The more a person is able to respond to the historical and universal, the wider his nature, the richer his life and the more capable such a person is of progress and development.

F. M. Dostoevsky

The rebellious age is the name of the 17th century in Russian history. Most often it is said that the name of the century is associated with a large number of uprisings and riots at that time. But this is only one side of the coin. The other side lies in the rebellious display of the church and the estates of society.

The reasons

The reasons why the Rebellious Age became possible:

1. Increasing taxes. The state after the Time of Troubles tried by all means to attract money to the treasury.
2. Strengthening of serfdom and completion of the process of enslavement of peasants.
3. Wars. At this time, there were wars within the country (Trouble), as well as confrontation mainly with Poland and Sweden. The people are tired of the warriors who are known to drain society (demographically, financially).
4. Church split. Almost everything changed in the church way of life, so naturally ordinary people did not like it. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the authorities persecuted the Old Believers.

Popular uprisings

The 17th century is called "Rebellious" largely because of the popular movements (riots and uprisings), which arose with great regularity and were distinguished by their scope. In the Rebellious Age, there were 6 major uprisings (one is called the peasant war) and a huge number of small uprisings that cannot even be counted. The main popular movements of that era are presented in the table below.

Table: Popular movements in the Rebellious, 17th century

Event and date	Regions Covered	Effects
Salt riot. 1648.	Moscow, Voronezh, Kursk, Kozlov	The Council Code of 1649 was adopted. The rebels killed many boyars.
Urban uprisings of 1650	Novgorod and Pskov	The uprising was crushed by the tsarist army. Order restored.
Copper Riot. 1662.	Moscow	The state stopped minting copper money.
The Rebellion of V. R. Mustache. 1666.	Don	The shooting of the rebels.
Razin's uprising. 1667 - 1671	Don, Volga region	The uprising was crushed by the tsarist army. Razin is executed.
Solovetsky uprising. 1667-1671	Solovetsky Monastery	Exacerbation of contradictions between the church and the Old Believers. Persecution of the Old Believers.

Please note that the regular army was used to suppress most of the uprisings. And not small units, but the most combat ones. It is believed that if there are 2-3 large popular unrest in a century, then there is a problem in the country. In the 17th century in Russia there were 6 major riots and more than a dozen smaller ones, and they all happened a little more than 20 years(1648-1671), which speaks of the critical point of popular patience, which was overcome at this time. Do not forget also that Russia, by the beginning of all these movements, had just overcome the Time of Troubles, which also overlaps with the 17th century.

Popular performances of the 17th century clearly show that the country needed changes. The old order had become obsolete, and something new was needed. As a result, at the beginning of the 18th century, the mood of Russian society and the desires of Peter 1 coincided - large-scale reforms began in Russia.

Uprising map

Map of popular uprisings in Russia in the 17th century.

International conflicts

One of the reasons for popular dissatisfaction with power and position in the country was wars. Russia in the 17th century waged the following international wars:

1. Russo-Swedish war (1656-1661)
2. Russian-Turkish war (1677-1681)

Church in the 17th century

Separately, it should be noted that the Rebellious Age refers not only to popular performances, but also to church life. There, too, a serious crisis was brewing, culminating in a church schism. It is also called the Nikon reform.

In fairness, it should be noted that the need for church reforms in Russia in the 17th century is objectively overdue. But the methods of their implementation left much to be desired. In a certain sense, Nikon was very similar to Peter 1. Nikon remade the Orthodox Church in the Greek way, and Peter remade Russia itself in the Dutch way. But the main thing that these people have in common is that they very easily broke with the past. And these breaks went with such an inflection that Russia recovered spiritually and physically for a very long time after Nikon and after Peter 1.

The rebellious age almost completely changed the Russian church: customs, rituals, icons, books, and so on changed. Imagine how much it affected people. Even today, if the church decides to completely change its rites, this will lead to popular unrest. In the 17th century, when people were more pious, this caused an inevitable and inescapable reaction from the population.

"Russia in the 17th century"

Choose the correct answer.
1. The uprising led by S. Razin took place in:
a) 1648-1650 b) 1662-1664
c) 1670-1671 d) 1676-1781
2. New estate for Russia:
a) merchants c) archers
b) industrialists d) Cossacks
3. Personally free peasants who owned communal lands and carried state duties were called:
a) monastic c) chernososhnye
b) palace d) landowners
4. The patriarch carried out the church reform:
a) Philaret c) Joasaph
b) Joasaph I d) Nikon
5. During the XVII century. happened:
a) strengthening the role of Zemsky Sobors in the life of the state
b) the final registration of serfdom
c) reforming the order system
d) expanding the powers of the Boyar Duma
6. The "rebellious age" is called:
a) the entire 16th century
b) the second half of the 16th century.
c) the first half of the 17th century.
d) the entire 17th century
7. The decision of Russia to accept Ukraine into its structure led to:
a) war with Turkey
b) a new war with the Commonwealth
c) popular uprisings
d) changes in the government of the country
8. During the XVII century. The territory of Russia did not include:
a) Eastern Siberia
b) Far East
c) Right-Bank Ukraine
d) Left-bank Ukraine
9. Of the following, he was a Russian pioneer:
a) I. Vygovsky
b) B. I. Morozov
c) L. Ushakov
d) E. P. Khabarov
10. One of the most striking architectural monuments of the 17th century. is:
a) Terem Palace of the Moscow Kremlin
b) Faceted Chamber
c) Saint Basil's Cathedral
d) Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye
11. Choose the correct answers:
New features in the economic development of the country in the 17th century:
a) strengthening the role of corvee and dues
b) development of farming
c) the transformation of handicraft into small-scale production
d) the development of manufactories
e) peasant handicrafts
f) formation of the all-Russian market
g) the widespread use of hired labor
h) urban growth
i) the formation of large feudal landownership 12. Set the correct correspondence:
12. Set the correct match:
1) Mikhail a) the conclusion of the Zborovsky peace with the Commonwealth
Romanov b) Smolensk War
2) Alexey c) conflict between the church and secular authorities Habakkuk
Mikhailovich d) Cathedral Code
3) archpriest e) movement of Old Believers Khmelnytsky
4) Bohdan e) the liberation struggle of the Ukrainian people against the Commonwealth
g) Copper Riot
13. Set the correct match:
1) 1648-1650 a) Russian-Turkish war
2) 1653-1655 b) Russian-Polish war
3) 1654-1667 c) the beginning of church reform
4) 1676-1681 d) urban uprisings
14. Insert in place of gaps:
The privileged groups of the Russian population in the 17th century were the service people, which included the children of the boyars, and ________, as well as the archers. This group also included __________. State duties were carried by townspeople and _________.
15. Restore the sequence of events:
a) church council
b) Salt riot
c) Smolensk war
d) Copper riot
e) Pereyaslav Rada
16. Who are we talking about?
“Deeply religious, lively, impressionable, capable of being a true friend and a dangerous enemy, but at the same time strict, and sometimes humbled the guilty with his own hands, merciful, even weak towards his “neighbors” and “vindictive” towards enemies, soft and cruel, writer of the amusing constable and founder of the Secret Order, book reader and poet"
17. What is it about?
“... All the people cried out: we will, under the Tsar of the East, the Orthodox, die with a strong hand in our pious faith, rather than get the hater of Christ's filth. Then the colonel of Pereyaslav Teterya, walking around in a circle, asked in all directions: do you all deign to do this? All the people said: all with one accord. Then the hetman said: be tacos. May the Lord our God strengthen under his royal strong hand ... "
18. By what principle is a series formed?
Solovetsky uprising; the movement of schismatics during the Moscow uprising of 1682; performance on the Don in the 70-80s. 17th century
19. What is extra in a row?
"About the Shemyakin Court", "About Ersh Ershovich"; "The Tale of Uliania Osorina"; "The Tale of Thomas and Yerema"

Many foreign contemporaries wrote about Russia, and they wrote in different ways. One can even note an obvious pattern. Those travelers whose mission to our country was successful spoke favorably about it. And those who failed did not spare black colors.

For example, the Austrian ambassador Herberstein, who failed to draw Moscow into an alliance against the Turks, goes so far as to say that the Russians love kalachi, “because they resemble a yoke in shape,” and fistfights are arranged so that people learn to endure beatings patiently.

All this is generally understandable. But something else is striking - the complete uncriticality, or rather, even the selectivity with which subsequent historians approached such evidence. Selecting only what corresponded to their own theories about the backward pre-Petrine Russia, inhabited by dark "barbarians". Well, in this and other chapters I will use the same sources as Solovyov, Kostomarov and others like them. But if we take the facts that they diligently avoided, the picture is different.

And the first thing that shatters into pieces is the idea of ​​"wild" and desert lands that cannot be compared with "comfortable" and cultivated Europe.

The same foreigners write about cities of “crowded, beautiful, original architecture” (Juan of Persia), that in Russia “there are many large and magnificent cities in their own way” (Olearius).

By the way, the cities of that time looked really impressive. Fortified walls with towers and decorated gates, domes of towers, domes of churches, which were the main decoration of any city. This is also noted by many - “temples, elegantly and magnificently decorated” (Kampenze), “many beautiful stone churches” (Jenkinson), “in every quarter a church of noble architecture” and “surprisingly beautiful form” (Foscarino).

More precisely, the churches were built in pairs, 2 per parish - summer, unheated, and winter. And Lisek wrote that “it is impossible to express what a magnificent picture is presented when you look at these brilliant heads ascending to heaven.” And the chime of bells has always left an impression on travelers. “Churches have a lot of small and large bells, which they are able to ring alternately with the help of special ropes so deftly that a truly musical ringing is obtained” (Airman). However, bells annoyed most foreigners, they were a constant, daily background of city life. But the Russians liked it.

Unlike European centers squeezed into limited areas of stone walls, our cities were much more spacious, each house had large courtyards with gardens, and from spring to autumn they were buried in flowers and greenery. The streets were three times wider than in the West. And not only in Moscow, but also in other cities, in order to avoid dirt, they, like the main squares, were covered with logs, and on top they were paved with flat wooden planks. Even then, urban transport existed in Russia. Maskevich in 1611 described that there were always about 200 cab drivers on the Moscow market. Having received a small coin, the driver “drives like crazy”, shouting “watch out”, and after driving a certain distance, stops until he receives the next penny. Other authors also mention cabbies, explaining in detail what it is - since in Europe at that time only private transport existed. If you don't have your own carriage or cart, stomp on foot. With the onset of night, the streets were blocked with slingshots, guarded by guards of archers and Cossacks. And if you need to go somewhere in the dark, you had to have a flashlight with you, otherwise they could be detained to find out your identity.

Cities, as already noted, were the focus of civil zemstvo life. And craft centers, Russian craftsmen received the highest ratings of their contemporaries. “Their cities are rich in diligent craftsmen of various kinds” (Mikhalon Litvin). “Russian artisans are excellent, very skillful and so smart that everything that they have never seen before, not only have not done, at first glance they will understand and work as well as if they were used to it from childhood, especially Turkish things, saddlecloths, harnesses, saddles, sabers with a gold notch. All things are not inferior to real Turkish” (Maskevich). In Europe, the products of our wood carvers and jewelers were also highly valued, and Russian castles were in great demand in the West. They can still be seen in museums, from poods to tiny ones, surprising with their bizarre forms, but also with “secrets”, with “tricks”.

The squares were at the same time markets with shops of artisans, merchants, and auctions of peasants who brought their goods. Nearby were taverns, inns. But drunkenness was not welcomed in Russia, and the “sovereign taverns” were taken away from the center, to wastelands or outside the city walls. Of course, they drank something, but this was allowed only on the occasion of the holidays. And for drunken wandering around the streets, so familiar in our days, they could be sent to a “brazhnaya” prison, and if caught a second time, then the next morning they could also “sober up” with batogs.

The vast majority of Russians were rural population. And we find references, for example, that the area between Moscow and Yaroslavl is “full of small villages, which are so full of people that it is amazing to look at them” (Chensler), about “many rich villages” (Adams), about “beautiful villages” on the Volga (Olearius). More precisely, in rural areas, settlements were divided into larger villages - 15–30 households and having a church, and villages gravitated towards the villages - from 2 to 10 households. The distances in Russia were enormous. But the various regions were quite firmly connected with each other, “the post office is commendably organized” (Mikhalon Litvin).

For this, there was a pit service - which, by the way, was also not known in the West. “There is good order on the main roads. Special peasants are kept in different places, who must be ready with several horses (there are 40–50 or more horses per village), so that upon receipt of the grand prince's order, they can immediately harness the horses and rush further. If the relay race, having arrived at the place day or night, gives a sign with a light, the coachmen with their horses appear. As a result, the distance from Novgorod to Moscow, in which there are 120 German miles, can be covered quite calmly in 6-7 days, and even faster in winter on a toboggan track. For such service, each peasant receives 30 rubles or 60 Reichstalers a year, and, moreover, can engage in free agriculture, for which he receives land from the Grand Duke and is exempt from all requisitions and duties ... This service is very beneficial for the peasants, and many of them aspire to be coachmen” (Olearius). Von Buchau specifies that the pits stood every 30 miles. Something similar existed on large rivers - Juan Persian notes that on the Volga every 10 days of travel in special villages on state-owned boats there was a change of rowers.

The period from the end of the XV to the middle of the XIX century. paleographers call the "Little Ice Age", it was much colder than now. So the stories of foreigners about the terrible Russian frosts are not an exaggeration. But the harsh nature gave our ancestors such a blessing as a winter path. Which was not in Europe, which did not have in the 17th century. highways and half a year buried in mud. Even Contarini in 1477 enthusiastically described a passenger wagon made of felt - “a sleigh like a house”. And about a later transport, Weber reports: “The sleigh is so clogged that air does not penetrate from the outside. On the sides are windows, shelves for provisions and books. Above the head is a lamp, lit at nightfall. Half on the floor. At the feet are heated stones or a vessel with hot water. Nearby is a chest with wine and vodka. Large lanterns were hung on the wagons so that you could see the road at night.

And the notion of a "sleepy kingdom" closed within the limits of subsistence farming also crumbles to dust. On the contrary, one gets the impression that Russia was in constant motion! Every spring, tens of thousands of nobles and children of boyars with servants, Cossacks, set off from home to the southern border. And back in the fall. And once every 2-3 years - to Moscow, for the next review. That is, to ride, or even walk on foot from somewhere from Kostroma to Kursk, was quite an ordinary thing for Russians. Coachmen constantly moved back and forth along the roads, pilgrims went to distant monasteries. And in winter, intensive transportation of taxes, dues, and goods to the markets began. And Chancellor, on the way from Yaroslavl, wrote: “The whole earth is well sown with bread, which the inhabitants bring to Moscow in such quantities that it seems surprising. Every morning you can see 700 to 800 sleighs going there with bread and some with fish.” Here is the “sleepy kingdom” for you!

Stone buildings in Russia were erected a long time ago, but there were relatively few of them - the most important fortresses, temples, official representations, chambers. And residential buildings, both in villages and in cities, were mostly wooden. Of course, not for reasons of "backwardness" - wooden housing turned out to be healthier, cheaper, and warmer in winter. It has been established that a pine layer 20 cm thick can protect against frost at 40 degrees, and brickwork 60 cm thick is needed. Foreigners also noticed this advantage. “Wooden buildings for Russians, apparently, are much more convenient than stone and brick ones, because the latter have a lot of dampness and are colder than wooden ones” (Fletcher).

“The local winter cold has such amazing force that they make their way through the thickest stone walls along with dampness and, freezing it, cover it with a snow crust; I saw this several times myself” (Meyerberg). Therefore, even the king, receiving ambassadors or holding meetings in stone chambers, preferred to live in a wooden palace.

Among the common people, of course, the huts were simpler than the royal and boyar mansions. And the specific size of the house depended on the position and wealth. In any case, the basis of the structure was a log cabin, the dimensions of which were limited by the length of the logs. Log cabins were also “round” (octagonal) - for the construction of churches, towers. And for housing - quadrangular. And from several log cabins, as from cubes, the entire economic complex was built. They always built without nails and only with the help of axes.

Again, from experience. Around the nail, the wood quickly rots. And when sawing, the logs fray, absorb moisture and rot - while the ax compacts the cut. Only the poorest huts were placed on one floor. More often - in two (and it happened in 3-4). Below was a basement where cattle and household utensils were kept. A heated living room was built on top of it with the second tier. The staircase could be both inside and outside. If outside, it was called a porch (because it had a roof). An additional room was a trough - unheated, it was used for household needs and as summer housing, sometimes it was also placed on the basement. And several neighboring buildings were connected by covered passages - canopies. The courtyard complex usually included other structures - a threshing floor, a barn, a barn, a stable, a poultry house, and a bathhouse.

The cracks between the logs were caulked with moss. And the windows were small and were moved from the inside with a board-shutters that went in the grooves - to keep warm. In the summer they were often kept open. For the winter, frames were inserted, tightened with oiled canvas to transmit light, bull's bladder, and for middle-income and rich people with mica. And again, not because of “backwardness”. In the West, the poor also used a bull bladder, and the glass produced there was thick, uneven and cloudy at that time, windows were made from pieces of 15–20 cm. The mica turned out to be more transparent, and its pieces were larger. And for the Russians, it was also cheaper than for the Europeans, since it was mined in large quantities from us and exported (the best grades of mica were called “muscovite”, from Muscovy). “Mica transmits light from inside and out better than glass and therefore still deserves an advantage over glass and horn, which does not crack like the first and does not burn like the second” (Fletcher). And Paul of Aleppo was delighted with the “wonderful convex and smooth windows made of stone crystal”.

The roof was built high, with slopes, so that snow and water would not linger on it. And they covered it with a plank of aspen - a tree that swells from water, compacts and retains moisture. Or just pieces of turf with grass - they grew together, and the coating became continuous. Any, even a peasant's hut, was richly decorated with carvings: architraves, a figured roof ridge, porch patterns. “The construction ... of logs is excellent. There are no nails or hooks, but everything is so well finished that there is nothing to blaspheme, although the builders have all the tools in the same axes ”(Jean Sauvage of Dieppe). Houses "remarkable and well made," erected "very well and proportionately," are praised by Foscarino, Smith, Wilkins. And the Dutchman Struys pays tribute to “engineers”, “architects”, and “excellent craftsmen”, especially carpenters, “who in this country do everything, and so cleverly that they build a house in a day”.

Inside the hut, a large, massive stove occupied a significant area. She was heated once a day, and she kept warm for a day. In the drawings of travelers of the XVII century. in Moscow and large cities, houses are depicted with chimneys. Pipes and chimneys in the houses of the capital's common people are also mentioned in cases of investigating the causes of fires. But in the countryside and the provinces they drowned in the old fashioned way, in black. Although this did not cause any particular inconvenience to the inhabitants. The ventilation system was arranged very cleverly, the smoke was drawn out through a special window under the roof ridge, and there was no soot in the hut. And to everything else, such heating had a number of advantages. It was safer in terms of fire, more heat was retained in the house. Above the stove, under the roof, meat, poultry, and fish could be hung for smoking. And finally, the smoke disinfected the dwelling, it did not start insects.

Usually carpenters did the “inside” - furnishing the house. The corner near the stove was the working place of the hostess, it was called “baby kut”. Here, a washstand made of copper or ceramics and a tub were necessarily located. And the corner diagonally from the stove was “red”, icons hung there, it was considered the most honorable place. A typical interior included a table, a shelf for dishes, chests, benches and benches (they differed in that the benches could be moved, and the benches were firmly attached to the wall). The families were large, from three generations - old people, their married children and grandchildren. And nothing, got along all together. The old people slept on the stove, the little ones on the beds attached to it, and the adults on the benches. In the summer it became more spacious - the owners spent the night in a trough, and the hayloft was considered the rightful place for the newlyweds.

What did our distant ancestors look like? Of course, their outfits were different from the current ones and may seem strange to us, if not funny. But we must remember that every era and every nation has its own tastes, and certainly, the clothes of Russians looked no more strange than their contemporary Western fashions: tall, upside-down bucket hats with tiny brim, huge lace collars where the head looked, like an apple on a platter, short bell-shaped pants with tight stockings for men, and for women - a pile of skirts on a bulky metal frame fastened to the body ...

The Russians preferred spacious clothes that did not restrict movement - but they also liked to show off. The man put on two pairs of ports and shirts, under and over. The top trousers were made with a drawstring belt, and the shirt was decorated with embroidery and worn loose. The most common outerwear was the caftan. It was worn by all segments of the population, and, depending on wealth, was sewn from different varieties of cloth, velvet, and brocade. It was long-brimmed and fastened at the front. Sleeves in Russia were considered an important decorative ornament, for the sake of chic they were made to the ground. And they either gathered in folds, or put their hands through special slots in the sides of the clothes, and the sleeves hung down on the sides or tied in a careless knot on the back. The nobility also flaunted high standing collars - “trump cards”. There were all sorts of varieties of caftans, for example, a zipun, which was lighter, reaching to the knees and without a collar. Or festive terliks ​​and feryazi, they were made with a wide hem, sheathed with fur, pearls, and gold braid.

Over the caftan, on the shoulder, a fringe could be worn. Or ohaben (heavier and warmer). In cold weather, they wore a single-row, something like a light coat. Or a fur coat. But a fur coat was then called any fur clothing and was often worn not from the cold, but for beauty. The usual style with “naked” fur was called a naked fur coat. And more often they were sewn with fur inside, covering the outside with a cloth. The peasants had sheepskin coats with a cloth covering, the people were more wealthy - both more expensive fur and fabric: brocade, damask, velvet, with embroidery and various decorations. To protect against bad weather, an epancha served - a raincoat fastened in front.

Shoes for all classes were common leather. Boots at that time were cut on one leg and only in the toe they were shaped to the right or left. Russian boots were short-topped and pointed, but they differed in price - they were made of plain leather, they were also made of morocco, embossed, embroidered with pearls, gold and silver thread. Peasants wore comfortable and light bast shoes for everyday chores. But they, getting out into the city, put on boots - foreigners rarely notice wicker shoes unusual for them and only in the countryside.

Hat and belt were considered important details of the toilet. Hats were made in the form of a cap made of felt, cloth or velvet, stuffed or trimmed with fur (and also often decorated). The boyars wore tall "throat" hats. The belt, like the hat, served as an indicator of social status, so he tried to choose a prettier one. A knife and a spoon were usually fastened to it, for servicemen - a scabbard of a saber. There were also sashes that were wrapped around several times. The outfit was often supplemented with a staff (for the common people - with a stick). And a purse with money and small household items was hung on a strap or chain on the chest.

Men always wore mustaches and full beards. Stoglavy Cathedral in the 16th century condemned barbering as a distortion of the natural person given by God. And in general, losing a beard was considered a shame, it was a man's pride. The hair on the head was cut “in a circle”, the nobility often shaved them bald. According to the impressions of foreigners, Russian men were mostly tall, strong people, and, according to the canons of that time, they valued “corpority”, that is, fullness (although it is unlikely that such standards could apply to the entire population - try to plow the land with a tummy or take a walk to the southern border!) But if travelers (being men themselves) were usually critical of the male appearance, then many admired the ladies. “Women in general are very beautiful, the clothes and hats made of marten fur that they wear give them even more beauty” (Juan of Persia). “And if we mention the wives and women of the Muscovites, then those from the face are so beautiful that they surpass many nations. And few can surpass them themselves” (Airman). “Russian women are as beautiful as they are smart” (Lizek).

The basis of the women's costume was a shirt. The undershirt was sewn from thin linen. But the then ladies did not know other items of intimate underwear - and not only in Russia. The bra was known only in the countries of the Muslim East, and the fashion for ladies' pantaloons was first introduced in the 16th century. Catherine Medici. Being rather nondescript, she had beautiful legs, and in order to demonstrate them, she introduced the “Amazon” riding a horse. And in order not to open more than necessary, I added cropped men's pants. But neither orthodox Catholic countries nor Protestants have yet allowed this French innovation, considering it too frivolous.

Among the Russian common people, the undershirt, supplemented with a belt, also served as a home outfit. And for going out into the street or into the field, a poneva skirt or sundress was added to it. In that era, it was made on straps and fastened in front, supporting, but not covering the chest. For ceremonial occasions, and for wealthy women for every day, “red” was put on over the bottom shirt - beautiful, made of silk and other expensive fabrics. With embroidery and again with long sleeves, gathered at the hands into folds, which were held by bracelets. For both women and men, a necklace or mantle served as a festive addition to the shirt. But then it was not beads that were called a necklace, but a false collar embroidered with pearls and patterns.

The women's dress "to go out" was an summer coat made of bright fabric with a long hem. It was put on over the head, and the sleeves were sewn only to the elbow, hanging below with free panels. Over a sarafan or summer jacket, for warmth and beauty, they wore a dushegrey - a short sleeveless jacket, or a quilted jacket - a longer one. Out of the blue, they threw in the furrows of colored cloth or brocade. In the cold season, they dressed up in fur coats. A women's fur coat, unlike a man's, was also sewn like a shirt and put on over the head. All the details of the evening dress were decorated with embroidery, braid, fur trim, gold and silver buttons.

Home shoes, mules, were very similar to the current ones. And on the way out they put on boots or boots-chobots. Sometimes their tops were made of expensive embroidered fabrics. Moreover, Russian women of fashion liked to walk in extremely high heels, “a quarter of an elbow”, so that “the front of the shoe with toes barely reaches the ground” (Olearius). This is common for today's girls, but in the 17th century. foreigners were surprised and considered such high heels very uncomfortable; they had not yet been worn in Europe. Foreign guests were also amazed by the passion of our ladies for cosmetics - whitewash, blush, tinting eyelashes and eyebrows. Which they seem to have really abused. Indeed, according to Russian concepts, a beauty was supposed to be white-faced, ruddy and black-browed. Although there are no comrades for the taste and color, the Russians themselves liked it, as did some foreigners. By the way, the Europeans of that time declared the custom of Tatar women to paint their nails “barbarism” as well.

The headdress was especially important for women. Unmarried girls often left their hair open, grabbing it with a hoop, kokoshnik or a simple dressing. They made their hair very complicated. For example, a long braid at the back, and loose curled hair over the shoulders. Moreover, the braid was sometimes decorated with “pearls and gold ... and at the end of the hanging braid they hang a brush made of silk threads or intertwined with pearls, gold, silver, which is very beautiful” (Airman). Married ladies were no longer supposed to go “straight-haired”. They put their hair under a hair net, and when they left the house, they put on a ubrus - a scarf covering the head, part of the neck and shoulders. Or a solid hard dress, kiku. Both girls and married women (over the ubrus) often wore beautiful hats made of brocade, satin or velvet with fur trim. And adult girls flaunted in high fox hats - “columns”. Of course, it could not do without earrings, beads, rings, bracelets. “According to their custom, they adorn themselves beyond measure with pearls and jewels, which they constantly hang from their ears on gold rings, and they also wear precious rings on their fingers” (Airman).

In general, Russian costumes looked very bright, picturesque and varied. And the “good manners” of their time were learned from childhood. The girl developed a straight and slender posture, a smooth gait, leisurely speech. “A Moscow woman knows how to present herself in a special way with a serious and pleasant behavior ... They appear with very serious faces, but not dissatisfied or sour, but connected with friendliness; and you will never see such a lady laughing, much less with those cutesy and ridiculous antics with which the women of our countries try to show their secular pleasantness. They do not change their facial expression either by twitching their heads, or by biting their lips or rolling their eyes, as German women do ... they do not rush like wandering lights, but constantly maintain gravity, and if they want to greet or thank someone, they straighten up gracefully in a manner and slowly put the right hand on the left chest to the heart and now seriously and slowly lower it ... As a result, they give the impression of noble personalities ”(Airman). However, judging by other sources, Russian girls also loved to fool around and have fun. But of course, not with foreign guests.

Another characteristic feature of the Russians was their extreme cleanliness. In the bath went through 2 - 3 days. This was noted by almost all foreigners - as exotic. After all, as already indicated, the inhabitants of most Western countries in that era almost did not wash. There were even “scientific” theories that bathing is injurious to health and causes a number of dangerous diseases. And Fletcher complains - how, they say, Russian women do not value beauty, since regular washing “spoils the complexion”! On the bank of the river in every city there was always a line of "sovereign" baths. Although in winter they were mainly used by visitors and the poor, self-respecting owners had their own baths. But in hot, dry times, they were forbidden to drown them in order to avoid fires, and the owners also had to go to public ones. It was very cheap - for example, in Veliky Ustyug the annual fee from the baths was about 40 rubles. (1% of the collection from taverns).

Estimates of this Russian custom vary diametrically depending on the nationality of the authors. So, in Scandinavia and the Baltics, they also knew how and loved to bathe. And the Swede Airman, invited to the “soap” of the nobleman, enthusiastically describes the adjustable windows for releasing steam, pouring water infused with medicinal herbs onto the heater. And the fact that “long soft herbs in a bag of thin linen are placed on benches for sweating,” and the floor is covered with finely chopped and crushed needles, which made a special spirit in the bathhouse. He also liked the custom of dousing himself with cold water after the steam room or wallowing in the snow. “In general, you will not find in almost any country that they know how to wash themselves as well as in this Moscow.”

But most of the foreigners, judging by their descriptions, went to the bathhouses only to stare at naked women. Because the institutions for both sexes were the same. True, they washed and undressed separately - both the dressing room and the steam room were divided in two by logs. But the canopy between them was common, men and women walked through them, and “only a few held a birch broom in front until they sat down in their place.” And there was a common door to the street. And through it, those soaring ran for water, in summer they jumped into the river, and in winter into the hole or rolled in the snow. “When they turn completely red and weaken from the heat, to the point that they can no longer endure in the bath, then both women and men run out naked, douse themselves in cold water or wallow in the snow and rub their skin with it, like soap, and then they run to the hot bath” (Olearius).

And such descriptions ended with conclusions about the extreme immorality of Russians. For example, employees of the Dutch embassy, ​​who specially skated on the ice, in order to admire the people running from the baths to the ice holes, were indignant: “They behaved extremely shamelessly when we passed” (Coyette). Although the question is - who actually behaved shamelessly, the one who came to wash or climbs to peep? It’s just that Russians didn’t suffer from sanctimonious complexes and lived according to the principle “what is natural is not ugly”. Surely, some good fellows and red girls liked the opportunity to “not on purpose” sparkle with their bodies, but this was not considered indecent. Just as it was not considered indecent for a large family to live in a common hut - well, did the spouses exhaust themselves with abstinence all winter? There was nothing shameful when a young woman, in front of her household or fellow villagers, would give up her breast to feed a baby. But if a married woman, who had previously run around the bathhouse in full nature, goes home without hiding her hair under her headdress, it was really indecent - she did not indicate her marital status, giving rise to temptation.

Let us especially touch on the idea that the “backward” Russian people vegetated in the described era in poverty and misery. The facts again show the opposite. Without exception, foreign travelers paint pictures of almost fabulous abundance - compared to their home countries! The land "abundant in pastures and well cultivated ... There is a lot of cow butter, as well as all kinds of dairy products, thanks to the great abundance of animals, large and small" (Tiapolo). They note “an abundance of grain and livestock” (Perkamota), “an abundance of life supplies that would do honor to even the most luxurious table” (Lizek). “It is easier to get fruits in Russia than elsewhere; what are, for example, apples, pears, plums, cherries, gooseberries, currants, melons, carrots, beets, parsley, horseradish, radishes, radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers, gray and white cabbage, onions, garlic, isop, marjoram, thyme, basil , pepper” (Petreus).

And all this is so cheap that it is available to everyone! “There are no poor people in this country, because food supplies are so cheap that people go out on the road to look for someone to give them to” (Juan of Persia - obviously referring to the distribution of alms). “In general, in all of Russia, due to the fertile soil, provisions are very cheap” (Olearius). Barbaro, Fletcher, Pavel Aleppsky, Margeret, Meyerberg also write about cheapness. They are surprised that the Russians are so snickering that blackbirds, larks, finches “are considered not worth it to hunt and eat them” (Olearius). They are amazed that the meat is so cheap that it is not even sold by weight, “but by carcasses, or chopped by eye” (Margeret). And chickens and ducks were often sold in hundreds or magpies (Contarini).

Well, there were reasons for this. In Russia, customs forbade eating veal, a favorite among the European nobility. In addition, there were about 200 fast days in the year - four fasts, Wednesdays, Fridays. Cattle could breed, gain weight. And where livestock is, there are fertilizers and crops. Russian agricultural technology was very developed, foreigners, for example, describe the complex methods by which melons were grown - even in Moscow and Solovki! And for fasting days, there was enough fish. From the sturgeon, caught on the Volga and Oka, to the one that came from the North in whole convoys. “There are no better fish in all of Europe” (Margeret). There was also enough game, honey, wax for lighting, cattle provided wool and felt, flax and hemp were grown, and hence “there are a lot of linens in Russia” (Olearius). And Meyerberg came to the conclusion: “Moscow has such an abundance of all things necessary for life, convenience and luxury, and even obtained at a reasonable price, that it has nothing to envy of any country in the world, even if it has a better climate and fertility of arable land, an abundance of earthly subsoil or with a more industrial spirit of the inhabitants”.

By the way. soil fertility was actually much lower than in France or Germany. But when modern falsifiers of history, like R. Pipes, and domestic idiots who sing along with them, start proving on the basis of yield calculations that Russia could not keep up with the West in terms of climatic conditions, I would like to remind you that the level of economy depends not only on fertility. The well-being of Russians was determined by the presence of a strong centralized state. In addition to the period of Troubles, the country did not know any devastating civil strife or major enemy invasions. Finally, the practice of not burdening the people with large taxes had an effect. The peasant had the opportunity to develop and expand the economy, to put on their feet and separate the children - already with their own farms. As a result, the state also won when it was required to collect the “fifth” or “tenth money”. But until such a need arose, this "money" remained in the owner's turnover, bringing additional production and profit.

Therefore, both before the Troubles and after it, when the country began to emerge from the crisis, the Russians lived far from being poor. Even peasant women always wore large silver earrings (Fletcher, Brembach). The Dutchman Massa writes that at the meeting of the embassy "all the streets of Moscow were filled with people dressed in a festive way, there were many women in the crowd, adorned with pearls and hung with precious stones." Surely, it was not the boyars who crowded in the crowd. Dane Rode also notes that “even women of modest origin sew an outfit from taffeta or damask and decorate it on all sides with gold or silver lace.” In peasant farms, according to various documents, there were dozens of heads of cattle. And money flowed. Amounts of 30, 50 rubles are often mentioned. The savings of the butcher Minin before organizing the militia amounted to 500 rubles. In the middle of the XVII century. a petition from Ustyug reports on robbers who extorted “a hundred rubles” from “many peasants”. And these were huge sums! A cow cost 1 - 2 rubles, a sheep - 10 kopecks, a chicken - 2 kopecks.

In the criminal case of Timoshka Ankudinov, it is noted that he stole jewelry from his wife worth 500 rubles from the clerk Shpilkin. The wife is not a prince or a merchant, but a clerk! Or take such establishments as taverns. At the beginning of the XVII century. 3 taverns in Novgorod brought an income of 6 thousand rubles, and taverns in Ustyug - 4.5 thousand. Although, maybe someone lowered the last one, now we are talking about something else. It turns out that people had something to carry to the tavern. Of course, here readers may have instinctive objections - something implausible is obtained! After all, everyone knows that a Russian peasant didn’t always see money, he walked around in bast shoes in winter and summer, he only sniffed meat on holidays and slurped empty cabbage soup with lean porridge, and it’s even better if with bread, and not with quinoa ...

Stop! Do not distort different eras. This “well-known” idea of ​​a “muzhik” took shape not in the 17th, but in the 18th-19th centuries. When the zemstvo state was replaced by Western-style absolutism, large taxes were required on the regular army and navy. And when the way of life and customs also changed. Here are two interesting features. Foscarino wrote: "Muscovites live in their homes richly rather than luxuriously." And Olearius (despite allegations of abundance) that the Russians live "poorly in the sense of cheap." Because in the West, wealth was determined precisely by the high cost of pleasures, acquisitions, and buildings. And in our country, excessive luxury in the 17th century. not yet valued. Dress beautifully, have the opportunity to eat well and treat friends, save up for a dowry for daughters, donate to the church, for a serviceman - get a good horse and high-quality weapons. And what else does a person need? ... Well, when, having “enlightened”, the Russian nobility got into the taste of an imported way of life, learned to lose fortunes at cards, squander on entertainment, chase imported novelties and delights, that’s when it ended, the abundance of people and welfare. And flowed through the "cut windows" into the pockets of foreign merchants.

2nd millennium BC e. 19th century BC e. 18th century BC e. 17th century BC e. 16th century BC e. 15th century BC e. 1709 1708 1707 1706 ... Wikipedia

1603. Revolt of peasants and serfs in Russia led by Cotton. Founding of the first Dutch colony on the island of Java. 1603 1867. Reign in Japan of the shoguns from the Tokugawa dynasty. 1603 1649, 1660 1714. The rule of the Stuart dynasty in England ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Onuphrius, saint (XVII century), see article Onuphrius (the name of the saints of the Orthodox Church) ... Biographical Dictionary

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Books

• Book centers of Ancient Russia. XVII century,. A collection of materials on the book centers of Ancient Russia of the 17th century, the century of a gradual transition from ancient Russian literature to the literature of the new time, when a new type of it arose ...
• Historical lexicon. XVII century. Encyclopedic reference book, . The English Revolution, the Thirty Years' War in Europe, the Time of Troubles in Russia, the bloody change of dynasties in China, the colonization of America - all this is the 17th century. But this is also the age of brilliant scientists, ...

Education in the 17th century in Russia underwent major changes. Transformations took place both in the education system and in the life of ordinary people and literature, painting. If before this knowledge had the opportunity to receive mainly the children of noble people from individual tutors, now education is given in educational institutions. Education becomes available to everyone, regardless of class.

Creation of private schools in Russia

In the modern view, the created institutions could not be fully called a school. Education in the 17th century in Russia can be briefly described as primary. In addition, spiritual people with their own rules worked as teachers. For their work, they received remuneration in the form of food.

Some "alphabets" are interesting to study. These are preserved handwritten and printed books for reading by children who already have basic reading skills.

In addition to the texts for reading directly, the alphabet books gave recommendations for the teacher - how to teach reading, the rules of conduct at school, church and even at home.

Education in the 17th century in Russia did not imply the permanent residence of children at the school. The students, as now, went to classes in the morning and returned home in the afternoon. Knowledge was available to everyone without exception, the rich, the poor, and the poor.

Printed manuals are a good aid for learning

The emergence of the possibility of publishing printed books had the best effect on education in the 17th century. The prefects at the school handed out books to students at each lesson for study.

In Moscow, primers began to be printed, which even the poorest segments of the population could buy. Such books, costing only 1 kopeck, were very popular.

It is noteworthy that the alphabet, written by deacon V. Burtsev, was sold out within one day in the amount of 2400 pieces.

A little later, an alphabet with pictures appears, published by Karion Istomin. This book is built on a principle familiar to all of us. Each letter corresponds to a picture whose name begins with a given sound.

Schools instead of individual tutors

In the middle of the 17th century, 30 learned monks were invited from Kyiv. They were supposed to open an educational institution at the Andreevsky Monastery in Moscow. The school began to teach philosophy, rhetoric, Greek and Latin for young nobles.

In the newly opened educational institutions, in addition to Russian grammar, they taught Latin and Greek.

In the classes, the elders were necessarily chosen. They had a lot of weight in the team and could even replace the teacher. Their main duty was to distribute books, appoint attendants and control discipline.

For those who were educated in the 17th century, strict discipline was at the heart of learning. Particularly valued and required careful attitude to the book and in general to all property in the school.

In addition to the obligatory observance of order and perfect cleanliness, it was forbidden to slander a friend and call them offensive words. So a kind of corporate solidarity was born.

Teaching methods in the 17th century

If we consider education in the 17th century, its unified methodology completely coincides with the norms in force in schools and Greece. The main subjects were writing, reading, counting, and singing.

In addition to secular education, lessons on the basics of religion were obligatory. In addition, basic knowledge in the field of free sciences was given. These included: grammar, astronomy, music, dialectics, rhetoric, arithmetic.

The alphabet books contained various verses that the children learned and recited by heart. Also, students were taught the basics of versification, taught to write letters to high-ranking officials.

The rules written in the alphabet books were followed in all schools, so it can be said with confidence that education in the 17th century is a single teaching method, which later formed the basis of all education.

Nuances of education in Russia in the 17th century

Despite the development of science, classes at school began and ended with the word of God. Yes, this is understandable, because the teachers were clerics.

But it was the priests who spread the idea of ​​general education, universal literacy. It was believed that people needed knowledge to understand the significance of faith and concepts of morality. It is necessary to be able to read mainly in order to independently study and understand the whole secret meaning of what is written.

The main goal pursued by education in the 17th century in Russia was to educate a moral person who knows the basics of Christianity and possesses the skills of reading and writing.

Interesting to study the work of ancient thinkers. Many works were translated into Russian, and their own opinion was formed about them. So, the ideas of Aristotle, the "Dialectics" of Damascus were studied in schools. Various notes were often put on the margins, which is proved by a careful study of the books of philosophers.

A new level of education gave impetus to the development of art

With the widespread teaching of literacy, new genres in literature began to appear. Poetry and stylistic stories were especially developed. They wrote many plays that were staged in the court theater.

Painting has also changed. There was such a genre as a secular portrait, completely similar to the original. The most famous artist at that time was Ushakov, who painted many famous people of that time.

With the development of mathematics, physics and chemistry, new technologies appeared in the weapon craft, and the knowledge gained contributed to the spread of expeditions. As a result, more and more new territories of vast Russia were being explored.

In general, education in the 17th century in Russia satisfied the interests primarily of the church and the state itself. Until the middle of the 18th century, students received knowledge according to approved methods. But in the end, the conditions of historical development required further modifications.