Of great and contradictory importance in the historical fate of the Russian people, as well as the peoples of the Volga region, Central Asia, Kazakhstan, Transcaucasia and Crimea, were the conquests of the Mongols at the beginning of the 13th century and the formation of military-feudal states by the descendants of Genghis Khan.

The Golden Horde arose as a result of the division of the Mongol Empire by Genghis Khan between his sons in 1224. Then it was a state entity within the Empire, called Ulus Jochi (Jochi is the eldest son of Genghis Khan). After the Western campaign of Batu Khan (the son of Jochi, in Russian chronicles - Batu), by 1242, with the expansion of the ulus to the west, the Lower Volga region became its center. In the 60s of the XIII century, the Horde gained independence from the imperial center.

This state did not have clearly defined borders. His power extended not so much to the territory, but to subject tribes and peoples who were at different stages of socio-economic and cultural development, professed various religions. Such national and class diversity influenced social device.

The status of a subject of the Horde depended on the origin, merit to the khan and his family, on the position in the military administrative apparatus. In the military-feudal hierarchy, the dominant position was occupied by the descendants of Genghis Khan and Jochi - Jochids. This clan owned all the land of the state, it owned military booty, the state treasury, servants and slaves. Khan owned the largest ulus. The Jochids occupied the highest government posts. Following them in rank noyons conducted their genealogies from the associates of Genghis Khan. Noyons had a large number of dependent people and servants, horses and cattle. The khans appointed them to responsible military and state positions: temniks, baskaks. Noyons were often awarded "tarkhan letters" exempted from various duties and responsibilities. Nukers were warriors of large feudal lords. They made up the retinue of their masters, occupied middle and lower military-administrative positions - centurions, foremen, which allowed them to extract significant income from the population of the territories where their military units were stationed.

The privileged strata of the population in the Horde included the Muslim clergy (since 1312, Islam became the state religion of the Horde), merchants, wealthy artisans, large landowners, tribal and tribal elders. The peasantry of agricultural regions, urban artisans, servants were in varying degrees of dependence on the state and feudal lords.

Slaves in the Horde were prisoners of war, residents of conquered lands. Slaves were used in the construction of cities, in handicraft production. A large number of slaves were sold to the countries of the East and Western Europe (through slave markets in the Crimea, the main of which was the Genoese colony of Kafa).

Political system The Golden Horde can be defined as oriental despotism. The supreme power belonged khan. They became the eldest son of the previous khan or another close relative, Genghisides. Khan disposed of all the lands of the state, headed the armed forces, appointed and dismissed senior officials. On behalf of the khan (or by himself) foreign policy was conducted, wars were declared, peace was concluded. Khan was also the chief judge.

There was a general congress of the Mongol leaders - kurultai, which was attended by the sons of the khan, his closest relatives, widows of khans, emirs, noyons, temniks. Kurultai, convened episodically and held in a solemn atmosphere, resolved issues of war and peace, disputes between representatives of the nobility, elevated a new khan to the throne. The decisions of the khan and his will were undeniable at the kurultai.

The system of central governing bodies of the Golden Horde borrowed a lot from the eastern despotisms of China, Persia, and the Central Asian khanates.

At the end of the thirteenth century there appeared sofas(offices) - sectoral governing bodies that were subordinate to senior officials appointed by the khan, who carried out their instructions, provided them with information about the state of affairs in the branches of government.

The highest officials of the Horde. Administered vizier were the khan's treasury and the general administration of state affairs on behalf of and on behalf of the khan. Beklyari-bek, sometimes called the "senior emir" in the sources, exercised military control and leadership of foreign affairs. Bukaul he was in charge of weapons, supplies, allowances for military units and garrisons, accounting for military booty, its delivery and distribution according to the instructions of the khan and senior officials.

The basis of the statehood of the Golden Horde was its military organization. The bearers of state power were at the same time military leaders. The basis of the Mongol army was a numerous cavalry, consisting of Mongol-Tatars, Kipchaks and representatives of other nomadic peoples.

Temniks(thousanders) - commanders of large units, consisted of representatives of the Jochid family - princes and noble noyons. All commanders were interconnected by peculiar seigneur-vassal relations.

The court in the Horde was not separated from the administration. Khan, state bodies, officials themselves administered justice in all criminal and civil cases. But in connection with the Islamization of the Horde at the end of the 13th - beginning of the 14th centuries. courts were established Qadis headed by the supreme qadi of the state. These courts considered mainly religious and marriage and family cases related to the violation of the requirements of the Koran. For the analysis of civil cases in the cities, special judges were appointed - yarguchi. The nomadic peoples who were part of the Horde had courts of tribal elders. A characteristic feature of the judicial system of the military-feudal society of the Horde was the arbitrariness of judges and administration.

main source rights was in the Horde Great Yasa Genghis Khan, compiled by him in 1206 as a warning to his successors. It consisted mainly of the rules of the military organization of the Mongolian army and the norms of criminal law, included 33 fragments and 13 khan's sayings. Yasa established very cruel punishments for both crimes and misdemeanors, without making a fundamental difference between them.

The norms of customary law were also sources of law among the Mongol-Tatars. In the process of Islamization of the Golden Horde (XIV century), Muslim law began to operate in it. It was used mainly in cities and areas with a settled population.

The supreme law in the Horde, subject to immediate and non-negotiable execution, was the oral and written orders of the khans - for all subjects, and the feudal nobility was no exception here. The instructions and orders of the Khan were applied in the practice of state administration of the authorities of the Golden Horde and senior officials.

Property relations in the Golden Horde were regulated by customary law and were therefore rather confused. This is especially true for land relations - the main basis of feudal society. The ownership of the land, the entire territory of the state belonged to the ruling khan family of the Jochids. But the inheritance of land was difficult in a nomadic economy. Therefore, it was used only in agricultural areas.

A special object of inheritance in the khan's family was political power, and it was combined with the right of ownership of the land of the ulus. The youngest son was considered the heir.

Marriage and family relations were regulated by customary law and Islamic law (to a lesser extent). The family was patriarchal and polygamous. Its head was the father - the owner of all the family's property, who had the right to control the fate of his family members up to the practice of transferring his children into service for debts or selling them into slavery.

The number of wives of the free inhabitants of the Horde - Muslims could not exceed four, the others were not limited. The children of wives and concubines were in an equal legal position, only sons from the eldest wife enjoyed some advantage. The power of a husband over his wife was established by marriage, one of the forms of which was the kidnapping of the bride - real or ritual. In the event of the death of the husband, the eldest wife managed the affairs of the family - until the time when the sons became adults.

The cruel criminal law of the Horde was a prerequisite for maintaining dominance over the conquered peoples. Yasa of Genghis Khan established the death penalty for disobedience to the khan, noyons, officials, treason, failure to provide assistance in battle, unauthorized transfer from one military unit to another, assistance to a prisoner or persecuted by the order of the khan, perjury in court, appropriation of someone else's slave. In some cases, the death penalty was also relied upon for murder, property crimes, adultery, bestiality, spying on the behavior of others (especially the nobility and superiors), witchcraft. The death penalty was carried out in public, most often by strangulation or dragging by horses. For domestic murder, a ransom was set in favor of the victim's family, the amount of which was determined by the social status of the murdered.

Questions and tasks for self-control:

1. What are the main reasons for the feudal fragmentation of Russia.

2. Name the centers of statehood in the era of feudal fragmentation.

3. Analyze what was the originality of the social system and forms of government during the period of political fragmentation.

4. What are the main sources of law during this period.

5. Describe the features of the socio-economic and political development of Novgorod and Pskov in the XII - XV centuries.

6. Describe the legal status of the main groups of the population and name the main institutions of civil and criminal law according to the Pskov Judicial Charter.

7. What are the features of the state system and the rights of the Golden Horde.

1. Domestic legislation of the XI - XX centuries: a manual for seminars / Ed. O.I. Chistyakova. In 2 parts. Part 1. XI - XIX centuries - M .: Jurist, 2009 .- 464s. - (institutiones).- ISBN 978-5-7975-0146-6.

2. Aleksev Yu.G. Pskov judicial charter and its time. M: Nauka, 1980.

3. Gumilyov L.N.. Ancient Russia and the Great Steppe / M .: Eksmo, 2006 - ISBN 5-699-16502-5

4. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the XVII century / A.P. Novoseltsev, A.N. Sakharov, V.I. Buganov, V.D. Nazarov; resp. ed. A.N. Sakharov- AST Publishing House, 2000 - 576s.

5. Karamzin, N.M. History of the Russian State / N.M. Karamzin. – M.: Eksmo, 2010. – 431 p.

6. Kostomarov N. Russian republic. Northern Russian People's Rules in the Times of the Appanage-Veche Way of Life. (History of Novgorod, Pskov and Vyatka). M., 1994.

The Golden Horde was a feudal state of the developed Middle Ages. The supreme power in the country belonged to the khan, and this title of head of state in the history of the entire Tatar people is associated mainly with the period of the Golden Horde. If the entire Mongol Empire was ruled by the dynasty of Genghis Khan (Genghisids), then the Golden Horde was ruled by the dynasty of his eldest son Jochi (Juchids). In the 60s of the XIII century, the empire was actually divided into independent states, but legally they were considered uluses of Genghis Khan.

Therefore, the system of government, laid down under him, practically remained until the end of the existence of these states. Moreover, this tradition continued in the political and socio-economic life of those Tatar khanates that formed after the fall of the Golden Horde. Naturally, some transformations, reforms were carried out, some new state and military posts appeared, but the entire state and social system as a whole remained stable. Fakhrutdinov R.G. History of the Tatar people and Tatarstan. (Antiquity and the Middle Ages). Textbook for secondary schools, gymnasiums and lyceums. - Kazan: Magarif, 2000.S.123

Under the khan there was a divan - a state council, consisting of members of the royal dynasty (oglans-princes, brothers or other male relatives of the khan), large feudal princes, high clergy, and great military leaders. Large feudal princes are noyons for the early Mongol period of the times of Batu and Berke, and for the Muslim, Tatar-Kipchak era of Uzbek and his successors - emirs and beks. Later, by the end of the 14th century, very influential and powerful beks with the name “Karacha-bi” appeared from the largest families Shirin, Baryn, Argyn, Kipchak (these noble families were also the highest feudal-princely elite of almost all Tatar khanates that arose after the collapse Golden Horde).

The divan also had the position of bitikchi (scribe), who was in essence the secretary of state, who had considerable power in the country. Even large feudal lords and military leaders treated him with respect.

All this high elite of state administration is known from Eastern, Russian and Western European historical sources, as well as from the labels of the Golden Horde khans. The same documents recorded the titles of a large number of other officials, various government officials, medium or small feudal lords. The latter included, for example, tarkhans, who were exempted from taxes and taxes for this or that public service, receiving from the khan the so-called tarkhan labels.

Label- this is a khan's letter or decree giving the right to state administration in certain uluses of the Golden Horde or its subordinate states (for example, labels for reigning Russian princes), the right to conduct diplomatic missions, other responsible state affairs abroad and within the country and, of course, to the right of land ownership by feudal lords of various ranks. In the Golden Horde, and then in the Kazan, Crimean and other Tatar khanates, there was a system of soyurgals - a military fief right to own land. A person who received a soyurgal from the khan had the right to levy in his favor those taxes that used to go to the state treasury. According to Soyurgal, land was considered hereditary. Naturally, such great privileges were not given just like that. The feudal lord, who received the soyurgal right, had to provide the army in wartime with the appropriate amount of cavalry, weapons, horse-drawn transport, provisions, etc.

In addition to labels, there was a system for issuing so-called paizi. paiza- this is a gold, silver, bronze, cast iron, or even just a wooden tablet, also issued on behalf of the khan as a kind of mandate. A person who presented such a mandate on the ground was provided with the necessary services during his movements and trips - escorts, horses, carts, premises, food. It goes without saying that a golden paizu was received by a person who was higher in his position in society, a wooden one - by a simpler one. There is information about the presence of paizi in the Golden Horde in written sources, they are also known as archaeological finds from the excavations of Saray-Berke, one of the capitals of the Golden Horde.

In the Ulus of Jochi there was a special position of a military bukaul, which was engaged in the distribution of troops, the dispatch of detachments; he was also responsible for military maintenance and allowances. Even ulus emirs obeyed Bukaulu - in wartime temniks. In addition to the main bukaul, there were bukauls of separate regions.

Priests and, in general, representatives of the clergy in the Golden Horde, according to the records of labels and Arab-Persian historical geography, were represented by such persons: mufti - head of the clergy; sheikh - spiritual leader and mentor, aksakal; sufi - a pious, pious, free from evil deeds person or ascetic; qadi - a judge who decides cases according to Sharia, that is, according to the code of Muslim laws.

The Baskaks and Darukhachs (darukhas) played an important role in the political and social life of the Golden Horde state. The first of them were military representatives of power, military guards, the second - civilians with the duties of a governor or manager, one of the main functions of which was to control the collection of tribute. The position of Baskak was abolished at the beginning of the 14th century, and darukhachs as governors of the central government or heads of administrations of the darug regions existed as early as the period of the Kazan Khanate.

Under the Baskak or under the Darukhach, there was the position of a tributary, that is, their assistant in collecting tribute - yasak. He was a kind of bitikchi (secretary) for yasak affairs. In general, the position of bitikchi in the Ulus of Jochi was quite common, it was considered responsible and respected. In addition to the main bitikchi under the khan's divan-council, there were bitikchi under the ulus divans, who enjoyed great power in the localities. They could, for example, be compared with the volost clerks of pre-revolutionary Russia, who performed almost all government work in the outback.

In the system of state officials there were a number of other officials who are known mainly by the khan's labels. These are: “ilche” (messenger), “tamgachy” (customs officer), “tartanakchy” (tax collector or weigher), “totkaul” (outpost), “guard” (watch), “yamchy” (postal), “koshchy” (falconer), "barschy" (barsnik), "kimeche" (rook or shipman), "bazaar da torganl[n]ar" (guardians of order in the bazaar). These positions are known from the labels of Tokhtamysh of 1391 and Timur-Kutluk of 1398.

Most of these civil servants also existed during the periods of the Kazan, Crimean and other Tatar khanates. It is also noteworthy that the vast majority of these medieval terms and titles are verbatim understandable to any modern person who speaks the Tatar language - they are written in documents of the 14th and 16th centuries, they sound like this at the present time.

The same can be said about the various types of duties that were levied on the nomadic and settled population, as well as about various border duties: “salyg” (poll tax), “kalan” (tire), “yasak” (tribute), “kharazh » ("kharaj" - an Arabic word meaning a 10% tax on Muslim peoples), “burych” (debt, arrears), “chygysh” (exit, expense), “yndyr khaky” (fee for a threshing floor), “barn small” (granary duty), “Burla tamgasy” (wheat tamga), “yul khaky” (road fee), “karaullyk” (guard fee), “tartanak” (by weight, as well as import and export tax), “tamga” (tamga duty ).

In the most general form, the administrative system of the Golden Horde was described as early as the 13th century. G. Rubruk, who traveled the entire state from west to east. His sketch of a traveler contains the basis of the administrative-territorial division of the Golden Horde, defined by the concept of "ulus system".

Its essence was the right of nomadic feudal lords to receive from the khan himself or another large steppe aristocrat a certain inheritance - an ulus. For this, the owner of the ulus was obliged to put up, if necessary, a certain number of fully armed soldiers (depending on the size of the ulus), as well as to perform various tax and economic duties.

This system was an exact copy of the structure of the Mongolian army: the entire state - the Great Ulus - was divided according to the rank of the owner (temnik, thousand's manager, centurion, ten's manager) - into destinies of certain size, and from each of them, in case of war, ten, one hundred , a thousand or ten thousand armed warriors. At the same time, uluses were not hereditary possessions that could be passed from father to son. Moreover, the khan could take away the ulus completely or replace it with another.

In the initial period of the existence of the Golden Horde, there were apparently no more than 15 large uluses, and rivers most often served as the borders between them. This shows a certain primitiveness of the administrative division of the state, rooted in the old nomadic traditions.

Further development of statehood, the emergence of cities, the introduction of Islam, a closer acquaintance with the Arab and Persian traditions of government led to various complications in the possessions of the Jochids with the simultaneous death of Central Asian customs dating back to the time of Genghis Khan.

Instead of dividing the territory into two wings, four uluses appeared, headed by ulusbeks. One of the uluses was the personal domain of the khan. He occupied the steppes of the left bank of the Volga from its mouth to the Kama.

Each of these four uluses was divided into a certain number of "regions", which were the uluses of the feudal lords of the next rank.

In total, in the Golden Horde, the number of such "regions" in the XIV century. was about 70 in number of temniks. Simultaneously with the establishment of administrative-territorial division, the formation of the state administration apparatus took place.

Khan, who stood at the top of the pyramid of power, for most of the year was in a roaming headquarters surrounded by his wives and a huge number of courtiers. He spent only a short winter period in the capital. The moving khan's horde-headquarters, as it were, emphasized that the main power of the state continued to be based on a nomadic beginning. Naturally, it was quite difficult for the Khan, who was in constant motion, to manage the affairs of the state himself. This is also emphasized by the sources, which directly report that the supreme ruler “pays attention only to the essence of the matter, without entering into the details of the circumstances, and is content with what is reported to him, but does not seek details regarding the collection and spending.”

The entire Horde army was commanded by a military leader - beklyaribek, that is, the prince of princes, the grand prince. Beklyaribek usually exercised military power, often being the commander of the khan's army. Sometimes his influence exceeded the power of the khan, which often led to bloody civil strife. From time to time, the power of the Beklyaribeks, for example, Nogai, Mamai, Edigei, increased so much that they themselves appointed khans.

With the strengthening of statehood in the Golden Horde, the administrative apparatus grew, its rulers took as a model the administration of the state of Khorezmshahs conquered by the Mongols. According to this model, a vizier appeared under the khan, a kind of head of government, who was responsible for all spheres of the non-military life of the state. The vizier and the divan (state council) headed by him controlled finances, taxes, and trade. The khan himself was in charge of foreign policy with his closest advisers, as well as the beklyaribek.

The heyday of the Horde state was marked by the highest level and quality of life in Europe at that time. The rise took place almost during the reign of one ruler - Uzbek (1312 - 1342). The state took upon itself the obligation to protect the lives of its citizens, to administer justice, to organize social, cultural and economic life.

All this testifies to the well-coordinated state mechanism of the Golden Horde with all the attributes that are necessary for the existence and development of a large medieval state: central and local government, the judicial and tax system, the customs service and a strong army.

The Mongol Empire is a Central Asian state that conquered in the first half of the 13th century. vast territory of the Eurasian continent, from the Pacific Ocean to Central Europe.

In 1206, at a kurultai - a meeting of representatives of the Mongol nobility - Khan Temuchin (Temujin) was elected Khan of all Mongols, receiving the title of Genghis Khan. A huge and strong army was created, iron discipline was introduced into the troops.

Soon Genghis Khan began to pursue an aggressive policy. In the next five years, the Mongol detachments, united by Genghis Khan, conquered the lands of their neighbors, and by 1215 conquered Northern China. With the help of the governors of North China who entered the service, an effective administration was created. In 1221, the hordes of Genghis Khan defeated the main forces of the Khorezm Shah and conquered Central Asia. The Caucasus and Eastern Europe were also conquered.

In 1237, the troops of Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, invaded Russian lands. Cities such as Ryazan, Moscow, Vladimir, Chernigov, Kyiv were conquered. The Mongols did not reach Novgorod.

In 1241 the Mongols attacked Poland and Hungary. The Poles and the Teutonic Knights were defeated. However, due to the struggle for the Khan's throne, Batu stopped the offensive and went to the southern Russian steppes.

In the 40s. 13th century on a vast territory from the Irtysh to the steppes of the Volga and the Danube, a state was founded, called the Golden Horde. The Horde was separated from the empire of Genghis Khan at the end of the 13th century.

The Golden Horde was a feudal state. It had the following features:

Nomadic and semi-nomadic nature of society;

Large role of tribal leaders;

Hierarchy of nomadic landownership.

The ruling class was the class of feudal lords (“white bone”), including the Mongol-Tatar nomadic aristocracy.

The first group of feudal lords consisted of the khan and princes from the Jochi clan, the first khan of the Golden Horde. The second group included the largest feudal lords - beks and nyons. The third group of feudal lords consisted of tarkhans - people who held low positions in the state apparatus. The fourth group consisted of nukers - they were part of the inner circle of their master and were dependent on him.

After the adoption of Islam, the Muslim clergy began to play a significant role as the state religion.

The feudal-dependent population was called the "black bone" and included nomadic pastoralists, farmers and city dwellers.

The peasant population was divided into communal peasants who had their own inventory, outbuildings (sobanchi), etc., and impoverished members of the peasant community (urtakchi).

Even during his lifetime, Genghis Khan divided the empire into 4 uluses, at the head of which he put his sons. The Golden Horde was led by a khan, who had strong despotic power. He was elected by the kurultai - the congress of the Mongolian aristocracy.

Sofas were the central bodies of sectoral administration in the Golden Horde state. Their work was coordinated by the vizier - the nominal head of the government. The highest officials in the uluses were emirs, in the army - bakouls and temniks. Local government was carried out by Baskaks and Darugs.

The military organization of the Golden Horde was based on the decimal system. The entire population was divided into dozens, hundreds, thousands and dozens; the commanders of these units were foremen, centurions, thousanders and temniks. The main arm of the Mongols was light and heavy cavalry.

In the first half In the 13th century, after the defeat by the Mongols, the Russian principalities found themselves in the position of tributaries to the Horde. While retaining their statehood, church and administration, the Russian principalities were forced to pay taxes. The collection of tribute was carried out by one of the princes, whose right was secured by the khan's label. The label gave the right to the title of Grand Duke, as well as political and military support from the Golden Horde. Some Russian princes used that situation to increase their influence on other principalities.

On the territory of Russia, a Baskak military-political organization was created. The Baskaks controlled the collection of tribute, carried out population counts, punitive, police and other functions.

Unlike other conquered peoples in Russia, the Mongols left local Russian princes in power as their vassals. The exception was some southern regions, where direct rule by the Mongols was introduced.

In 1380, the Battle of Kulikovo took place. Russian troops, led by Dmitry Donskoy, defeated the Golden Horde for the first time.

The Muscovite state adopted some features of the administrative administration used by the Mongols. This was reflected in the system and procedure for taxation, the organization of the army, the financial department, etc.

The growth and activity of Russian cities were suspended by the Tatar-Mongol conquest, which led to a weakening of the influence and authority of city assemblies. The Golden Horde khans and Russian princes opposed veche democracy. The city militia was disbanded.

Certain democratic elements survived only in Novgorod and Pskov.

At the end of the XIV century. the Russian Grand Duke - the prince who owns the khan's label - turns into an autonomous ruler. The administrative and military apparatus created by the Mongols began to be used by them for their own purposes.

The Russian princes used the strict order established by the Mongols in the administrative sphere, in the field of taxation and military mobilization. The power of the Grand Duke gradually replaced such political institutions as veche, election, an agreement between the prince and the people, etc.

The main sources of law of the Golden Horde were the following:

Collection of Mongolian laws and customs - Great Yasa of Genghis Khan;

Customary law of the Mongolian tribes;

Sharia norms;

Letters, labels, orders to local rulers, etc.;

- "secret story".

Inheritance and marriage and family relations were based on customary law and traditions. So, the custom demanded to redeem the wife from her parents, the main wife managed the property after the death of her husband until the sons reached the age of majority, etc.

It is characteristic of criminal law that the laws of Yasa were extremely cruel. Their failure was often punishable by death or self-mutilation. Military crimes were punished with particular cruelty.

The trial was adversarial. In addition to testimonies, oaths, duels, torture was used, the principle of mutual responsibility and group responsibility was used.

With the adoption of Islam, the law of the Golden Horde turned out to be closely connected with Sharia, which began to supplant the ancient traditional collection of Mongolian laws and customs, including the legal nature - the Great Yasa, as well as the customary law of the Mongolian tribes.

The social structure of the Golden Horde was complex and reflected the motley class and national composition of this robber state. There was no clear class organization of society, similar to that which existed in Russia and in the Western European feudal states and which was based on hierarchical feudal ownership of land, here. The status of a citizen of the Golden Horde depended on the origin, merit to the khan and his family, on the position in the military administrative apparatus. In the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde, the dominant position was occupied by the aristocratic family of the descendants of Genghis Khan and his son Jochi.

This numerous family owned all the land of the state, it owned huge herds, palaces, many servants and slaves, innumerable riches, military booty, the state treasury, etc. Subsequently, the Jochids and other descendants of Genghis Khan retained a privileged position in the Central Asian khanates and in Kazakhstan for centuries, secured for themselves the monopoly right to bear the title of sultan, to occupy the khan's throne. Khan had the richest and largest domain-type ulus. The Jochids had a preferential right to occupy the highest government posts. In Russian sources they were called princes. They were awarded state and military titles and titles Fedorov-Davydov GF. The social system of the Golden Horde. M., 1992. P.263.

A special place in the hierarchical structure of the Golden Horde was occupied by numerous nukers - warriors of large feudal lords. They either were in the retinue of their seniors, or occupied middle and lower military administrative positions - centurions, foremen, etc. These positions made it possible to extract significant income from the population of those territories where the corresponding military units were located or where they were sent or where the nukers occupied administrative positions .

From among the nukers and other privileged people, a small layer of tarkhans advanced to the Golden Horde, who received tarkhan letters from the khan or his senior officials, in which their owners were granted various privileges.

The ruling classes also included numerous clergy, primarily Muslim, merchants and wealthy artisans, local feudal lords, tribal and tribal elders and leaders, large landowners in the settled agricultural regions of Central Asia, the Volga region, the Caucasus and the Crimea.

Slavery was quite common in the Golden Horde. First of all, captives and inhabitants of the conquered lands became slaves. Slaves were used in handicraft production, construction, as servants of feudal lords. Many slaves were sold to the countries of the East. However, most slaves, both in cities and in agriculture, after one or two generations became feudal dependents or received freedom.

Speaking about the state system of the Golden Horde, there are different points of view of scientists. From the first year of its existence, the Golden Horde was not a sovereign state, and the khan who led it was also not considered an independent ruler. This was due to the fact that the possessions of the Jochids, like other Mongol princes, legally constituted a single empire with a central government in the rakorum. The kaan who was here, according to one of the articles of the yasa (law) of Genghis Khan, had the right to a certain part of the income from all the territories conquered by the Mongols. Moreover, he had possessions in these areas that belonged to him personally. The creation of such a system of close interweaving and interpenetration was associated with an attempt to prevent the inevitable disintegration of a huge empire into separate independent parts. Only the central Karakorum government was authorized to decide the most important economic and political issues. The power of the central government, due to the remoteness of its stay, resting, perhaps, only on the authority of Genghis Khan, was still so great that the khans of Batu and Berke continued to adhere to the Karakorum "the path of sincerity, humility, friendship and unanimity" Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian History Course: Vol.2, Ch.2. - M., 1989. C.356.

The Golden Horde and other Mongol uluses built their central and regional power on a combination of Mongolian customs and the administrative practice of the conquered country. In the sources on the history of the Golden Horde, the term "vizier" is found. The term "vizir" is found in both Arabic and Persian sources. The vizier was considered the highest position. The vizir was supposed to oversee all sofas, especially the sofa of the state treasury, and also supervise the karkhan (khan's workshop) stable and kitchen. The external expression of the power of the vizier was a golden inkwell, a red seal and a belt studded with precious stones. There were two highest administrative ranks in the Golden Horde: “daruga” and “baskak” - tribute collectors. Offices occupied an important place in the management system. In the centers of the state, the khan had sofas; (how many were unknown). There were secretaries in the sofas, who were called bitikchi (scribes). The most important was the divan, which was in charge of all income and expenses. In addition to the main bitikchi, there were also bitikchi in ordinary sofas.

Decrees were issued in the administrative and political life of the Golden Horde. These decrees were called labels.

Not a single special work was devoted to the organization of the court in the Golden Horde. At first, before the adoption of Islam by the tops of society and before the Muslimization of the Mongolian authorities, the judicial procedures rested entirely on the Yasa (“unwritten” Mongolian law) in cases relating to the Mongols themselves. Yasa did not cease to operate in certain cases of civil life and during the period of Islamization, when some of the cases went to the representatives of Sharia. In the administrative and political life of the Golden Horde, many government decrees were issued - decrees of a national and private nature. These decrees in Mongolian times were called labels on the territory of all Mongolian states. The labels were different, they were issued to the management of "noble sultans, emirs and meliks on matters of possessions" - a large tamga of jasper was installed for them. Labels "on matters of medium importance" received a large tamga made of gold, but smaller than those made of jasper. Labels for military affairs also received a large tamga made of gold, only with the difference that it was depicted on it - “bow, mace and saber” around the circumference of the tamga.

Along with the labels, the sources also speak of golden paizas, which were a sign of very high honor, but also gave a number of significant privileges. Paizi are plates - gold, silver, cast iron, bronze and even wooden with a certain inscription, issued as a kind of passes and mandates, according to which their owners were provided with everything necessary for movement (on the way) - horses, wagons, premises, food, etc. e. Marco Polo, in his famous memoirs, spoke about the golden paize, which was handed to his father, uncle and himself, the following: “It was written on it that in all countries where three ambassadors come, they were given everything they needed, and horses, and guides from place to place. Beklyaribek and vizier appointed from ulusbeks were the highest dignitaries. Their competence is described by the sources incompletely and inconsistently. Probably, the leading role belonged to the beklyaribek, who acted as commander in chief, was in charge of foreign policy and controlled, according to some sources, the judicial system and religious issues. Some beklyaribeks (Nogai, Mamai) actually became the rulers of the Golden Horde of Greeks B.I. The world of history: Russian lands in the XIII-XV centuries. - M., 1996. S. 175.

The supreme executive power was concentrated in the hands of the vizier. He headed the central executive body - the divan. The structure of the latter included several chambers (also called sofas) headed by secretaries. The vizier controlled the collection of taxes and tribute from subject peoples, he was in charge of the khan's treasury, the appointment of Baskaks, secretaries and other officials.

Thus, we can conclude that the social and political system were sufficiently developed for that period of time. Some European states tried to build their state system according to the Golden Horde type, but this did not work, most likely due to the fact that only Asian countries could build such an order in the country.

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State and Law of the Golden Horde

The Golden Horde is a state whose emergence is associated with the conquests of the Mongol Khan Temuchin, or Genghis Khan (c. 1155-1227), and his descendants. Genghis Khan's grandson Batu (1208-1255) formed a huge state, which in Eastern sources was called the Blue Horde, and in Russian chronicles - the Golden Horde. Batu built the city of Sarai, which he made the capital of his state.

The bulk of the nomadic population in the Golden Horde consisted of Kipchaks-Polovtsians (Turks). Over time, the Mongols dissolved into the mass of the Turks. Turkic became the common language.

Along with the Turkization of the Mongols in the Golden Horde from the end of the XIII century. Islamization of its population began. Decisive in the spread of Islam was the reign of Uzbek Khan (1312-1340).

The huge Golden Horde empire subjugated fragmented Russia. In 1243, the Russian princes went to the Horde and recognized the power of Batu Khan over them. The authority of the Golden Horde was also recognized by the Russian metropolitan.

Russian principalities became vassal states of the Golden Horde. They were obliged to carry out military service to the Golden Horde khans and pay tribute - “exit”. In the Russian lands there were representatives of the Khan's administration - the Baskaks, who often committed arbitrariness against the Russian population.

The process of gradual crushing and disintegration of the Golden Horde became a natural phenomenon. In the middle of the XV century. the Kazan and Crimean khanates separated from its composition, then the Astrakhan and Siberian khanates were formed.

Political system. The Golden Horde was a feudal monarchy. Its political structure repeated the structure of the great empire of Genghis Khan. The supreme power belonged to the khan. Although his power was despotic, he was surrounded by a feudal elite who directed and controlled his activities. Khan was the supreme owner and manager of all lands in the state (he could distribute land to relatives and officials), led the armed forces, appointed and dismissed all senior officials, declared war and made peace, was the supreme judge.

To resolve the main political issues in the Golden Eagle, congresses of the largest feudal lords were convened - kurultai. The members of kurultai were princes and noyons, who held the highest military positions. At kurultais, a new khan was elected, issues of war and peace were resolved, the boundaries of uluses were revised, disputes between large feudal lords were considered. The will of the khan, his decision at the kurultai were final.

Sofas (offices) were an important part of the central administration. They were in charge of various branches of government. The sofas consisted of secretaries called bitakchi. The most important was the divan, which was in charge of income and expenses. In this sofa there was a special document with a list of receipts from certain regions and cities, called dedotar.

The vizier was the highest official in the Golden Horde. He was in charge of the khan's treasury and the general management of the affairs of the state, which he carried out on behalf of and on behalf of the khan.

The military department was headed by a beklyari-bek, who directed the activities of emirs, temniks, thousanders. He was the eldest of the emirs, of which there were four in all.

Another influential official was the bukaul, who was in charge of supplies, armaments, allowances for the troops, accounting and delivery of military booty.

Darugs and Baskaks served in the central apparatus of the state. They were engaged in counting the population, collecting taxes, organizing military campaigns. The main purpose of the Baskaks was to ensure the payment of tribute and the performance of other duties in favor of the Golden Horde. The army in the Golden Horde was built according to the decimal system. It was divided into tens of thousands, led by temniki, and into thousands, divided into hundreds and tens. The highest command staff - temniks and thousanders - consisted of princes and noble noyons.

Estate hierarchy. Describing the social structure of the Golden Horde, it should be said that there was no clear class organization based on hierarchical feudal land ownership. The status of a citizen of the Golden Horde depended on the origin, merit to the khan and his family, on the position in the military administrative apparatus. The dominant position in the feudal society of the Golden Horde was occupied by the aristocratic family of the descendants of Genghis Khan - the so-called princes. It was a fairly large family that owned all the land in the country. He owned huge herds, palaces. Like khans, members of this clan gave labels to their subject people. The princes had the pre-emptive right to occupy the highest state posts. They essentially determined the domestic and foreign policy of the state.

At the next level of the military-feudal hierarchy of the Golden Horde were noyons, or beks. They were descended from the companions of Genghis Khan and their sons. Noyons had huge herds, many servants and dependent people. From their possessions they received huge incomes - up to 100-200 thousand dinars a year. Noyons were appointed to responsible state and military positions - temniks, thousanders, Baskaks. They were given tarkhan letters, freeing them from various duties. The signs of their power were labels and naizi (a sign of command, order, credentials in the form of a thin plate).

Next came the nukers - warriors of large feudal lords. They occupied middle and lower positions in the military-administrative apparatus - centurions, foremen. This allowed them to extract significant income from the population of the territories in which they were located.

Tarkhans also belonged to the middle feudal lords, who received tarkhan letters from the khan, in which privileges were established for them. They were free from taxes and were put on trial after committing nine offenses.

The clergy belonged to the privileged part of society. Muslim clergy enjoyed the greatest privileges. Its representatives were not only the richest people, but also held important positions in the administrative and judicial apparatus.

The bulk of the feudally dependent population consisted of nomadic pastoralists - karachu - "black bone", as well as farmers and the urban population. Karachu ran a household on the lands that belonged to the feudal landowners. Engaged in cattle breeding, they carried duties with mare's milk and other livestock products. Karach served in the army, provided him with transport.

In addition to the nomads, feudal dependent peasants, Sabanchi and Urtakchi, lived in the agricultural regions of the Golden Horde. Sabanches lived in rural communities, carried natural and other duties to the feudal lords, and also cultivated the plots allocated to them. Urtakchi (sharecroppers) - bonded people - cultivated the land of the feudal lords for half the harvest, carried other duties.

Craftsmen and merchants lived in the cities, who paid taxes to the city authorities and carried out other duties.

Slavery existed in the Golden Horde. The main source of slavery was captivity. A pile of slaves was used in all sectors of the economy. However, slaves often turned into serfs. They were planted on the ground, endowed with the means of production, and gradually the slaves became sabanchi.

Right. The main source of law in the Golden Horde was a collection of legal norms compiled by Genghis Khan, called the Great Yasa. Its norms that have come down to us are more related to criminal law. They testify to extreme cruelty against offenders. The most commonly mentioned are the death penalty and caning.

For treason, Yasa Genghis Khan provided for the death penalty. Property crimes included the appropriation of an escaped slave, an escaped captive. This was punishable by death.

Stealing horses involved not only returning the stolen horse, but adding ten more horses. If there were no horses, the perpetrator paid with his children. If there were no children, the perpetrator could be "slaughtered like a ram."

The death penalty was provided for adultery, bestiality and some other crimes, and was carried out, as a rule, in public by catching on a rope hanging from the neck of a camel or horse, as well as dragging by horses.

The inheritance of property took place in such a way that the eldest son received more than the younger ones, the younger son inherited the father's household.

The court in the Golden Horde before the adoption of Islam acted on the basis of Mongolian customary law - yas. After the introduction of Islam, the court was based on Sharia. The judges were qadis (qadis), who judged according to Sharia, as well as yarguchi. made decisions on the basis of the Great Yasa of Genghis Khan.