had to perform operations on Negroes. The latter easily and almost resignedly endure the most difficult operations. http://www.uhlib.ru/nauchnaja_literatura_prochee/_russkaja_rasovaja_teorija_do_1917_goda_tom_1/p17.php

It should be noted that with these features, many savages are characterized by an unusual sharpness of vision and hearing, which allows the savage to distinguish in detail very distant objects and to hear distinctly the faintest noise, completely inaccessible to the ear of a European; however, harmonic combinations of sounds, colors and tones are not easily accessible to the savage.

Touching upon the question of the anatomical and physiological features of different representatives of the human race, I cannot pass over in silence the interesting and instructive fact that significant differences in the structure of individual parts of the body can take place even when these parts appear to the naked eye to be completely similar. I mean that essential racial difference which is observed in the structure of human hair. Let us take, for example, on the one hand, straight or smooth black hair from the head of a Mongol, and on the other hand, the straight and black head hair of a Great Russian. The study will show that in the Mongolian, the shape of the cross-section of the hair appears to be almost round or broadly oval, and the short diameter of the oval is related to the long one, as 80–90:100. In the Great Russian, the cross section of the head hair has the shape of an elongated oval, the short diameter of which is related to the long one, as 61–71:100. In the hair of a Mongol, the pigment grains are somewhat larger than in the hair of a Great Russian, and, in addition, the head hair of a Great Russian is, on average, somewhat thinner than the hair of a Mongol. Let's take for comparison two more hairs of the same color: the red head hair of an Arab and the red hair of a Great Russian. In the red hair of an Arab, I personally observed that the granular pigment is located mainly in the central parts of the cortical substance, and in the hair of a Great Russian - in the peripheral parts of this substance.

It is possible that something similar to what we observe in hair also exists in various internal organs, i.e., perhaps, with complete external similarity, there is a more or less significant difference in the histological structure. But in this respect, anthropology still does not give us a proper answer and only opens up a wide field for scientific research.

I consider it necessary to note, by the way, the important role that hair can play in the study of the type of primitive prehistoric population of various places on the globe, since they are preserved together with bones for centuries and even millennia buried in the ground, for example, in cemeteries and mounds. I have found that from the outward appearance of the mound hair no conclusion can be drawn as to its original color, since the latter may be greatly altered under the influence of chemical and physical agents; moreover, for the most part, it is not the pigment that changes, which in general is distinguished by an unusually high resistance, but the horny substance of the hair, which takes on a yellow, brown or dirty brown color. Due to this change in the horny substance, black hair can lighten, and light hair can darken. Only one histological examination of hair in transverse sections enables us to determine with positiveness or with greater or lesser probability the original color of the hair, namely, by density, color, location of the granular pigment and some of its other properties. Studying the hair from the kurgans of central Russia, I found that the kurgan population was dark-haired. This circumstance contradicts the very widespread opinion that our Slavic ancestors were fair-haired, and confirms, on the contrary, the opinion of some anthropologists, including our fellow member of the Anthropological Department, Dr. V.V. dark hair. http://www.uhlib.ru/nauchnaja_literatura_prochee/_russkaja_rasovaja_teorija_do_1917_goda_tom_1/p17.php

Having made a brief review of some data on the question of anatomical and physiological racial differences, we will now touch on racial pathology. It must be said that in this respect we have much more data than in the physiology of races. There is no doubt that different human groups, depending on their racial characteristics, have different degrees of immunity or predisposition to certain pathological processes, just as we observe in the animal world. It is known, after all, that some species of animals are easily affected by such diseases to which other species have complete or relative immunity. The study of racial characteristics in pathology presents numerous difficulties in view, firstly, of the impossibility of excluding other factors that in themselves can play a significant role in the etiology of diseases, such as: living conditions, climate, nutrition, and secondly, due to lack of extensive and widespread medical and statistical studies. For these reasons, we often meet the most controversial opinions on this issue. So, for example, some authors consider Negroes completely immune to malaria; Others say that Negroes are equally affected by this disease with Europeans. However, on the basis of the available data, it should be assumed that the truth is in the middle, as is often the case when there are two opposing opinions. If malaria occurs among Negroes living in their homeland, that is, in tropical countries, it is much less common than among Europeans, and is generally much more easily tolerated by them than by Europeans. After moving to colder countries, with a sharp change in all conditions of life, the Negroes gradually lose their immunity. Europeans, on the other hand, who find themselves in tropical countries in places inhabited by Negroes, are incomparably more likely than the latter to be exposed to malaria and in more severe forms.

Interestingly, the degree of susceptibility to malaria in different types of the white race is different. According to Bushan, the Swedes and Norwegians are the most susceptible to this disease; the Germans and the Dutch are somewhat less receptive, the Anglo-Saxons are even less susceptible, then the French, the inhabitants of Malta, the Italians and the Spaniards.

The Mongolian race seems to be comparatively less susceptible to malaria and tuberculosis.

Jews, according to some indications, are less often affected by plague, malaria, and typhus; but on the other hand, as you know, they are especially prone to nervous and mental illnesses and suffer from diabetes more often than others. Statistics show that the death rate from diabetes in Jews is 3-6 times higher than the death rate from this disease in other races. The data available on the question of the incidence of nervous and mental diseases among Jews convince us that neither the special conditions of life, nor social position, nor marriages with close relatives can completely explain the extraordinary frequency of the disease. If certain living conditions of the Jews cannot be excluded from the number of etiological factors, then, in any case, they do not play a dominant role in this respect, and in frequent cases of nervous and mental illness, it is necessary to see, first of all, the racial peculiarity of the Jews. . Zimssen, Blanchard, and especially Charcot point out that no other race provides so much material on neuropathology as the Jewish one. Statistics from various countries of Europe show us that the number of Jews suffering from mental illness is up to 4-6 times higher than the number of patients among other races. Of the forms of mental illness, mania seems to be the most common. Tabes is much less common among Jews than among other races (Minor, Shtembo, Gaikevich).

In relation to mental illness among European peoples, it has been noted that peoples belonging to the Scandinavian-Germanic group, that is, representatives of the light type, are most often affected by depressive forms of psychosis. Among the peoples of the same Celto-Roman group and the Slavs, that is, the dark-haired type, manic forms of psychosis are most common (Bannister and Herkoten). In Germans and Swedes, melancholy is much more common than mania. In Danes and Norwegians, according to Bannister and Herkoten, melancholy is twice as common as mania. In East Germany, where the Slavic element predominates, melancholia and mania, according to the statistics of psychiatric institutions, occur in approximately equal quantities, or the latter more often than the former.

In connection with the indicated predominance of melancholy among the German-Scandinavian group, and mania among the Celtic-Romans and Slavs, apparently, there is an unequal frequency of suicides among these peoples. According to the statistics of James Weir, from 1880 to 1893, it turns out that for one million population in the German-Scandinavian group, i.e., representatives of the fair-haired type, there are 116 suicides annually, and in Celtic novels, i.e. representatives short dark-haired European race, only 48 per one million, therefore, almost two and a half times less. Havelock came to similar conclusions. It is further known that in those places in Austria where the German population predominates, suicides are much more frequent than in places with a predominantly Slavic or Hungarian population. The lowest percentage of suicides is noted among the South European peoples. Thus, for example, in Italy there are 40 cases of suicide per million, and in Spain 35 cases of suicide per year, that is, much less than in Germany, where there are 271 cases of suicide per million. It is also remarkable that in the southern provinces of Italy - Puglia and Calabria, where the Celtic-Romance population predominates, there are 17-33 cases of suicide per million inhabitants, and in the northern provinces, such as Lombardy and Venice, where representatives of German group - about 65-66 cases, i.e. at least twice as many as in the southern provinces.

Regarding the incidence of nervous and mental illnesses in other races, such as: among the Mongols, Negroes, etc., our information is still very small. There are, for example, indications that the Japanese are more prone to manic forms of mental disorders. The Ostyaks, Samoyeds, Tunguses, Buryats, Yakuts and Kamchadals have a painful shyness, accompanied by bouts of frenzy. According to Pallas, menstrual psychoses are especially frequent among the Kachinians. There are also indications of peculiar mental disorders among the Malays and the inhabitants of Java and Sumatra; but further testing observations are required to establish the connection of such psychoses with racial characteristics.

No matter how few, fragmentary, and in many respects incomplete data on the anatomical, physiological characteristics of the human race, on its immunity and predisposition to diseases, these data are still quite sufficient to convince us that in the etiology of diseases, in addition to various external factors, undoubtedly play a very important role racial features of the organization and functions of the human body. These features should be the subject of further observations and studies.

Perhaps someone will now raise the question: is it necessary to apply to the study of the connection between the internal etiology of diseases and the anthropological type of individuals where one has to deal with apparently homogeneous material, with homogeneous anthropological elements, for example, with representatives of the Great Russian people who speaks one language, professes one faith, has one historical past? But in fact, the Great Russian people, just like the Little Russian people, do not consist of homogeneous units, but originated in the distant past from the merger of at least two or three races. Between Great Russians and Little Russians we meet brachycephals and dolichocephals, tall and short, dark-haired and fair-haired, and these features are inherited from those races, from the fusion of which the modern Great Russian people was formed.

In connection with the peculiarities of the color of the hair, eyes, the shape of the skull, etc., other anatomical and physiological features are inherited, of course, and with them - a different degree of immunity and predisposition to certain pathological processes. In this regard, the observation of our compatriot Dr. Emme, who noted that the predisposition to malaria is different in different types of the Little Russian people, is interesting: black-haired Little Russians are less prone to malaria than fair-haired ones. However, even Haeckel noted that black-haired representatives of mixed European races acclimatize more easily in tropical countries and are much less likely to suffer from certain epidemic diseases, such as yellow fever, than fair-haired Europeans. http://www.uhlib.ru/nauchnaja_literatura_prochee/_russkaja_rasovaja_teorija_do_1917_goda_tom_1/p17.php

In 1892, Galton first compared the finger patterns of various racial and ethnic types. It was from this time that the development of fingerprinting, in addition to solving purely forensic problems, began to develop in line with the classical racial theory. Further, Harris Hawthorne Wilder, Harold Cummins, and Charles Medlo make a great contribution to the development of a new science, which is called ethnic and racial dermatoglyphics.

In Russia, dermatoglyphic studies began in full swing only in Soviet times. It is amazing, but it is a fact that it is in a country that has adopted the theses of internationalism that racial studies receive official scientific recognition. We refer to the work of P. S. Semenovsky “The distribution of the main types of tactile patterns on the fingers of a person” (Russian Anthropological Journal, 1927, vol. 16, issue 1–2, pp. 47–63). The Institute of Anthropology of Moscow State University organizes numerous expeditions to various parts of our country. The leading Soviet anthropologists A. I. Yarkho, V. P. Alekseev, G. F. Debets create the theoretical basis of ethnic and racial dermatoglyphics. M. V. Volotsky, T. A. Trofimova, N. N. Cheboksarov improve the methodological basis of research.

From the very beginning, differentiation of fingerprints begins to be made at three levels: racial, ethnic and territorial - which immediately indicates the accuracy of the method and the great potential for its development. That is, the fingerprints of a person determine not only his race, nationality, but also the geographical region from which he comes. Galton's brilliant conjecture of the end of the 19th century by the thirties of the 20th century finds its full confirmation in the study of hundreds of ethnic groups in various parts of the world.

Moreover, amazing accuracy can be achieved at first, even with the relative simplicity of the method. There are three main types of papillary patterns: arcs, loops and swirls, the latter also include double loops. The table shows the proportions of the frequency of swirls, loops and arcs in some peoples.

The leading German specialist in this field, Dr. Erich Carl, in the article "Fingerprints as racial traits and their transmission by inheritance", published in the journal "Volk und rasse", 1936, v 7, gives such a summary of numerous studies:

“The representatives of the yellow race, led by the Eskimos, have the most twists and the fewest arcs and loops. Europeans have the opposite ratio: their number of arcs and loops increases due to swirls. The Indians are closely adjacent to the Asians, and the Ainu occupy an intermediate position between yellow and white. Jews are very different from Europeans in a large number of whirlwinds and a relatively small number of arcs. Among the European peoples, there are more arcs and fewer swirls among the northern Europeans, while among the southern ones, on the contrary, there are more swirls and fewer arcs. Among the northern Europeans, the most arcs and the least swirls among the Norwegians; they are followed by the Germans, the British and the Russians.”

The current appearance of humanity is the result of a complex historical development of human groups and can be described by highlighting special biological types - human races. It is assumed that their formation began to occur 30-40 thousand years ago, as a result of the settlement of people in new geographical zones. According to the researchers, their first groups moved from the region of modern Madagascar to South Asia, then Australia, a little later to the Far East, Europe and America. This process gave rise to the original races from which all subsequent diversity of peoples arose. Within the framework of the article, it will be considered which main races are distinguished within the species Homo sapiens (reasonable man), their characteristics and features.

Race Meaning

To summarize the definitions of anthropologists, a race is a historically established set of people who have a common physical type (skin color, structure and hair color, skull shape, etc.), the origin of which is associated with a certain geographical area. At the present time the relation of race to area is not always sufficiently clear, but it definitely took place in the distant past.

The origin of the term "race" is not reliably defined, but there has been much debate in scientific circles over its use. In this regard, initially the term was ambiguous and conditional. There is an opinion that the word represents a modification of the Arabic lexeme ras - head or beginning. There is also every reason to believe that this term may be related to the Italian razza, which means "tribe". Interestingly, in the modern sense, this word is first found in the writings of the French traveler and philosopher Francois Bernier. In 1684 he gives one of the first classifications of the major human races.

races

Attempts to put together a picture classifying the human races were made by the ancient Egyptians. They identified four types of people according to their skin color: black, yellow, white, and red. And for a long time this division of mankind persisted. The Frenchman Francois Bernier tried to give a scientific classification of the main types of races in the 17th century. But more complete and constructed systems appeared only in the twentieth century.

It is known that there is no generally accepted classification, and all of them are rather conditional. But in the anthropological literature most often refer to Ya. Roginsky and M. Levin. They identified three large races, which in turn are divided into small ones: Caucasoid (Eurasian), Mongoloid and Negro-Australoid (Equatorial). When constructing this classification, scientists took into account morphological similarities, the geographical distribution of races and the time of their formation.

Race characteristics

The classical racial characteristic is determined by a complex of physical features related to the appearance of a person and his anatomy. The color and shape of the eyes, the shape of the nose and lips, the pigmentation of the skin and hair, the shape of the skull are the primary racial features. There are also minor features such as physique, height and proportions of the human body. But in view of the fact that they are very variable and depend on environmental conditions, they are not used in racial science. Racial traits are not interconnected by one or another biological dependence, therefore they form numerous combinations. But it is stable traits that make it possible to single out races of a large order (basic), while small races are distinguished on the basis of more variable indicators.

Thus, the main characteristic of a race includes morphological, anatomical and other features that are of a stable hereditary nature and are minimally subject to the influence of the environment.

Caucasian race

Almost 45% of the world's population are Caucasians. The geographical discoveries of America and Australia allowed her to settle around the world. However, its main core is concentrated within Europe, the African Mediterranean and southwestern Asia.

In the Caucasoid group, the following combination of signs is distinguished:

• clearly profiled face;
• pigmentation of hair, skin and eyes from the lightest to darkest shades;
• straight or wavy soft hair;
• medium or thin lips;
• narrow nose, strongly or moderately protruding from the plane of the face;
• poorly formed fold of the upper eyelid;
• developed hairline on the body;
• large hands and feet.

The composition of the Caucasoid race is distinguished by two large branches - northern and southern. The northern branch is represented by Scandinavians, Icelanders, Irish, British, Finns and others. South - Spaniards, Italians, southern French, Portuguese, Iranians, Azerbaijanis and others. All the differences between them are in the pigmentation of the eyes, skin and hair.

Mongoloid race

The formation of the Mongoloid group has not been fully explored. According to some assumptions, the nationality was formed in the central part of Asia, in the Gobi desert, which was distinguished by its harsh sharply continental climate. As a result, representatives of this race of people generally have strong immunity and good adaptation to cardinal changes in climatic conditions.

Signs of the Mongoloid race:

• brown or black eyes with a slanted and narrow slit;
• overhanging upper eyelids;
• moderately extended nose and lips of medium size;
• skin color from yellow to brown;
• straight coarse dark hair;
• strongly protruding cheekbones;
• poorly developed body hair.

The Mongoloid race is divided into two branches: northern Mongoloids (Kalmykia, Buryatia, Yakutia, Tuva) and southern peoples (Japan, residents of the Korean Peninsula, South China). Ethnic Mongols can act as prominent representatives of the Mongoloid group.

The equatorial (or Negro-Australoid) race is a large group of people that makes up 10% of humanity. It includes Negroid and Australoid groups, which mostly live in Oceania, Australia, the tropical zone of Africa and in the regions of South and Southeast Asia.

Most researchers consider the specific characteristics of a race as a result of the development of a population in a hot and humid climate:

• dark pigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes;
• coarse curly or wavy hair;
• the nose is wide, slightly protruding;
• thick lips with a significant mucous part;
• protruding lower face.

The race is distinctly divided into two trunks - eastern (Pacific, Australian and Asian groups) and western (African groups).

Minor races

The main races in which humanity has been successfully imprinted on all the continents of the earth, branching out into a complex mosaic of people - small races (or races of the second order). Anthropologists distinguish from 30 to 50 such groups. The Caucasoid race consists of the following types: White Sea-Baltic, Atlanto-Baltic, Middle Caucasoid, Balkan-Caucasian (Ponto-Zagros) and Indo-Mediterranean.

The Mongoloid group distinguishes: Far Eastern, South Asian, North Asian, Arctic and American types. It is worth noting that the last of them in some classifications tends to be considered as an independent large race. In today's Asia, the Far Eastern (Koreans, Japanese, Chinese) and South Asian (Javanese, Probes, Malays) types are most prevalent.

The equatorial population is divided into six small groups: the African Negroids are represented by the Negro, Central African and Bushman races, the Oceanian Australoids are the Veddoid, Melanesian and Australian (in some classifications it is put forward as the main race).

mixed race

In addition to races of the second order, there are also mixed and transitional races. Presumably, they were formed from ancient populations within the boundaries of climatic zones, through contact between representatives of different races, or appeared during long-distance migrations, when it was necessary to adapt to new conditions.

Thus, there are Euro-Mongoloid, Euro-Negroid and Euro-Mongol-Negroid sub-races. For example, the Laponoid group has signs of three main races: prognathism, prominent cheekbones, soft hair, and others. The carriers of such characteristics are the Finno-Permian peoples. Or Ural which is represented by Caucasoid and Mongoloid populations. She is characterized by the following dark straight hair, moderate skin pigmentation, brown eyes, and medium hairline. Distributed mostly in Western Siberia.

• Until the 20th century, there were no representatives of the Negroid race in Russia. In the USSR, during the cooperation with developing countries, about 70 thousand blacks remained to live.
• Only one Caucasian race is capable of producing lactase throughout its life, which is involved in the absorption of milk. In the other major races, this ability is observed only in infancy.
• Genetic studies have determined that the fair-skinned inhabitants of the northern territories of Europe and Russia have about 47.5% of Mongolian genes and only 52.5% of European ones.
• A large number of people who self-identify as pure African Americans have European ancestry. In turn, Europeans can find Native Americans or Africans in their ancestors.
• The DNA of all the inhabitants of the planet, regardless of external differences (skin color, hair texture), is 99.9% the same, therefore, from the standpoint of genetic research, the existing concept of "race" loses its meaning.

The genetic basis of skin pigmentation also has a very important race-delimiting function. V. A. Spitsyn writes in this regard: “It is known that a thick layer of melanin in dark-skinned races, preventing ultraviolet rays from penetrating into the deeper layers of the skin, creates the basis for rickets. This explains the presence of a compensatory mechanism, which is expressed in the fact that people living in the tropics have abundant secretions of sebaceous glands, much larger than those of Europeans.

In Caucasians, the frequency of the gene (Gc) should not exceed 10%, while in blacks it exceeds 30%. It is the frequency of this gene that is associated with the characteristic Negro smell ...

The most important conclusion of V. A. Spitsyn is as follows: “There is no data on the relationship between climatic and geographical factors and the distribution of Gm factors.” This suggests that racial traits are non-adaptive in nature, the environment does not have any influence on them at all. The color of eyes, hair, skin, etc., is not the result of a person's adaptation to the appropriate environmental conditions, but rather genetic ornaments that nature distributed to different races, based on the natural principle "to each his own."

The latter conclusion is in excellent agreement with both direct observations (for more than 400 years of the history of African-American blacks, there are still no known cases of their whitening due to climate change; the white descendants of Dutch settlers, the Boers of South Africa, have not turned black either), and with the theory of lithospheric catastrophes , which is discussed below. It should also be noted that the average annual temperature and the number of sunny days per year change in the same way with distance from the equator, regardless of whether the North or the South Pole, however, black individuals live mainly in Africa, and not at all wherever the sun shines and warms just as much. bright and strong. The Negroids did not form either in Central or South America, or in the overwhelming part of Asia, and, moreover, in parts of Europe equidistant from the equator. If we talk about the southern tip of Africa, originally also inhabited by blacks, then even more so on no continent of the northern hemisphere of the Earth we will find natural Negroids in the corresponding climatic zones. This allows us to reject once and for all the hypothesis of the "blackening" of the Negroid race due to exposure to sunlight as unscientific.

V. A. Spitsyn also emphasizes: “Each of the largest races has a characteristic gene complex of gammaglobulins and alkaline phosphatase of the placenta, peculiar only to it alone.”

In general, serology, that is, the science of blood groups, reliably presents us with a number of racial diagnostic markers: it has been proven, for example, that the polygenic hereditary factors of serum proteins are specifically distributed at the level of large races. Encyclopedia "Peoples of Russia" (M., 1994) fixes: "According to the systems of immunoglobulins that provide a protective reaction against various diseases and transferrins that ensure the normal circulation of iron ions in the blood stream, large human races are clearly distinguished."

So, people of different races and nationalities differ in protein structures, the biochemical composition of the immune system and the electromagnetic properties of blood. No less rigorous and reliable information about the race of a person is also provided by the biochemical composition of earwax.

In their joint work The Teaching of Human Heredity (1936), E. Baur, O. Fischer and F. Lenz stated: “Racial differences mainly depend on differences in internal secretion. The constitution of the body, intellectual and mental characteristics and other racial characteristics are determined by them. Today, without denying the significance of internal secretion for racial diagnosis, scientists prefer to talk about the correlation of markers. This thesis can be illustrated by a quote from the article by M. G. Abdushelishvili and V. P. Volkov-Dubrovin “On the correlation of racial and morphophysiological characteristics” (Anthropology Issues. Issue 52, 1976): “There is a known relationship between skin color and some physiological characteristics. The lightest ones have slowed blood flow and the highest mineral saturation of bone tissue, while the darkest skinned ones have significantly lower skeletal mineralization and faster blood flow.

The development of the biochemical theme has already led us pages above to the data on the invariable difference between races presented by science. genetics interpreting the problem of heredity. It was in the field of this science (within the framework of the so-called "mitochondrial" theory) that an attempt was made at the end of the 20th - beginning of the 21st century to refute the obvious: racial differences between people. They tried to convince us that white, yellow, black - all people consist of one building material, and therefore they are a single whole. Simply, they tried to hide the forest behind the trees. Supporters of the theory of monogenism immediately seized on these conjectures, who tried to impose on the public consciousness the idea of ​​our common foremother - “black Eve”, from which (in the bowels of Central Africa), all mankind allegedly originated. After that, some of the descendants of this Eve migrated to the North, where everyone turned white without exception, and others - to the East, where they also turned yellow and numb.

As will be irrefutably seen from what follows, the results of conscientious genetic research lead to completely different conclusions.

The outstanding Soviet biologist I. I. Shmalgauzen, in his programmatic book “Cybernetic Questions of Biology” (Moscow, 1968), brilliantly developed the postulates of racial theory directed against vulgar Lamarckism: “The hereditary code is protected by the nuclear membrane and regulatory mechanisms of the cell and the whole organism as a whole from the direct influence of external factors. Inheritance of traits acquired during the life of an individual is virtually impossible, since this “acquisition” concerns only the transformation of information in a given individual and dies with it. The hereditary material was not affected by this transformation and remained unchanged. At the same time, it is emphasized that mutations, the role of which geneticists are so fond of discussing, are in fact of a random nature, in addition, there is no freedom of mutations, because they are possible only within certain limits set by hereditary racial traits ...

Thus, it turns out that it is not the removal of racial characteristics in the process of evolution that is an adaptive factor, but, on the contrary, their strengthening and consolidation. In the process of evolution, racial traits are a kind of adaptive toolkit, "evolutionary equipment", without which the biological development of a race is not possible. Racial traits are, both physically and mentally, the genetic “knots of strength” on which the entire structure of a person rests. Without them, degeneration and decay are inevitable.

The 1st international conference "Race: myth or reality?", held in Moscow from October 7 to 9, 1998 under the auspices of the Russian branch of the European Anthropological Association and with the support of numerous international and domestic specialized scientific institutions, provided a platform for geneticists .

In a collective study entitled "A new DNA marker as a racial diagnostic feature", the material on obtaining a new genetic marker CAcf685 on the 19th chromosome is analyzed, on the basis of which the value of the genetic distance Gst between Caucasoids and Mongoloids (in this case, the Chukchi) is estimated as sixfold. This marker is recognized as valuable in racial diagnostic terms.

The keynote speech of one of the best Russian geneticists Yu. G. Rychkov "Genetic foundations of the stability and variability of races" was devoted to the same topic. His report was a summary of many years of theoretical and practical research. In it, he said that despite the fact that human genetics has been at odds with anthropology for the past 35 years, nevertheless, molecular genetics is discovering more and more "so-called DNA markers that can be considered markers of racial differences."

The report of the well-known molecular biologist V. A. Spitsyn “The effectiveness of different categories of genetic markers in differentiating large anthropological communities” was devoted to the analysis of these new racial diagnostic markers.

S. A. Limborskaya, O. P. Balanovsky, S. D. Nurbaev in the collective work “Molecular genetic polymorphism in the study of population: the genogeography of Eastern Europe” speak of the great success achieved recently in deciphering the DNA of the human genome. “In the course of this work, a large number of highly polymorphic DNA markers suitable for population genetic studies were discovered. By studying living populations with the help of these markers, it is possible to obtain information about their genetic history and, in some cases, to date - with varying probability - important events associated with the origin of man, his races, and human settlement on a global scale. The results of the analysis of the racially complex region of Eastern Europe indicate the high resolution of DNA markers in the analysis of the gene pool.”

Based on the results of the named conference, a program document “The Problem of Race in Russian Physical Anthropology” (M., 2002) was published, which may well be considered the official position of Russian anthropological science. So, in particular, E. V. Balanovskaya indicated in her report, included in the general version, the following: “The objective classification of individual genotypes by DNA markers almost completely corresponds to racial classification.” She was supported by G. L. Khit, in turn, pointing out that each of the major racial groups of humanity has a unique combination of certain frequencies of key features inherent only to it. E. 3. Godina emphasized: "The main racial differences are largely formed already in the prenatal period."

The title of the book by A.F. Nazarova and S.M. Altukhov "Genetic portrait of the peoples of the world" (M., 1999) also speaks for itself, because it gives a detailed description of the frequencies of genes in all major and even many relict populations of mankind. And the leading domestic anthropologists A. A. Zubov and N. I. Khaldeeva in their joint article from the collection with the characteristic title “Race and racism. History and Modernity” (M., 1991) give the following conclusion: “It means “type”, i.e., the characteristic sum of genetic and morphophysiological features that mark certain groups within a species, is a very real phenomenon, and therefore, deserving of research.”

Not only Russian geneticists stand on the positions of racial distinction: it is the famous “Table of Genetic and Linguistic Distances between Nations” by the American geneticist L. Cavalli-Sforza that finally illustrates the objectivity of differences between biotypes. And his colleague J. Neal states that at present any individual can be attributed to one or another well-studied large ethnic community with an accuracy of 87%.

In a word, under the influence of new discoveries, as well as as a result of strict scientific criticism of the so-called. "mitochondrial" genetic theory, half a century of confrontation between "population geneticists" on the one hand and anthropologists and racologists on the other ends today. The existence of the great primordial races is no longer seriously disputed. After 130 years, in the course of intense research work of hundreds of scientists and fierce discussions of supporters and opponents of racology, the scientific community has finally matured, fully armed with arguments, to a simple conclusion made by I. I. Mechnikov back in 1878: “The differences between large human groups, peoples and races are so large and obvious that I even consider it superfluous to dwell on it.

Patterns on the skin are visible, but invisible to the naked eye when meeting a person. It takes effort to see them. As for the genes and blood molecules or earwax, they cannot be seen at all without an electron microscope. But in the human body there are signs that are easily noticeable to anyone: the shape of the head and body, facial features, the color of the skin, eyes, hair, etc. They testify, first of all, to the race of a person. And, of course, they have been studied since the earliest days of racial science.

Skull, brain, face and more

IMPORTANCE of turtle science data - craniology- is absolutely indisputable. Another of the most recognized authorities of the Italian anthropological school, Giuseppe Sergi, in his monograph “Types and Varieties of the Human Race” (1900) wrote: “The skull is most important for classification. One skull can distinguish between ethnic elements that make up mixed groups. Primary classification is possible even according to one stable feature. The most stable brain and facial parts of the skull. From the most ancient times to our time, no new forms of skulls have appeared.

The classical school of anthropology by J. F. Blumenbach (1752–1840) found that it is the development of the brain that determines the formation of the human skull, but not vice versa. Its representative S. T. Sommering (1755-1830) wrote: "It must be assumed that nature forms the cranial bones so that they can adapt to the brain, but not vice versa." Much later, the famous Soviet geneticist N. P. Dubinin in the book “What is a person?” (M., 1983) outlined a similar set of ideas: “The human brain has genetically determined properties. For the normal development of the brain, a normal genetic program is needed. It has been proven that 5/6 of the human brain is formed after birth. Anthropological collection "Problems of the evolutionary morphology of man and his races" (M., 1986) does not leave any ambiguity in this matter: V.P. : "In the pair" brain - cranium "the brain was the leader". Therefore, it is so important to know and correctly interpret the racial differences of the skull in the dynamics of their age development.

Let's dwell on the most noticeable and relevant of them, and these are, first of all, the cranial sutures. Due to the extreme importance of the specificity of the overgrowing of the skull sutures in representatives of different races, as well as the clarity and indisputability of this racial diagnostic feature in the study of sociocultural processes, Professor V.N. Zvyagin even suggested using a special name - suturology- the science of the study of patterns of cranial sutures.

And that's what this science reveals.

Russian craniologist D. N. Anuchin (the Institute of Anthropology of the Russian Academy of Sciences bears his name) in his work “On some anomalies of the human skull and mainly on their distribution by race” (M., 1880) dwelled in detail on pterion- a small area of ​​​​the surface of the skull, on each of the sides of which, in the temporal fossa, four bones converge: frontal, parietal, temporal and main. This area is a good racial diagnostic marker, because different types of its anomalies in terms of frequency in large human races have a difference of 4–8 times. A prominent German anthropologist of the same time, Georg Buschan, confirmed all the conclusions of D. N. Anuchin regarding the racial delimiting function of the pterion site. He pointed out: “Pterion is a zone of connection of the temporal, frontal, parietal and sphenoid (basic) bones. Usually, the upper edge of the large wing of the sphenoid bone reaches the anterior-lower edge of the parietal bone, separating the temporal bone from the frontal; the seams present here then form a figure in the genus of the letter "H". But occasionally it happens that a process extends forward from the anterior edge of the temporal bone, connecting with a suture to the frontal bone. In higher races, this process is very rare. Among Europeans in 1.6%, among Mongols and Malays in 3.7%, among lower races, on the contrary, it is relatively frequent, so among the black race up to 13%, among Australians up to 15.6%, among Papuans up to 8.6% . This attitude suggests that the connection of the temporal bone with the frontal by means of a process should be considered as a lower (pithecoid) formation, and this is all the more so since we meet it constantly in the gorilla, chimpanzee and most other monkeys.

Eugen Fischer also wrote: “Sometimes there is a connective bone between these four bones that form the region of the pterion. In the lower races, the frontal bone and the temporal bone come into contact much more frequently than in the higher races. We observe this, for example, in Europeans - 1.5% of cases, in Mongols - in 3.8%, in Australians - in 9%, in blacks - in 11.8%, in gibbons - in 13.7%, in orangutans - 33.6%, chimpanzees - 77%, gorillas - 100%. Undoubtedly, the presence of the frontotemporal suture depends to a large extent on the relative size of the brain. The more the brain expands the skull, the more the frontal and temporal bones will diverge, the less often they will be able to connect into a seam.

The next, even more important marker, according to Anuchin, is an metopism(a seam formed at the junction of the two halves of the frontal bone). Avdeev states the importance of this indicator as follows: “This frontal suture overgrows in most newborn babies, but in some individuals it persists for life. It is precisely this anomaly of the skull that is an excellent racial diagnostic and, as a result, sociocultural marker. It is the frontal lobes of the brain, which are responsible for the highest manifestations of the human psyche and intellect, that in some individuals during the initial phase of growth exert increased pressure on the corresponding sections of the frontal bone, pushing them apart, which, in turn, causes the appearance of a frontal suture called metopism. According to Anuchin's observations, metopic, that is, with a frontal suture, skulls have a capacity of 3-5% more than ordinary ones.

Further, analyzing the frequency of occurrence of metopism in different races and peoples, he draws the following conclusion: “The table of observational results shows that the frontal suture is much more common among Europeans than among other races. While for the various series of European skulls the percentage of metopism is found to vary from 16 to 5, the series of skulls of the lower races in most cases only 3.5-0.6 percent. A certain correlation seems to exist between the inclination towards metopism and the intelligence of a race. We see, for example, that in many races the more intelligent tribes represent a greater percentage of metopic sutures. Among the highest representatives of the Mongolian and white races, it is expressed in a figure at least 8-9 times greater than among the Australians and Negroes.

Subsequently, on the basis of statistical data, a generalization was made, according to which individuals with a preserved frontal suture have larger brain mass, and this increase is not only absolute, but also relative, that is, not associated with an increase in body size. Preservation of the frontal suture, in turn, affected the higher level of mental and intellectual abilities of these individuals.

Of particular importance for the development of the question of metopism works of Russian scientists. An article by V. V. Maslovsky, published in the Russian Anthropological Journal for 1926, volume 15, no. 1-2, bears the special title "On Metopism". In it, the author, developing the ideas of Anuchin, writes: “Thus, the phenomenon of preserving the frontal suture in a person can be viewed as a phenomenon associated with the improvement of his organization. Such a dissection of the skull into paired frontal bones is a favorable factor both for the contents of the skull and for itself. The growth of the latter in various directions occurs due to the presence of sutures "... Finally, such a luminary of anthropology as V.V. Bunak in the article "On the crests on the skull of primates" (Russian Anthropological Journal, volume 12: book 3-4, 1922) wrote: " An abnormal frontal suture in humans is observed more often in cultural races, which is associated with an increase in the brain and its increasing pressure on the frontal bone "...

Among foreign scientists involved in the anomalies of the skull in the context of racial systematics, it is necessary to highlight the following names: Georges Papillot (1863-?), Georg Bouchand (1863-1942), Marciano Limson (1893-?), Wenzel Leopold Gruber (1814-1890), Johann Ranke ( 1836-1916), Hermann Welker (1822-1897), Josef Girtl (1811-1894), Paolo Mantegazza (1831-1910). The famous Swedish anthropologist and anatomist, Professor of Stockholm University Wilhelm Lehe in his book “Man, His Origin and Evolutionary Development” (M., 1913), summing up numerous studies in different countries in the field of anomalies of the skull sutures, gave such a clear and detailed summary: “ ... That the preservation of the frontal suture is indeed usually a criterion of mental superiority must follow from the fact that skulls with this feature are more common among civilized peoples than among savages. In this regard, I want to mention that so far no great ape skull has been described with a preserved frontal suture. Georg Bushan in his famous book The Science of Man (Moscow, 1911) emphasized: “Metopism is the property of the higher races. Metopic skulls have a greater weight, a more complex structure of the sutures, and a longer non-overgrowth of the sutures. The lower races give a smaller percentage of such skulls than the higher, the so-called cultured peoples.

Another master of classical German anthropology, who specialized precisely in the field of comparative morphology, Eugen Fischer, in his fundamental textbook Anthropology (1923) pointed out: “Racial differences in the frequency of metopism are associated with different brain capacities. We meet it, for example, among the Germans - 12.5% ​​of cases, on the skulls found in Pompeii - in 10.5%, among the ancient Egyptians - in 7%, among Negroes - in 1% of cases.

The Spanish scientist Juan Comas, in his dissertation “On the study of metopism” (1942), testified in exactly the same spirit: “Anuchin was one of the first to put forward a hypothesis about a direct connection between metopism and intelligence, that is, the trait is more common in higher races and, therefore, its can be considered a feature of progressive evolution, indicating the tendency of an organism to modify its usual type of skull.

The famous German anthropologist Karl Vogt, in his book “Man and his place in nature” (St. Petersburg, 1866), summarizing the data of contemporary science, stated: “The Negro skull follows a different law regarding the fusion of its seams than the white skull: that the anterior sutures, frontal and coronal, like in a monkey, fuse very early, much earlier than the posterior ones, while in the white man the order of fusion of the sutures is completely reversed. If so, then there is no particular boldness in suggesting that in the brain of a Negro there may be the same simian course of development that is proved in his skull.

Another well-known German anthropologist Robert Wiedersheim later confirmed this point of view, emphasizing in his book “The structure of man from a comparative anatomical point of view” (M., 1900): “Graziola showed that the seams in higher races disappear in a different sequence than in lower . In the latter, like in monkeys, the process always begins in front, from the frontal region of the skull, that is, on the border of the frontal and parietal bones, and from here it goes back. Needless to say, this is reflected in the early formation of the anterior lobes of the brain, which in the higher (white) races, where the fronto-parietal suture is obliterated after the occipital-parietal suture, can develop even further. This must be put in connection with the mental difference of the tribes.

Complete the topic of cranial sutures- the subject of suturology - we can quote from the monograph “A New Theory of the Origin of Man and His Degeneration” (Warsaw, 1907) by the largest Russian racologist V.A. capable of learning and as intelligent as a white man. But as soon as the fatal period of manhood sets in, then, together with the fusion of the cranial sutures and protrusion of the jaws, the same process is observed in them as in monkeys: the individual becomes incapable of development. The critical period, when the brain begins to decline, occurs much earlier in the Negro than in the white, and this is evidenced by the earlier fusion of the sutures of the skull in the Negro.

But the story about cranial sutures will be incomplete if we do not once again emphasize the importance of this parameter as a racial diagnostic feature. The book by A. G. Kozintsev “Ethnic cranioscopy. Racial variability of the sutures of the skull of modern man” (Leningrad, 1988). Unlike liberal biased anthropologists, who are only busy with “erasing” and “removing” racial features, A. G. Kozintsev sees the goal of his work in the exact opposite: “The polymorphism of some features allows you to change the traditional course of research, rebuilding, and even creating morphological schemes with a special calculation for increasing the effectiveness of race differentiation and, in some cases, for reducing the role of other factors, in particular age.

Analyzing the results of practical research, the author of the monograph states that the frequency of the race-delimiting feature in the bones occipital-mastoid suture for Caucasians it averages 6.4%, and for Mongoloids - 16.6%. Based on morphologically close occipital index (OI) racial differences are even more pronounced. So, for Caucasoids, the frequency of this feature is 8.4%, and for Mongoloids - 48.5%. The occipital index of the second order (ZI II) also effectively helps to distinguish between races: 2.8% for Caucasians and 13.4% for Mongoloids. “When considering the values ​​of the occipital index (SI) and (SI II), one gets the impression that the trait “works” only at the level of large races. No regularities in the distribution of frequencies within the Caucasoid and Mongoloid complexes can be identified.”

A. G. Kozintsev writes further: “We have analyzed about 30 signs related to the sutures of the skull, and identified six main, most valuable. Caucasoid and Mongoloid races, as we remember, differ in all the main features. For a total quantitative assessment of these differences, the author of the book introduces a special Mongoloid-Caucasoid index (MEI). In Caucasoid populations, it ranges from 13 to 39, and in Mongoloids from 54 to 82.5.

Representatives of the Nordic race are also easily distinguished from other Caucasians with the help of North European Index (NEI). "The value of both indicators (MEI) and (SEI) in northern Europeans is higher than in southern ones." The clear and reasoned conclusion given by A. G. Kozintsev in the book leaves no room for misunderstandings and speculations. “Racial indexes are a simple but effective means of analysis. Five features - the occipital index, the sphenomaxillary suture, the posterior zygomatic suture, the complexity index of the infraorbital pattern, and the index of the transverse palatal suture - serve primarily to distinguish between Caucasoids and Mongoloids. Combinations of features have greater delimiting power than individual features. The Mongoloid-Caucasoid Index (MEI) and the First Principal Component (GC I) are extremely effective in separating Mongoloids and Caucasoids. Differentiation within the Caucasoid race can be traced with the help of the Northern European Index (NEI) and the second main component (II GC).

Beyond the seams, in the structure of the human skull is noticeable many other racial diagnostic markers with a good discriminant effect. The prominent German anthropologist Robert Wiedersheim wrote in this regard: The nasal bones, which usually remain separate, sometimes fuse into one bone., and this is much more common in the lower races than in the higher ones. Since such fusion is normal for monkeys, we probably have one of the atavistic phenomena in it in humans. In chimpanzees, it occurs already in the second year of life.

Let us briefly point out other parameters of the skull that are essential for the differentiation and diagnosis of races.

Infraorbital Pattern Complexity Index (ISPU) possesses the greatest separation power. For Caucasoids, it is 38.0, and for Mongoloids - 57.9. And this is natural, because the eyes of different races have different mounting equipment. This feature also "works" at the level of large races. Peoples, nations, ethnic groups and tribes are indeed the result of a later historical process, but the gigantic abyss of irreducible racial differences testifies in favor of the prehistoric, namely, the biological nature of their origin.

A.P. Pestryakov in the article “Differentiation of the large Mongoloid race according to the data of the generalized total dimensions of the cranium” (in Sat.: Historical dynamics of racial and ethnic differentiation of the population of Asia. - M., 1987) wittily notes that the size of the brain is a “biological birthmark on the body of a race." Further, the author develops his idea: “It is necessary to stipulate the well-known scientific fact that there is a so-called "brain rubicon", i.e., the minimum, but sufficiently large, necessary volume of the brain, starting from which its carrier - a person - can function as a social being. The average group size of the cranium can be an important parameter in the study of the racial history of mankind ”... A.P. Pestryakov, on the basis of material that is completely different from that of other authors, comes to the same conclusion that according to the size of the cranial capsule Caucasoids vary least of all and Mongoloids are most polymorphic, which indicates their "possible racial heterogeneity." The scatter of signs in the latter is 2–2.5 times greater than in Caucasians, while in Negroids and American Indians it is 1.5–2 times greater than in the Caucasian race. From which we can make a legitimate conclusion that of all the large races - Caucasians - the most homogeneous. "We are studying generalized quantitative characteristics of the cranium are more stable over time than most descriptive racial-morphological characters. From this statement of the author of the article follows the conclusion that racial characteristics, especially as important as the size of the brain, are indeed a “birthmark” that cannot be washed away in the process of historical development, as science charlatans want. “The proposed parameters can serve as good anthropological markers in the study of ethnogenetic processes. An analysis of the values ​​of generalized parameters in craniological series allows us to distinguish racial filiation, as well as inclusions that are foreign from a craniological point of view.”

In this regard, any racial parameters of the skull in general, of which there are many, are of particular interest.

For example, in an article on racial craniology: "World distribution occipito-parietal index» Yu. D. Benevolenskaya compares the average value of this indicator for the main races:

Caucasians - 91.6

Mongoloids - 96.6

Caucasians - 0.738

Mongoloids - 0.581

Negroids have 0.706.

There is a common, unsupported opinion that Caucasoids are anthropologically closer to Mongoloids than to Negroids, but this indicator clearly shows the depth of the difference between the first and second - 27%.

"The Caucasoid series show less dispersion than the Mongoloid series and a closer intergroup relationship with the vertical-longitudinal index." In general, this suggests that Mongoloids are less racially homogeneous than Caucasians.

In the collection "Historical dynamics of racial and ethnic differentiation of the population of Asia" (M., 1987) Yu. D. Benevolenskaya in the article "Racial differentiation in Asia (according to the structure of the frontal part of the skull)" based on fronto-sagittal index(LSI) also speaks of "the greatest consolidation of Caucasians compared to other races."

Finally, in the collection “Problems of the evolutionary morphology of man and his races” (M., 1986), the same Benevolenskaya in the article “Racial variations in the signs of the cranial vault” in addition to this writes: “Since the races are not similar, they are of different quality in the type and scale of intra-racial race-forming processes, racial diagnostics according to LSI looks peculiar in each case. Thus, Caucasoids are the most consolidated race, and this is probably why (LSI) the fronto-sagittal index does not give clear racial distinctions within Caucasoids. The LSI reveals the greatest differences within the Mongoloid race.

Among the more modern collective works, the collection “The Unity and Diversity of the Human Race” (M., 1997) should be noted. In it, Yu. D. Benevolenskaya, one of the recognized leading experts in the field of craniology, develops to the logical limit the original concept of the original existence of two extreme variants of facial morphology in mankind. “The results of the analysis lead to the conclusion that there are two main racial components. Caucasoid type reveals features trapezoidal morphotype, eastern - rectangular. The idea of ​​the existence of these morphotypes finds a biological justification for one of the factors of polymorphism in human populations. Moreover, both of these morphotypes reflect the evolutionary stages in the development of races. Turning to the structure of morphotypes, we see that the rectangular morphotype is most characteristic of the features of the initial phase of growth, the trapezoid - the final phase.

This concept of morphotypes is easily linked with the theory of the non-adaptive size of the brain by V.P. Alekseev and, depending on the size of the cranium, set by the brain in the process of “growth phases”, it makes it possible to speak scientifically of “higher” and “lower” races. Moreover, the idea of ​​these morphotypes "finds a biological justification" in that one of them belongs to the initial, that is, the lower phase of growth, and the other to the final, that is, the higher phase.

Benevolenskaya continues: “These “building elements”, that is, two morphotypes as the fundamental basis of diversity, do not dissipate without a trace in the new phase of human differentiation at the level of formed races, but are traced in their basis.” This means that the higher have always been and will be higher, and the lower - lower: "The hypothesis of dimorphism can be formulated as a phenomenon of parallelism of races." That is, according to the author, the difference in types indicates the mutual independence of their origin.

Another author of the collection "Problems of the evolutionary morphology of man and his races" Yu. K. Chistov in the article "Racial differences in median-sagittal contour of the human skull" on the basis of another morphological parameter draws a similar conclusion: "The Caucasoid series differ the least in terms of the sum of the linear characteristics of the contour of the skull, and the equatorial groups most of all." He, in the monograph “Differentiation of human races according to the structure of the median-sagittal contour of the skull” (M., 1983) indicates: “The results of the studies obtained allow us to speak with sufficient confidence about the presence of certain differences in the shape of the sagittal contour of the human cranium in the “northern” and “ southern" populations of modern man. The intraracial values ​​of this indicator differ significantly from the interracial ones, i.e., representatives of contrasting racial types differ from each other both in terms of the sum of degree and linear characteristics of the median-sagittal contour. One of the most interesting conclusions is the statement of the fact that modern craniological series differ just as much in the magnitudes of the degree and linear characteristics of the frontal part of the contour, as in the pattern of the occipital region.

It was all taken together that science knows today about the human skull that allowed T. V. Tomashevich at the 1st international conference "Race: myth or reality?" name your report “It is better to consider the differences of races as real”.

In fact, we have nothing to add to this extremely delicate and politically correct statement.

Meanwhile, the skull is important for a person not in itself, but insofar as it is the receptacle and repository of the highest organ of spiritual activity - the brain. And here it is appropriate to talk about those differences in the structure and functions of this organ, due to all the above differences in the structure of the skull.

In the most general form, these differences are expressed in the data neurophysiology and psychiatry.

In the works of such scientists as F. Tiedemann (1781–1861), P. Graziole (1815–1865), K. Vogt (1817–1895), W. Waldeyer (1836–1921), G. Retzius (1842–1919) , J. G. F. Kolbrugge (1865-?), C. Giacomini (1840–1898), A. Ecker (1818–1887), A. Weisbach (1836–1914), G. Schwalbe (1844–1916), D. N. Zernov (1843–1917), a conscious and purposeful study of the specifics and forms of the structure of the brain of various human races begins, unshakably establishing their initial deep difference.

Founder phrenology F. J. Gall (1758–1828) identified 27 main zones - organs (as he called them) of localization of higher mental functions, the degree of development of which determines the main mental and cultural differences between individuals, tribes and entire races. He wrote: “It is also known that peoples with large brains rise above peoples with small brains to such an extent that they conquer and oppress them as they please. The Indian brain is much smaller than the European brain, and everyone knows how a few thousand Europeans conquered and now keep millions of Hindus in bondage. In the same way, the brain of the American native is smaller than the brain of the European, and the same thing happened to America as it happened to India.”

Relentlessly testing his hypotheses in practice, Gall calculated that the capacity of the skull in the white race is from 75 to 109 cubic inches, while in the Mongoloid race it extends from 69 to 93 inches. According to the volume, the weight of the brain of different races also changes. In the future, similar observations were covered by all major races and peoples. Volume and weight of the brain have become a recognized racial marker.

In addition to significant differences in the weight of the brain and its parts in representatives of large human races and even individual nationalities, differences in convolution organization.

One of the first to study racial differences in the structure of the brain was the well-known Russian anthropologist D. N. Zernov. His work with the characteristic title "Convolutions of the brain as a tribal trait" was published as early as 1873, and in 1877 he published a fundamental monograph "Individual types of cerebral convolutions in humans."

Another domestic scientist A. S. Arkin in his article “On racial features in the structure of the human cerebral hemispheres” (Journal of neuropathology and psychiatry named after S. S. Korsakov, book 3-4, 1909) derived such new racial signs: “Middle frontal the sulcus is a sulcus, which, to a greater extent than other sulci of the brain, is subject to changes and has different outlines in representatives of different races. In addition, based on a huge foreign material, Arkin throughout the article talks about "brains rich in convolutions, which, as you know, are considered to be more perfectly arranged." The conclusion in Arkin's work is simple and convincing: "Racial differences in the structure of the brain have favorite furrows and convolutions, where they appear more often and in relief."

Arkin's fundamental discovery can be considered the conclusion that "the most characteristic racial differences are noted in the area association centers". These centers have a relatively later development compared to other parts of the brain. They also easily read the external morphological differences in the structure of the brain in representatives of the "higher" and "lower" races.

His contemporary and compatriot R. L. Veinberg in the article "On the Teaching of the Shape of the Human Brain" (Russian Anthropological Journal, 1902, N4) revealed racial differences in the structure of the Roland and Sylvius furrows. The eminent German anthropologist Karl Vogt also wrote in this connection: "The Sylvian fissure of the Negro has a more vertical direction, and so does the Roland fissure."

The greatest French anthropologist Paul Topinard in his fundamental book Anthropology (1879) emphasized: “The convolutions are thicker, wider and less complex in the lower races. The nerves of the Negroes, and especially the nerves of the base of the brain, are thicker; the substance of their brain is not as white as that of Europeans.

Possessing a thicker bone of the skull, as the ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote about, representatives of the Negroid race therefore naturally have a lower threshold of pain sensitivity. Karl Vogt was the first to discover that impact strength of brain substance in blacks exceeds this figure in white Caucasians. "The substance of the brain of a Negro is incomparably denser and harder than that of a white man," Vogt declared. This neurophysiological fact was pointed out as far back as the second half of the 19th century by boxing associations, refusing to compete with black athletes on the grounds that they were less sensitive to pain than whites.

Jean-Joseph Virey developed in the same direction our ideas about the specificity of the Negro brain: “In Negroes, the gray matter of the brain has a darker Colour. But the main thing is that blacks have much more than Europeans, developed peripheral nervous system, and the central one, on the contrary, is smaller. It seems that the brain of the Negroes has partially gone into the nerves, as if animal life developed at the expense of mental life.

What is summary result all the differences described above in the structure of the skull and the brain located in it? It manifests itself in objective figures obtained by neurophysiology, psychiatry and psychology.

If Caucasians have an average IQ (intelligence indicator) of 100, then Negroids have no more than 70, and Mongoloids (but not all: Chinese, Japanese) have 102. These are the same differences in reaction speed. Canadian professor J. Philip Rushton writes in this connection, in the highly publicized study Evolution and Behavior of Races: “Larger heads (containing more developed brains) are in direct correlation with intelligence. Large heads tend to shine with their intellect. This correlation is also true for different racial groups. At the age of seven, African children are 16% larger than European children, but their brain perimeter is 8% smaller ... Blacks have an average of 480 million fewer neurons in their heads than whites. With a small brain in a large body, they are less intellectually gifted, because most of the Negro brain is occupied with vital functions, and not with conscious thoughts.

It is truly no secret that there is a direct and significant connection not only between the structure of the skull and the brain (where the brain, we recall, is the main shaping agent), but also the brain, skull and face. And in the face, thus, the main psychological features of its carrier, the properties of his mind and character are imprinted. On this basis such science builds its conclusions as physiognomy, founded by the Swiss thinker I.-K. Lavater.

Here again we are dealing with racial differences. Professor I. A. Sikorsky in his monograph “General Psychology with Physiognomy” (Kyiv, 1904) stated in this connection: “The black race belongs to the least gifted on the globe. In the structure of the body of its representatives, there are noticeably more points of contact with the class of monkeys than in other races. The capacity of the skull and the weight of the brain of blacks are less than in other races, and, accordingly, spiritual abilities are less developed. The Negroes never constituted a large state and did not play a leading or prominent role in history, although they were in remote times much more widespread numerically and territorially than later. The weakest side of the black individual and the black race is the mind: one can always see in portraits weak contraction of the superior orbital muscle, and even this muscle in Negroes is anatomically much less developed than in whites, meanwhile it is the true difference between man and animals, constituting a special human muscle.

Modern studies of the human face and its individual components (eyes, ears, teeth, etc.) have greatly contributed to the establishment of reliable racial diagnostic markers. The well-known Soviet anthropologist M. I. Uryson in his work “The relationship of the main morphological features of the human skull in the process of anthropogenesis” (M., 1964) wrote: “Based on the consideration of the skull as a total skeletal structure, it can be assumed that the progressive development of the brain exerted its influence not only on the formation of the brain box, but also through its change to the restructuring of the facial section. We are talking, therefore, about the mutual influence of the braincase and the facial part of the skull, as well as the factors that cause their change in the process of evolution of the skull.

Today, in the arsenal of modern science there is such an accurate and impartial method of racial diagnostics as anthropological photography. The work of N. N. Tsvetkova “Anthropological photography as a source for research on ethnic photography” (M., 1976) serves as a clear and convincing illustration of this. In it, she writes: “As a result of the analysis of photometric features, it was revealed that almost all angular dimensions of the face have good group delimiting properties. They have an intergroup range of more than two standards.” This means that the value of objective racial differences in the structure of the face among representatives of different races consistently exceeds the measurement error.

In general, the racial geometry of the face is as follows. Caucasoids, according to photometric data, have the most direct profile along the upper facial angle, and the latter (83–87°) is always larger than the midfacial angle (81°), a relatively small angle of protrusion of the nose to the horizontal (57–63°), a very strong protrusion of the nose to the line profile (21–27°) and a straight upper lip (85–91°).

Mongoloids are distinguished by a tendency to mesognathism in the upper facial angle and the angle of protrusion of the upper lip (72–82°). Their upper facial angle (82–87°) is always less than the mid-facial angle (83–88°). The angle of protrusion of the nose to the horizontal is the largest (65–72°) among all the studied groups.

Negroids are prognathous (that is, they have a sharply protruding lower jaw) along the upper (73–77 °) and midfacial (76–80 °) angles and the angle of protrusion of the upper lip.

This again means that the racial and ethnic type is an objective reality and can be accurately measured not only in general, but also in individual parts of the portrait.

In the modern collection of works "Problems of the evolutionary morphology of man and his races" (Moscow, 1986), the topic under discussion is taken to a qualitatively new level. So in the article "Prospects for the use of near stereophotogrammetry in anthropology", created by a team of authors: L. P. Vinnikov, I. G. Indichenko, I. M. Zolotareva, A. A. Zubov, G. V. Lebedinskaya - it is said that that high-quality color photography allows you to identify all the nuances of pigmentation of the eyes, skin, hair, as well as determine the interpupillary distances and protrusion of the eyeball. In this connection, the authors of this development believe that the method they propose: "... opens up broad prospects for an extremely detailed study of the surface of a person's face and can be used with great success in ethnic anthropology."

So, it is quite obvious that the racial proportions of the "features" and the whole head as a whole, perceived in the process of anthropo-aesthetic evaluation, is a real fact.

One of the classics of the German anthropological school, Baron Egon von Eickstedt, in his basic monograph "Racology and Racial History of Humanity" (1937-1943) linked the features of the morphology of the face of various races with the evolution of their development:

“In relation to the comparative morphology of the soft parts, two main phenomena should be mentioned that are of evolutionary significance. This is, firstly, the presence of Jacobson's organ, a short rudimentary passage with a blind end in the anterior lower part of the nasal septum, which performs a special functional task in lower species. Further, the lateral parts of the posterior cartilage are of interest, which in progressive Caucasoids branch towards the end, and in primitive races, like the Melanesians, form a continuous wide plate. This is an intermediate form leading to the great apes.

The square muscle in primitive, especially dark-skinned races is also much more compact than in Caucasians, in which individual parts of the fibers have developed so much that French anatomists generally consider them to be separate muscles. Small transverse tissues of the nasal muscle usually strongly correlate with the general nature of the skin covering of the soft parts. Therefore, their thickness usually also corresponds to a stronger descent and more fleshiness of the wings of the nose, sometimes even, as is often found in Jews and pseudo-Jewish types in New Guinea, a greater thickness of the folds of the eyelids and lower lip. In Negroes and Paleo-Mongoloids, few tissues can be completely lost in spongy connective tissue. This massiveness gives rise to deep grooves at the wings of the nose, which on flat faces run in an almost continuous line from the corner of the eye through the wing of the nose to the lower jaw.

If we draw a general evolutionary picture of what the muscles of the nasal region show, then the same is even more clearly expressed here as in the region of the orbits: the higher the forms, the greater the differentiation of the muscles. Lips are a characteristic feature of both an individual and a racial face, they say a lot about the mental type of a person. The region of the mouth is the most expressive and indicative in terms of racial physiognomy.

If we also take into account the areas of the orbits, nose and cheeks, then the general direction of the evolutionary development of the muscles of the human face becomes clear. In all cases, the higher the evolutionary stage, the higher the possibilities of muscle mass differentiation. There are only different forms of expression of one basic tendency. Thus, we can see and unravel the secrets and relationships of the origin of species and its constructive paths using a specific example.

We can judge the intermediate stages of human evolution by the atavistic modern forms of primitive races. In them, the entire muscular mass of the middle part of the face is thicker and less differentiated. In general, non-differentiation should be considered a sign of primitiveness. Massive and repeatedly intertwined muscular connections are still characteristic of the Mongoloids.

Although thickening of the lips is especially characteristic of Negroids, it is more or less common in other races, for example, among the Eastern Veddoids. Very thick lips in the southern Chinese, relatively narrow in the primitive Austroloids, very narrow in the North American Indians. A disproportionately thick lower lip may be a hereditary trait of an entire people, as, for example, among the Jews.

A childish mouth with indistinct contours, like that of European children, is found in infantile primitive races. The contour of the upper lip and crescent-shaped mouth opening is typical of Western Veddoids, especially women.

On the Nordic profile, the lips do not protrude, while in the southern races they protrude. The latter phenomenon is often associated with a subsidence of the contour of the profile, a concave snout typical of Negroes.

An unsurpassed storehouse of information on questions of racial physiognomy is also the book The Language of the Human Face (1938) by the prominent German anatomist and physician F. Lange, not to mention the aforementioned Lavater.

We will not dwell on the most obvious differences in the racial appearance of the various inhabitants of the Earth. Parts of the face- skin color, hair, shape and color of eyes, nose, hair, lips, ears, teeth, facial contours are the most significant in the ethno-racial characteristics of the perceived appearance. According to these indicators, even a five-year-old child at first glance will distinguish a Negroid from a Mongoloid and a Caucasoid.

Let us quote only briefly two specialists in regard to the racial structure of the eyes and hair.

J.-J. Virey: “Some animals have a third eyelid. In humans, it is rudimentary, but in Europeans it is much less pronounced than in Negroes, who in this respect are close to orangutans. The distance between the European and the Negro is small compared to the abyss that separates man from the great apes. However, the physical forms of the Negroes are to some extent intermediate between European and ape.

N. A. Dubova: “If among representatives of the Mongoloid race, epicanthus, one of its most characteristic features, occurs in 20-100% of cases, then among Caucasians this figure varies from 0 to 10% of cases. Straight hair is common among both Mongoloids, American Indians, and Caucasians, but they never occur among classical Negroids. Australoids, including Veddoids, are characterized by broad and narrow wavy hair. What distinguishes Mongoloids and American Indians from Caucasians is the considerable stiffness of straight hair (a trait that is almost never found in Caucasians).”

The human skeleton, especially in the pelvis in women(because it is the female pelvis that forms the hereditary shape of the skull of each race) also makes it possible to detect permanent racial differences. Well-known Western anthropologists P. Broca, P. Topinar and S. T. Sommering compared the pelvis of the "lower" races with the pelvis of monkeys. Franz Prüner-Bey, due to the clarity and accuracy of the feature, generally proposed to abandon the classification of races according to the structure of the skull and switch to a classification of races according to the shape of the pelvis. The branch of anthropology concerned with the study of racial differences in the pelvis is called pelvimetry. Racial differences are quantified using Turner input pointer.

Of the Russian classical works on this topic, one can name the works of M. I. Lutokhin “Historical Review of the Literature on Racial Differences in the Pelvis” (M., 1899) or V. A. Moshkov “A New Theory of the Origin of Man and His Degeneration” (Warsaw, 1907) . The well-known Russian ethnographer and anthropologist O. V. Milchevsky in his essay “The Foundations of the Science of Anthropoethnology” (Moscow, 1868) emphasized in the same connection: “The forms of the pelvis in relation to various tribes were studied quite thoroughly by Weber. With a more elongated shape, more vertical and higher iliac bones, a narrower and higher sacrum, the pelvis of the Hottentot, or booty, closely approaches the pelvis of animals ... Professor Weber even divides people into 4 classes, looking at the different shapes of their pelvises, oval (Europeans), round (Indians), quadrangular (Mongols), wedge-shaped (among black races).

This section of physical anthropology later received a thorough scientific development. Racial pelvimetry reached its highest peak in the works of Egon von Eickstedt, as he pointed out in particular: “Racial differences in the size of the pelvis are significant and are not explained only by the size of the body, but are due to racial variations in heredity. So the basins of the Veddoids, Negritos and Paleo-Mongoloids (in Japan), both absolutely and relatively, are smaller than those of Europeans. The Negro pelvises are distinguished by their small size, narrowness and height, while in Europeans the lateral and anterior edges of the ilium diverge widely. The transverse-oval shape prevails in Caucasians, round in Negroids. The Chinese have different shapes, but in the southern brachycephals, the transverse oval shape predominates. Among the racial differences is the tilt of the pelvis. The Japanese have a small one.

Quite a few other fragments of the skeleton (for example, tibia, etc.) also have persistent racial differences both in form and, as Russian science has found out, in content (biochemical). So, in the collection under the characteristic title "Ethnography, anthropology and related disciplines: correlation of subject and method" (M., 1989) we will find a bright and convincing article by M. V. Kozlovskaya "The experience of studying the epoch-making dynamics of the variability of some physiological characteristics", in which on the basis of biochemical processes, an unambiguous confirmation of the hypothesis of the initial existence of two morphotypes and the parallelism of races is given. The author of the article analyzes such an important biochemical factor for human anthropology as mineralization of bone tissues of the skeleton, which is also a racial trait, rigidly genetically determined. M. V. Kozlovskaya confirms: “A high level of mineralization is not functionally necessary, but is reproduced by genetically determined mechanisms. The concentration of microelements in bone tissue is a complex of various indicative features.

There are also other signs racial differences, no less vivid and unchanged, although not always visible to the naked eye. Today, despite ideological and political slingshots, they are recognized and taken into account not only by fundamental science (racology, anthropology), but also by applied sciences directly related to the life of the human masses, for example, medicine. Thus, the title of AI Kozlov's report "Accounting for racial characteristics in preventive cardiology" speaks for itself, because it indicates a deep understanding of the practical daily significance of racial differences. Patients of different races are arranged differently, they suffer from the same disease in different ways, they need to be treated differently: to understand this means saving many lives.

It would be possible to delve into all the subtleties and nuances of racial differences again and again, but it seems that what has been said is more than enough to repeat, following the modern Russian researcher G. A. Aksyanova: “The polymorphism of those physical features of modern humanity that are called racial, exists regardless of the positive or negative attitude to the term "race" itself. The historical intertwining of this scientific term from the field of biological systematics with negative social manifestations does not change its biological essence when applied to a person. Racial differentiation in human morphology is an objective reality.

Notes:

Back in 1922, the Russian scientist V. G. Shtefko in the article “Biological reactions and their significance in the systematics of monkeys and humans” (Russian Anthropological Journal, volume 12, book 1–2, 1922) made a significant conclusion: “Considerations expressed on based on experimental data, lead us to an extremely important and highly interesting conclusion. The cultural races of mankind, such as the Europeans, have a more complex structure of the protein molecule than the lower races. Thus, from a biological, or rather, biochemical point of view, they are more complexly organized than the latter.

Avdeev V. B. Decree. Op., p. 289–290.

The report by N. A. Dubova (in the collection “The Problem of Race in Russian Physical Anthropology” - M., 2002) emphasizes: “Until now, there is not a single (!) Fact when very dark skin pigmentation, characteristic of equatorial groups, was would be noted for individuals whose ancestors were not born on the African, Australian or South Asian continents. Likewise, no light-skinned, light-eyed population has appeared in Africa or South Asia without an influx of migrants who had such signs.

As A. de Benois put it, population geneticists, creating their virtual, artificial populations, fell into an "optical illusion", denying the reality of racial differences visible to the naked eye. In Russian, this is called not to see the forest for the trees.

The population of our planet is so diverse that one can only be surprised. What kind of nationalities, nationalities you will not meet! Everyone has their own faith, customs, traditions, orders. Its beautiful and unusual culture. However, all these differences are formed only by the people themselves in the process of social historical development. And what underlies the differences that appear externally? After all, we are all very different:

• blacks;
• yellow-skinned;
• white;
• with different eye colors
• various heights, etc.

It is obvious that the reasons are purely biological, not dependent on the people themselves and formed over thousands of years of evolution. This is how the modern races of man were formed, which theoretically explain the visual diversity of human morphology. Let us consider in more detail what this term is, what is its essence and meaning.

The concept of "race of people"

What is a race? It is not a nation, not a people, not a culture. These concepts should not be confused. After all, representatives of different nationalities and cultures can freely belong to the same race. Therefore, the definition can be given such as the science of biology gives.

Human races are a set of external morphological features, that is, those that are the phenotype of a representative. They were formed under the influence of external conditions, the impact of a complex of biotic and abiotic factors, and were fixed in the genotype during evolutionary processes. Thus, the signs that underlie the division of people into races should include:

• growth;
• skin and eye color;
• structure and shape of hair;
• hairiness of the skin;
• features of the structure of the face and its parts.

All those signs of Homo sapiens as a biological species that lead to the formation of the external appearance of a person, but do not affect his personal, spiritual and social qualities and manifestations, as well as the level of self-development and self-education.

People of different races have a completely identical biological springboard for the development of certain abilities. Their general karyotype is the same:

• women - 46 chromosomes, that is, 23 pairs of XX;
• men - 46 chromosomes, 22 pairs XX, 23 pairs - XY.

This means that all representatives of a reasonable person are one and the same, among them there are no more or less developed, superior to others, higher. From a scientific point of view, everyone is equal.

Types of human races, formed over about 80 thousand years, have an adaptive value. It is proved that each of them was formed in order to provide a person with the possibility of a normal existence in a given habitat, to facilitate adaptability to climatic, relief and other conditions. There is a classification showing which races of Homo sapiens existed before, and which are at the present time.

Race classification

She is not alone. The thing is that until the 20th century it was customary to distinguish 4 races of people. These were the following varieties:

• Caucasian;
• australoid;
• negroid;
• Mongoloid.

For each, detailed characteristic features were described by which any individual of the human species could be identified. However, later the classification became widespread, which includes only 3 human races. This became possible due to the unification of the Australoid and Negroid groups into one.

Therefore, the modern types of human races are as follows.

1. Large: Caucasoid (European), Mongoloid (Asian-American), Equatorial (Australian-Negroid).
2. Small: many different branches that were formed from one of the large races.

Each of them is characterized by its own characteristics, signs, external manifestations in the appearance of people. All of them are considered by anthropologists, and the science itself that studies this issue is biology. Human races have interested people since ancient times. Indeed, completely contrasting external features often became the cause of racial strife and conflict.

Genetic studies of recent years allow again to talk about the division of the equatorial group into two. Consider all 4 races of people who stood out earlier and have become relevant again recently. We note the signs and features.

australoid race

Typical representatives of this group include the indigenous people of Australia, Melanesia, Southeast Asia, and India. Also the name of this race is Australo-Veddoid or Australo-Melanesian. All synonyms make it clear which minor races are included in this group. They are the following:

• australoids;
• veddoids;
• Melanesians.

In general, the characteristics of each group represented do not vary too much among themselves. There are several main features that characterize all small races of people of the Australoid group.

1. Dolichocephaly - an elongated shape of the skull in relation to the proportions of the rest of the body.
2. Deep-set eyes, wide slit. The color of the iris is predominantly dark, sometimes almost black.
3. The nose is wide, the bridge of the nose is pronounced flat.
4. The body hair is very well developed.
5. The hair on the head is dark in color (sometimes natural blonds are found among Australians, which was the result of a once-fixed natural genetic mutation of the species). Their structure is rigid, they can be curly or slightly curly.
6. The growth of people is average, often above average.
7. The physique is thin, elongated.

Within the Australoid group, people of different races differ from each other sometimes quite strongly. So, a native of Australia can be a tall blonde with a dense build, with straight hair, with light brown eyes. At the same time, the native of Melanesia will be a thin, short dark-skinned representative who has curly black hair and almost black eyes.

Therefore, the general features described above for the entire race are only an average version of their cumulative analysis. Naturally, miscegenation also takes place - a mixture of different groups as a result of natural crossing of species. That is why it is sometimes very difficult to identify a specific representative and attribute him to one or another small and large race.

Negroid race

The people who make up this group are the settlers of the following territories:

• Eastern, Central and Southern Africa;
• part of Brazil;
• some peoples of the USA;
• representatives of the West Indies.

In general, such races of people as Australoids and Negroids used to unite in the equatorial group. However, research in the 21st century has proved the failure of this order. After all, the differences in the signs shown between the designated races are too great. And some similarities are explained very simply. After all, the habitats of these individuals are very similar in terms of the conditions of existence, therefore, the adaptations in appearance are also close.

So, the representatives of the Negroid race are characterized by the following signs.

1. Very dark, sometimes blue-black, skin color, as it is especially rich in melanin content.
2. Wide eye slit. They are large, dark brown, almost black.
3. The hair is dark, curly, coarse.
4. Growth varies, often low.
5. The limbs are very long, especially the arms.
6. The nose is wide and flat, the lips are very thick, fleshy.
7. The jaw is devoid of a chin protrusion and protrudes forward.
8. Ears are large.
9. Facial hair is poorly developed, beard and mustache are absent.

Negroids are easy to distinguish from others by external data. Below are the different races of people. The photo reflects how clearly Negroids differ from Europeans and Mongoloids.

Mongoloid race

Representatives of this group are characterized by special features that allow them to adapt to rather difficult external conditions: desert sands and winds, blinding snow drifts, and so on.

Mongoloids are the indigenous people of Asia and much of America. Their characteristic features are as follows.

1. Narrow or slanting eyes.
2. The presence of epicanthus - a specialized skin fold aimed at covering the inner corner of the eye.
3. The color of the iris is light to dark brown.
4. characterized by brachycephaly (short head).
5. Superciliary ridges thickened, strongly protruding.
6. Sharp high cheekbones are well defined.
7. The hairline on the face is poorly developed.
8. The hair on the head is coarse, dark in color, of a straight structure.
9. The nose is not wide, the bridge of the nose is low.
10. Lips of different thickness, usually narrow.
11. Skin color varies in different representatives from yellow to swarthy, there are also fair-skinned people.

It should be noted that another characteristic feature is short stature, both in men and women. It is the Mongoloid group that prevails in numbers, if we compare the main races of people. They populated almost all climatographic zones of the Earth. Close to them in terms of quantitative characteristics are Caucasians, which we will consider below.

Caucasian race

First of all, we will designate the predominant habitats of people from this group. This is:

• Europe.
• North Africa.
• Western Asia.

Thus, representatives unite the two main parts of the world - Europe and Asia. Since the living conditions were also very different, then the general signs are again an average option after analyzing all the indicators. Thus, the following features of appearance can be distinguished.

1. Mesocephaly - medium head in the structure of the skull.
2. Horizontal section of the eyes, absence of strongly pronounced superciliary ridges.
3. Narrow protruding nose.
4. Lips of different thickness, usually of medium size.
5. Soft curly or straight hair. There are blondes, brunettes, brown-haired.
6. Eye color from light blue to brown.
7. Skin color also varies from pale, white to swarthy.
8. The hairline is very well developed, especially on the chest and face of men.
9. The jaws are orthognathic, that is, slightly pushed forward.

In general, a European is easy to distinguish from others. Appearance allows you to do this almost unmistakably, even without using additional genetic data.

If you look at all the races of people, the photo of whose representatives is located below, the difference becomes obvious. However, sometimes the signs are mixed so deeply that the identification of the individual becomes almost impossible. He is able to belong to two races at once. This is further aggravated by intraspecific mutation, which leads to the appearance of new traits.

For example, Negroid albinos are a special case of the appearance of blonds in the Negroid race. A genetic mutation that disrupts the integrity of racial traits in a given group.

Origin of human races

Where did such a variety of signs of the appearance of people come from? There are two main hypotheses that explain the origin of human races. This is:

• monocentrism;
• polycentrism.

However, none of them has yet become an officially accepted theory. According to the monocentric point of view, initially, about 80 thousand years ago, all people lived in the same territory, and therefore their appearance was approximately the same. However, over time, growing numbers have led to a wider settlement of people. As a result, some groups found themselves in difficult climatic conditions.

This led to the development and fixation at the genetic level of some morphological adaptations that help in survival. For example, dark skin and curly hair provide thermoregulation and a cooling effect on the head and body in Negroids. And the narrow cut of the eyes protects them from sand and dust, as well as from blinding by white snow among the Mongoloids. The developed hairline of Europeans is a kind of thermal insulation in severe winters.

Another hypothesis is called polycentrism. She says that different types of human races descended from several ancestral groups that were unevenly settled around the globe. That is, there were initially several foci, from which the development and consolidation of racial characteristics began. Again, under the influence of climatic conditions.

That is, the process of evolution proceeded linearly, simultaneously affecting aspects of life on different continents. This is how the formation of modern types of people from several phylogenetic lines took place. However, it is not necessary to state for sure about the viability of this or that hypothesis, since there is no evidence of a biological and genetic nature, at the molecular level.

Modern classification

The races of people according to the estimates of current scientists have the following classification. Two trunks stand out, and each of them has three large races and many small ones. It looks like this.

1. Western trunk. Includes three races:

• Caucasians;
• capoids;
• negroids.

The main groups of Caucasians: Nordic, Alpine, Dinaric, Mediterranean, Falian, East Baltic and others.

Minor races of capoids: Bushmen and Khoisans. They inhabit South Africa. In the fold above the eyelids, they are similar to the Mongoloids, but in other ways they differ sharply from them. The skin is not elastic, which is why the appearance of early wrinkles is characteristic of all representatives.

Groups of Negroids: Pygmies, Nilots, Negroes. All of them are settlers of different parts of Africa, therefore they have similar signs of appearance. Very dark eyes, the same skin and hair. Thick lips and no chin protrusion.

2. Eastern trunk. Includes the following major races:

• australoids;
• americanoids;
• Mongoloids.

Mongoloids - are divided into two groups - northern and southern. These are the indigenous inhabitants of the Gobi Desert, which left its mark on the appearance of these people.

Americanoids are the population of North and South America. They have a very high growth, the epicanthus is often developed, especially in children. However, the eyes are not as narrow as those of the Mongoloids. Combine the characteristics of several races.

Australoids consist of several groups:

• Melanesians;
• veddoids;
• Ainu;
• Polynesians;
• Australians.

Their characteristic features have been discussed above.

Minor races

This concept is a rather highly specialized term that allows you to identify any person to any race. After all, each big one is subdivided into many small ones, and they are already compiled on the basis of not only small external distinguishing features, but also include data from genetic studies, clinical analyzes, and molecular biology facts.

Therefore, small races - this is what allows you to more accurately reflect the position of each individual in the system of the organic world, and specifically, in the composition of the species Homo sapiens sapiens. What specific groups exist was discussed above.

Racism

As we found out, there are different races of people. Their signs can be strongly polar. This is what led to the emergence of the theory of racism. She says that one race is superior to another, since it is made up of more highly organized and perfect beings. At one time, this led to the appearance of slaves and their white masters.

However, from the point of view of science, this theory is completely absurd and untenable. The genetic predisposition to the development of certain skills and abilities is the same for all peoples. The proof that all races are biologically equal is the possibility of free interbreeding between them with the preservation of the health and viability of the offspring.