The State of Top Management under Catherine 2. Key Points of the Document

Catherine II sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, she got Russia in a difficult situation: the army and navy were weakened, a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc.

Provincial reform (1775):

"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" adopted on November 7 1775 of the year. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty. They, in turn, were divided into 10-12 counties. The troops of two or three provinces were commanded by the governor-general, otherwise called viceroy. At the head of each province was a governor appointed by the Senate and reporting directly to the empress. The vice-governor was in charge of finances, the Treasury Chamber was subordinate to him. The chief officer of the county was the police captain. The centers of counties were cities, but since there were not enough of them, 216 large rural settlements received the status of a city.

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobles were judged by the zemstvo court, the townspeople - by magistrates, and the peasants - by reprisals. Conscientious courts were also established from representatives of all three estates, which performed the function of a conciliatory instance. All these courts were elected. The higher courts were the judicial chambers, whose members were appointed. And the highest judicial body of the Russian Empire was the Senate.

Secularization reform (1764):

All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:

December 15, 1763 Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the establishment of departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegia, on the division into these cases”. The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments: the first (headed by the Prosecutor General himself) was in charge of state and political affairs in St. Petersburg, the second - judicial in St. Petersburg, the third - transport, medicine, science, education, art, the fourth - military land and naval affairs, the fifth - state and political in Moscow and the sixth - the Moscow Judicial Department. The heads of all departments, except for the first, were chief prosecutors subordinate to the prosecutor general.

Urban reform (1785):

The reform of the cities of Russia was regulated by the "Charter on the rights and benefits of the cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state, namely: real city dwellers - those who owned real estate within the city; merchants of three guilds; guild artisans; foreign and out-of-town guests; eminent citizens - architects, painters, composers, scientists, as well as wealthy merchants and bankers; townspeople - those who were engaged in needlework and handicrafts in the city. Each category had its own rights, duties and privileges.

Police Reform (1782):

The "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman" was introduced. According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The court for public violations: drunkenness, insults, gambling, etc., as well as for unauthorized building and bribes, was carried out by the police authorities themselves, and in other cases a preliminary investigation was carried out, after which the case was transferred to court. The punishments applied by the police were arrest, censure, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition - the prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform:

The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. These educational institutions were maintained at the expense of the treasury, and people of all classes could study in them. school reform was held in 1782 year, and earlier in 1764 year, a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of two hundred noble maidens, then (in 1772 year) - commercial school.

Monetary reform (1768):

The State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation.

Similarly, students consider the reform of local government of the country carried out by Catherine II, and compare it with the reform carried out by Peter I.

4. Next, the teacher organizes work with fragments of Catherine II's letters of commendation. Answering questions about documents, students note changes in the status of estates in the second half of the 18th century.
Formulating the conclusion of the lesson, students can note that thanks to the activities of Catherine II, the country relatively safely passed the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. However, the potential of the traditional system was exhausted, and its continued existence led to an ever greater lag behind Western Europe.
Homework:§ 47, answer the questions after the paragraph; make a comparative description of the personality of Catherine II and Peter I.

Lessons 57-58.

FOREIGN POLICY OF RUSSIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 18TH CENTURY GREAT COMMANDERS AND NAVY COMMANDERS

Lesson Objectives: characterization of the goals, directions and results of Russia's foreign policy during the reign of Catherine II; acquaintance with the life and work of the great commanders and naval commanders of Russia of the period under study.

Main dates and events
1768 -1774 - Russian-Turkish war.
1770 - the defeat of the Turkish fleet in the Chesme Bay.
1772 - the first section of the Commonwealth.
1774 - Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty between Russia and Turkey.
1787 -1791 - Russian-Turkish war.
1791 - Iasi peace treaty between Russia and Turkey.
1788 -1790s - Russian-Swedish war.
1790 - Verelsky peace treaty between Russia and Sweden.
1793 - the second section of the Commonwealth.
1795 - the third section of the Commonwealth.
1795 - Russia, England and Austria formed an alliance against France.

Terms and concepts of lessons
Bar Confederation - in 1768-1772. armed alliance of the Polish gentry against King Stanislaw Poniatowski and Russia.
Kyuchuk-Kainarji world - concluded on July 21, 1774 in the village of Kyuchuk-Kaynardzha on the Danube River, ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. The Ottoman Empire recognized: the independence of the Crimean Khanate, the right of Russian merchant ships to freely navigate the Black Sea and pass through the Black Sea straits, the annexation of Azov, Kerch and other territories to Russia, the Russian protectorate over Moldavia and Wallachia.
Sections of the Commonwealth - partitions of the Polish state between Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1793 and 1795.
Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth - the traditional name of the Polish state from the end of the 16th century, which was a class monarchy headed by a king elected by the Sejm. From the moment of the conclusion of the Union of Lublin in 1569 and until 1795, the Commonwealth was the official name of the united Polish-Lithuanian state.
Peace of Jassy - a peace treaty between Russia and Turkey, ended the Russian-Turkish war of 1787-1791. Concluded on January 9, 1792 in Iasi. He confirmed the annexation of Crimea and Kuban to Russia and established the Russian-Turkish border along the Dniester.
Persons: M. I. Kutuzov, A. G. Orlov, P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, G. A. Spiridov, A. V. Suvorov, F. F. Ushakov.
Lesson equipment: map "Russia in the second half of the 18th century"; CD “Encyclopedia of the history of Russia. 862-1917"; CD "History of Russia and its nearest neighbors: Encyclopedia for children"; CD "Science to win", "History of military art" ("New Disc"); fragments of the films "Admiral Ushakov", "Ships storm the bastions" (director M.I. Romm), "Suvorov" (director V.I. Pudovkin).
Plan for studying new material: 1. The nature of Russia's foreign policy under Catherine II. 2. Main directions and results of foreign policy. 3. Great military leaders.
1. In the introductory speech, the teacher asks students to remember what foreign policy goals and objectives Russia faced in the first half of the 18th century, which was achieved by the time of Catherine II's accession. During the conversation, students identify two important foreign policy goals that Catherine II faced:
1) access to the Black Sea (solution of the Crimean problem);
2) completion of the process of reunification of Russia with Ukraine and Belarus.
An indicator of the growing influence of Russia in European affairs was the Seven Years' War. in the foreign policy of the second half of the 18th century. a line was drawn to assert Russia as a great European power. Going beyond Europeanism was carried out (intervention in crisis situations not directly related to the interests of Russia), and a trend was formed towards the globalization of foreign policy (diplomatic support for the North American colonies during the war of independence, sending the Cossacks to find ways to India).
2. The main directions and results of Russia's foreign policy under Catherine II are studied by schoolchildren on their own and the results are recorded in a table.

Introduction

The history of the Russian state dates back to the 9th century. - the time when Kievan Rus was formed. The Russian state is already eleven centuries old (1100 years).

The territory of Eastern Europe, on which Kievan Rus was located, was not included in the zone of ancient civilization. Therefore, the non-synthesis path of development of the peoples of this part of Europe influenced the features of their state building. The geopolitical situation, which constantly required the solution of defense tasks, also had an effect. For this reason, the state factor played a more significant role in the social life of the Eastern Slavs than in Western Europe. The state was the organizing force here, both in economic, political and defense matters.

For most of its historical path, in terms of the form of government, Russia was a monarchy, which it retained from the 9th century. until the beginning of the 20th century. However, the monarchy did not remain unchanged, undergoing transformations due to external and internal factors.

Taking into account changes in the forms of state administration and state building, qualitatively different stages are distinguished in the history of Russia. The European Middle Ages covers the V-XVII centuries. Among the Eastern Slavs, a medieval state existed in the IX-XVII centuries.

Within this chronological framework, the periods are distinguished: IX-XII centuries, XII-XV centuries, XV-XVII centuries.

The system of public administration and government reforms of Catherine II

2.1 Russian statehood in the second half of the 18th century

In the second half of the XVIII century. in many European states, including Russia, there is a certain modernization of the political and economic system associated with the policy of enlightened absolutism. The main goal is the adaptation of the feudal, in fact, absolute monarchy to new (capitalist) relations, which begin to objectively prevail in society.

The ideological basis of this policy was the Enlightenment, closely associated with the formation in the XVIII century. a new human type - an independent, judicious, active person, critical of authorities, accustomed to relying on his own strength in everything. The restructuring of society on new principles attracted particular attention of the educators. They believed that an enlightened monarch should be at the head of the state, whose main task is to create the kingdom of reason, i.e. a society based on bourgeois values: civil equality, freedom of the individual and its economic activity, inviolability of private property, etc. Catherine II (1762-1796) aspired to become such a monarch in the eyes of Europe, with whose reign the policy of enlightened absolutism in Russia is traditionally associated .

2.2 Reforming public administration under Catherine II

After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna in December 1761, Peter III (1728-1762), the son of the daughter of Peter I - Anna Petrovna and the German duke, became emperor, a mentally undeveloped person, poorly educated, cruel, alien to everything Russian, overly fond of military affairs. During his short reign, the most important was the decree "On the Liberty of the Nobility" of February 18, 1762, which abolished compulsory service for the nobles. In addition, the Secret Chancellery, which was in charge of political crimes, was abolished, which instilled fear in the population. However, these measures could not bring Peter III popularity among his subjects. General dissatisfaction was caused by peace with Prussia, which meant the rejection of all Russian conquests in the Seven Years' War; preparations for war with Denmark in the interests of Holstein, huge Prussian and Holstein influence at the Russian court; disrespect for Orthodox customs; the introduction of German orders in the army, a dismissive attitude towards the Russian guard.

In such a situation, a significant part of the Russian nobility pinned their hopes on the wife of Peter III, the future Empress Catherine II (1762-1796), who, although she was German by birth, understood perfectly well that the Russian Empress should think first of all about the interests of Russia. Unlike her husband, who continued to consider himself the Duke of Holstein, Catherine renounced all rights to Anhalt-Zerbst after the death of her parents. The future Russian empress was born in 1729, she was the daughter of the prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, a general of the Prussian army. The princess received a good education at home, in her childhood and adolescence she traveled quite a lot with her family, which helped her broaden her horizons. In 1745, Sophia Augusta Frederica, having adopted Orthodoxy and the name Ekaterina Alekseevna, married the heir to the Russian throne - Peter Fedorovich (before baptism Karl Peter Ulrich), the son of the eldest sister of Empress Elizabeth - Anna Petrovna, who married the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich . Having found herself in Russia at the age of 16, Ekaterina, having realistically assessed the situation, decided to become her own, Russian, as quickly as possible - to master the language perfectly, to learn Russian customs, - and she spared no effort to achieve her goal. She read a lot and educated herself. Catherine showed particular interest in descriptions of travels, works of the classics, history, philosophy, and the works of French encyclopedists. By nature, Catherine had a sober mind, observation, the ability to suppress her emotions, listen carefully to her interlocutor, and be pleasant in communication. These qualities were very useful to her in the first years of her stay in Russia, since relations with her husband and, most importantly, with Empress Elizabeth Petrovna were quite difficult. Great ambition, willpower, hard work helped Catherine eventually achieve power. A group of conspirators rallied around the future Catherine II - mostly guards officers. Particularly active were Catherine's favorite - Grigory Orlov (1734-783) and his brother Alexei (1737-808). On the night of June 28, 1762, Catherine, together with Alexei Orlov, came from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where on the same day the Senate proclaimed her empress and declared Peter III deposed. On June 29, he was taken into custody, and in July he was killed under unclear circumstances. In September 1762 Catherine II was crowned in Moscow.

2.3 Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

The empress devoted the first years of her reign to strengthening her power, selecting proxies, studying the state of affairs in the state, and also getting to know Russia more thoroughly (in 1763-767 she made three trips to the European part of the country). At this time, a policy of enlightened absolutism began to be pursued in Russia. Considering herself a student of the French philosophers of the 18th century, Catherine II sought, with the help of some transformations, to eliminate the elements of barbarism from the life of the country, to make Russian society more enlightened, close to Western European, but at the same time to keep the autocracy and its social base intact - the nobility.

The need for change was largely determined by the socio-economic situation prevailing at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II. Throughout the XVIII century. elements of capitalist relations developed in Russia, the ideas of entrepreneurship gradually penetrated into various strata of society - the nobility, merchants, peasantry. The particular complexity of the internal situation of the country in the early 60s of the XVIII century. attached to the peasant movement, in which factory and monastery peasants most actively participated. All this, along with the ideas of the Enlightenment, determined the domestic policy of Russia, especially in the first two decades of the reign of Catherine II.

In the 60-0s it was forbidden to buy peasants for industrial enterprises, freedom to organize industrial business was declared, all kinds of monopolies were abolished, as well as internal customs duties, which contributed to the inclusion in internal trade of new lands annexed to the Russian state during the reign of Catherine II : some regions of Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic states, the Black Sea, Azov, Kuban steppes, Crimea. Considerable attention under Catherine II was paid to the development of the education system: educational houses, institutes for girls, and cadet corps were created. In the 80s. when organizing provincial and district public schools, the principle of classless education was proclaimed.

2.4 Strengthening of serfdom

However, along with such progressive measures, which objectively contributed to the development of bourgeois relations, serfdom was intensifying in Russia. Already in the manifesto of July 6, 1762, explaining the reasons for the coup, one of the main goals of Catherine II's domestic policy was defined to support the landlords in every possible way and keep the peasants in subjection. In the 60s, when the empress still verbally supported the idea of freeing the peasants, the serfs were forbidden to complain about the master, the landowners were allowed to send their peasants to hard labor. In order to destroy explosive centers in the south, self-government was liquidated and the Cossack districts were reorganized - here at the end of the 18th century. serfdom was widespread. Later, during the reign of Catherine II, there was an increase in the exploitation of the peasants: serfs accounted for about 50% of their total number, more than half of them were on corvee, which in the whole country by the 80s. increased to five days a week instead of three days in the 60s; especially in the second half of the 18th century. The trade in serfs spread.

2.5 Central control apparatus

One of the characteristic, essential features of the policy of enlightened absolutism of Catherine II was the streamlining of the system of state administration. The idea of the need for this was already expressed in the manifesto of July 6, 1762, its implementation began with the transformation of the Senate. Immediately after the accession of Catherine II to the throne, N.I. Panin (1718-1783), a well-known diplomat, adviser to the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, presented to the empress a draft of changes in the central administration. He proposed the creation of a permanent imperial council, consisting of four secretaries (foreign and internal affairs, military and naval departments) and two advisers. All major issues were to be considered by the Council in the presence of the Empress, who made the final decisions. In addition, it was proposed to divide the Senate into six departments. Project N.I. Panin, as limiting the autocratic power of the empress, was rejected by her, however, in order to speed up and streamline office work, the idea of dividing the Senate was put into practice in 1763. Six departments were created, four of which were in St. Petersburg: the first dealt with the most important internal and political affairs , the second - judicial, the third was in charge of the affairs of the western outskirts of the state, communications, higher education, the police; the fourth - military and naval affairs. Two Moscow departments corresponded to the first and second St. Petersburg ones. Thus, during the reign of Catherine II, the role of the central authorities was gradually reduced to general leadership and supervision, the main management issues began to be resolved locally. However, even before the reform of the system of local government, the empress made an attempt to give Russia new legislation that would meet the spirit of the times.

2.6 Provincial administration

One or several provinces received the status of a governor-general and were subordinate to the governor-general appointed by the Senate, whose activities were directly controlled by the empress. The governor-general had broad powers to oversee all local government and the courts in the territory entrusted to him. The management of a separate province was entrusted to the governor appointed by the Senate, who headed the provincial government - the main administrative body. In addition to the governor, it included two provincial advisers and a provincial prosecutor. The board dealt with various administrative issues, supervised the administration of the province, and together with the vice-governor, was in charge of all police institutions of the province and county. The vice-governor (or lieutenant of the ruler, i.e. the governor) was appointed by the Senate, if necessary, could replace the governor, and was also the chairman of the treasury chamber - the highest financial body of the province, which disposed of state property. She was in charge of tax collection, government contracts and buildings, provincial and county treasuries, economic peasants of former church estates. In addition to administrative, financial and special judicial institutions, a new body was created in each provincial city - the order of public charity, which was in charge of schools, hospitals, almshouses and shelters. In contrast to the provincial government and the state chamber, the order of public charity had an elected composition.

2.7 County government

The county executive body was the lower zemstvo court, headed by a police captain (as a rule, from retired officers). He was considered the head of the county, was in charge of the county administration and the police, monitored trade, and conducted preliminary investigations into court cases. He was elected by the nobles for a period of three years at the district meeting, and two assessors were also selected from the nobles to help him. The head of the administrative and police authorities in the county town was the mayor, who was appointed by the Senate.

2.8 Judicial system

From 1775 class legal proceedings were introduced in the provinces. The provincial court for the nobles was the Supreme Zemstvo Court, for the urban population - the provincial magistrate, for personally free peasants - the upper massacre. These judicial bodies consisted of elected assessors from the respective class, and were headed by specially appointed officials. At each upper zemstvo court, a noble guardianship was established, which dealt with the affairs of widows and minor orphans of the nobles. In addition, special conscientious courts were established in provincial cities to deal with criminal cases related to the insanity of a criminal, and civil cases decided by a settlement agreement. As the highest judicial instances in all cases decided in the provincial class courts, the chamber of the civil court and the chamber of the criminal court were established. In the event of any complaints, they had the right to make the final decision. In each county for the nobles there was a county court, subordinate to the supreme zemstvo court, for the urban population - a city magistrate, which was under the jurisdiction of the provincial magistrate. In counties where more than 10,000 personally free peasants lived, there was a lower reprisal, subordinate to the upper reprisal. In county judicial institutions, judges and assessors were elected from representatives of the estate, whose affairs were in charge, the government appointed only the chairman of the lower massacre. An orphan's court was established under each city magistrate, dealing with the cases of widows and minor orphans of the townspeople. The role of supervisory bodies in each province was performed by provincial prosecutors and their assistants - criminal and civil solicitors. The prosecutors at the upper zemstvo court, the provincial magistrate and the upper massacre, as well as the district attorney, who served as the prosecutor in the district, were subordinate to the provincial prosecutor.

2.8 Noble self-government

In her domestic policy, Catherine II focused primarily on the nobility, and already in the first years of her reign, the foundations of self-government of this class were laid. In preparation for the convening of the Legislative Commission in 1766, the nobles of each county were ordered to elect a county marshal for two years to lead the election of deputies to the Commission and in case of any other demands from the supreme authority. The reform of 1775 increased the influence of the nobility on local government, gave it a class organization, giving the rights of a legal entity to the county noble assembly. The charter granted to the nobility in 1785 strengthened the position of this class. It fixed the pre-existing rights and benefits of the nobility: freedom from taxes and corporal punishment, from public service, the right to full ownership of land and serfs, the right to be judged only by equals, etc. The charter granted the nobility also gave some new privileges, in particular, the confiscation of the estates of nobles for criminal offenses was prohibited, it was facilitated to obtain the nobility, etc. In addition, in 1785 the provincial nobility, as before the county nobility, as a whole, was granted the rights of a legal entity. Ultimately, the system of nobility administration, which developed during the reign of Catherine II, had the following form. Once every three years, at county and provincial meetings, the nobles elected, respectively, county and provincial noble leaders and other officials. Only that nobleman could be elected, whose income from the estate was not less than 100 rubles. in year. Nobles who had reached the age of 25 and had an officer rank could participate in the elections. In addition to the election of officials, the meetings of the nobility resolved issues raised by the government, as well as problems related to class discipline. In addition, the assembly had the right to submit their wishes to the governor or governor general, a specially elected deputation led by the marshal of the nobility could apply to the empress.

2.9 City government

In 1785, a Letter of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire was also published, which later became known as the Charter to Cities. During its development, some wishes from the city mandates of the Legislative Commission were taken into account, as well as charters that determined the structure of the Baltic cities, in particular, Riga. These statutes were based on Magdeburg (by the name of the city in Germany), or German, law, which developed in the Middle Ages on the basis of the right to self-government won by the townspeople, as well as on the basis of acts regulating craft and trade.

From now on, the coat of arms becomes obligatory for each city, which should be used in all city affairs. It was established that the coat of arms of the county town should also include the emblem of the provincial town. All coats of arms, already existing or new, were approved by the Empress herself. In accordance with the Charter of Letters, the population of each city was divided into six categories. Citizens of all ranks from the age of 25 had the right once every three years to elect from their midst the mayor and vowels (representatives from ranks) to the general city duma. Nobles were not widely represented in the city duma, as they had the right to refuse to perform city posts. The General City Duma met every three years or, if necessary, it was in charge of the city's economy, and was obliged to report to the governor on all income and expenses. In addition, the General Duma elected six representatives (one from each category) to the six-member Duma, whose meetings were held every week under the chairmanship of the mayor. The six-member Duma was in charge of collecting taxes, fulfilling state duties, improving the city, its expenses and incomes, i.e. was the executive body of the city government. Supervision of city self-government was carried out by the governor, to whom the six-member Duma could turn for help. The rights of the city as a whole were protected by the city magistrate, who interceded for the city before the highest authorities, made sure that no new taxes or duties were imposed on it without the government's order.

An important part of the domestic policy of Catherine II was the reform of public administration. In 1762, Catherine rejected N.I. Panin's proposal to create an Imperial Council, which was to become a legislative body under the empress. In 1763, the Senate was reformed: it was divided into 6 departments with strictly defined functions and under the leadership of a prosecutor general appointed by the monarch. The Senate became the body of control over the activities of the state apparatus and the highest judicial instance, but lost its main function - legislative initiative, the right of legislative initiative actually passed to the empress.

In 1775, a regional reform was carried out, which increased the number of provinces from 23 to 50. The size of the new provinces was determined by the population; each of them had to live from 300 to 400 thousand souls, the provinces were divided into counties of 20-30 thousand inhabitants each. 2-3 provinces were entrusted to the governor-general or governor, who was vested with great power and supervised all branches of government. The governor's assistants were the vice-governor, two provincial councilors and the provincial prosecutor, who made up the provincial government. The vice-governor headed the state chamber (revenues and expenses of the treasury, state property, farming, monopolies, etc.), the provincial prosecutor was in charge of all judicial institutions. In the cities, the position of mayor appointed by the government was introduced. Platonov S.F. Full course of lectures on Russian history. Ed. 10th, 1993 edition.// http://www.gaudeamus.omskcity.com/

Simultaneously with the establishment of the provinces, a system of class courts was created: for each class (nobles, townspeople, state peasants), their own special judicial institutions were introduced. County courts were introduced for the nobility, city magistrates for merchants and philistines, lower reprisals for foreigners and state peasants. Some of the new courts introduced the principle of elected assessors. The power in the county belonged to the police captain elected by the noble assembly. From county institutions, cases could go to higher authorities, that is, to provincial institutions: the upper zemstvo court, the provincial magistrate and the upper massacre. In the provincial cities were established: the criminal chamber - for criminal proceedings, civil - for civil, state - for state revenues, provincial government - with executive and police power. In addition, conscientious courts, guardianship of the nobility, orphan's courts and orders of public charity (in charge of schools, shelters, hospitals) were established.

The provincial reform significantly strengthened the administrative apparatus, and, consequently, the supervision of the population. As part of the policy of centralization, the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated, the autonomy of other regions was abolished or limited. The system of local government, created by the provincial reform of 1775, was preserved in its main features until 1864, and the administrative-territorial division introduced by it - until 1917. History of Russia. Theories of study. Book one. From ancient times to the end of the 19th century. Tutorial. /Under. ed. B.V. Lichman. Yekaterinburg: SV-96, 2001. El. Version. //http://www.gaudeamus. www.omskcity.com/

By 1765, Catherine II came to the conclusion that it was necessary to convene the Legislative Commission in order to bring "in a better order" the existing legislation and in order to reliably know "the needs and sensitive shortcomings of our people." Attempts to convene the current legislative body - the Legislative Commission - have been made more than once before, but all of them, for various reasons, ended in failure. Given this, Catherine, endowed with a remarkable mind, resorted to an act unprecedented in the history of Russia: she personally compiled a special “Instruction”, which is a detailed program of actions for the Commission. Of the 526 articles of the "Order", divided into 20 chapters, 294 go back to the work of the famous French educator Montesquieu "On the Spirit of Laws", and 108 - to the work of the Italian legal scholar Cesare Beccaria "On Crimes and Punishments". Catherine also made extensive use of the works of other European thinkers. However, it was not a simple arrangement of the works of eminent authors in the Russian way, but their creative rethinking, an attempt to apply the ideas embodied in them to Russian reality. Rakhmatullin M. Empress Catherine II. Science and Life No. 3, 2003

The manifesto on the creation of a draft new Code and on the convening of a special Commission for this purpose appeared on December 14, 1766. The main motive: the country can no longer live according to the medieval code of laws - the Cathedral Code of 1649. 571 deputies were elected to the Commission from nobles, townspeople, single-palace residents, Cossacks, state peasants, non-Russian peoples of the Volga, Urals and Siberia regions. One deputy was allocated to the central institutions - the Senate, the Synod, the chancellery. Only the serfs, who made up the majority of the country's inhabitants, were deprived of the right to elect their deputies. There are no deputies from the clergy either, for the undertaking was of a purely secular nature. The social composition of the Commission looked like this: the nobility was represented by 205 deputies, the merchants - 167. Together they made up 65% of all the elected representatives, although less than 4% of the country's population stood behind them! Representatives of other classes of "weather" in the Commission obviously did not do: there were 44 of them from the Cossacks, 42 from the same palaces, 29 from state peasants, 7 from industrialists, 19 from clerical officials and others, 54 from "foreigners" (almost no one of the latter, he did not speak Russian, and their participation in the work of the Commission was limited only to spectacular - thanks to exotic clothes - attendance at meetings). Rakhmatullin M. Empress Catherine II. Science and Life No. 4, 2003

The work of the commission eloquently testified to the intensity of social contradictions in the country. The nobility came up with a number of demands of a narrow class character. But the demands of the nobles ran counter to the interests of the merchants who were gaining strength. However, the peasant question caused the greatest controversy. The speeches of the state peasants showed the difficult situation of this detachment of the peasantry, who were exhausted under the burden of taxes. Using the start of the Russian-Turkish war as a pretext, Catherine dissolved the Commission for an indefinite period. History of Russia from ancient times to the beginning of the 20th century. /Under. ed. I. Ya. Froyanova: History textbook for universities. M. 1999. S.285. But individual committees continued to work for several more years.

The commission gave Catherine II a substantive lesson about the impossibility of realizing the theoretical constructions of European philosophers on Russian soil. The dissolution of the Legislative Commission was for Catherine a farewell to illusions in the field of domestic politics. Nevertheless, although the Commission did not draw up the Code, it did familiarize the Empress with the needs of the country. Using the works of the Commission, Catherine II issued many important laws.

In 1782, Catherine issued the "Charter of the Deanery" - according to the content of the law on the police, which was entrusted with the education of subjects and control over the fact that each member of society strictly performed their duties. This was another, necessary touch to the construction of a regular, "police" state, against which the people of the 18th century did not yet have a prejudice. It is no coincidence that it is in the "Charter of Deanery" that we find a kind of moral code of a citizen of the Russian Empire, those "seven commandments" that he was obliged to observe: "I. Don't do to your neighbor what you can't stand yourself. II. Do not only do harm to your neighbor, but do good to him, as much as you can. III. If someone has done a personal offense to a neighbor, or in an estate, or in a good rank, let him satisfy as far as possible. IV. Help each other in goodness, lead the blind, give shelter to the poor, give drink to the thirsty. V. Have pity on the drowning, lend a helping hand to the fallen. VI. Blessed is the one who has mercy on the cattle, if the cattle and your villain stumble, lift it up. VII. Show the way to those who have gone out of the way." It is especially important that these suggestions came from someone who, for a Russian person, was the personification of the power of God on earth. World history in faces - XVIII century. Decree. Op.

The policy documents of Catherine II were Letters of Companion to the nobility and cities. Catherine determined the meaning, rights and obligations of different estates. In 1785, a Letter of Complaint was granted to the nobility, which determined the rights and privileges of the nobility, which, after the Pugachev rebellion, was considered the main support of the throne. The nobility finally took shape as a privileged estate. The charter confirmed the old privileges: the monopoly right to own peasants, land and mineral resources; consolidated the rights of the nobility to their own corporations, freedom from poll tax, recruitment, corporal punishment, confiscation of estates for criminal offenses; the nobility received the right to petition the government for their needs; the right to trade and entrepreneurship, the transfer of the title of nobility by inheritance and the impossibility of losing it except in court, etc. The letter confirmed the freedom of the nobles from public service. At the same time, the nobility received a special class corporate structure: county and provincial noble assemblies. Once every three years, these meetings elected district and provincial marshals of the nobility, who had the right to directly appeal to the king. This measure turned the nobility of the provinces and counties into a cohesive force. The landlords of each province constituted a special noble society. The nobles filled many bureaucratic positions in the local administrative apparatus; they have long dominated the central apparatus and the army. Thus, the nobility turned into a politically dominant class in the state.

In the same year, 1785, the Letter of Complaint to the cities was promulgated, which completed the structure of the so-called urban society. This society was made up of inhabitants belonging to taxable estates, that is, merchants, philistines and artisans. Merchants were divided into three guilds according to the amount of capital declared by them; declared less than 500 rubles. capital were called "philistines". Craftsmen for different occupations were divided into "workshops" on the model of Western European ones. There were city governments. All tax-paying townsfolk gathered together and made up the "common city duma"; they elected from their midst the mayor and 6 members to the so-called six-member duma. The Duma was supposed to deal with the current affairs of the city, its income, expenses, public buildings, and most importantly, it took care of the execution of state duties, for the serviceability of which all citizens were responsible.

The city dwellers were given the right to engage in trade and entrepreneurial activities. A number of privileges were received by the top of the townspeople - "eminent citizens" and the guild merchants. But the privileges of the townspeople against the backdrop of permissiveness of the nobility seemed imperceptible, the city self-government bodies were tightly controlled by the tsarist administration. On the whole, the attempt to lay the foundations of a bourgeois estate failed. Russian history. Theories of study. Decree. Op.

Plan

1. Introduction

The system of public administration and government reforms of Catherine II

1 Russian statehood in the second half of the 18th century.

2 Reforming public administration under Catherine II

3 Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

4 Strengthening of serfdom

5 Central administration apparatus

6 Provincial Administration

7 County office

8 Judiciary

Counter-reforms of the 80-90s 19th century

The formation of the Soviet system of government

1 Transformations of the October Revolution

2 Constitution of the RSFSR of 1918

2.1 Supreme authority

2.2 Electoral system

List of used literature

1. Introduction

The history of the Russian state dates back to the 9th century. - the time when Kievan Rus was formed. The Russian state is already eleven centuries old (1100 years).

Within this chronological framework, the periods are distinguished: IX-XII centuries, XII-XV centuries, XV-XVII centuries.

2. System of public administration and management reforms of Catherine II

2.1 Russian statehood in the second half of the 18th century

2.2 Reforming public administration under Catherine II

In such a situation, a significant part of the Russian nobility pinned their hopes on the wife of Peter III, the future Empress Catherine II (1762-1796), who, although she was German by birth, understood perfectly well that the Russian Empress should think first of all about the interests of Russia. Unlike her husband, who continued to consider himself the Duke of Holstein, Catherine renounced all rights to Anhalt-Zerbst after the death of her parents. The future Russian Empress was born in 1729, she was the daughter of the Prince of Anhalt-Zerbst, a general of the Prussian army. The princess received a good education at home, in her childhood and adolescence she traveled quite a lot with her family, which helped her broaden her horizons. In 1745, Sophia Augusta Frederica, having adopted Orthodoxy and the name Ekaterina Alekseevna, married the heir to the Russian throne - Peter Fedorovich (before baptism Karl Peter Ulrich), the son of the eldest sister of Empress Elizabeth - Anna Petrovna, who married the Duke of Holstein Karl Friedrich. Having found herself in Russia at the age of 16, Catherine, having realistically assessed the situation, decided to become her own, Russian as soon as possible - to master the language perfectly, to learn Russian customs - and she spared no effort to achieve her goal. She read a lot and educated herself. Catherine showed particular interest in descriptions of travels, works of the classics, history, philosophy, and the works of French encyclopedists. By nature, Catherine had a sober mind, observation, the ability to suppress her emotions, listen carefully to her interlocutor, and be pleasant in communication. These qualities were very useful to her in the first years of her stay in Russia, since relations with her husband and, most importantly, with Empress Elizabeth Petrovna were quite difficult. Great ambition, willpower, hard work helped Catherine eventually achieve power. Around the future Catherine II rallied a group of conspirators, mostly guards officers. Especially active were Catherine's favorite - Grigory Orlov (1734-783) and his brother Alexei (1737-808). On the night of June 28, 1762, Catherine, together with Alexei Orlov, arrived from Peterhof to St. Petersburg, where on the same day the Senate proclaimed her empress and announced Peter III deposed. On June 29, he was taken into custody, and in July he was killed under unclear circumstances. In September 1762 Catherine II was crowned in Moscow.

2.3 Enlightened absolutism of Catherine II

The need for change was largely determined by the prevailing by the beginning of the reign of Catherine II socio-economic situation. Throughout the XVIII in. elements of capitalist relations developed in Russia, the ideas of entrepreneurship gradually penetrated into various sectors of society - the nobility, merchants, and peasantry. The particular difficulty of the internal situation of the country in the early 60s of XVIII in. attached to the peasant movement, in which factory and monastery peasants most actively participated. All this, along with the ideas of the Enlightenment, determined the domestic policy of Russia, especially in the first two decades of the reign of Catherine II.

In the 60-0s, it was forbidden to buy peasants for industrial enterprises, freedom to organize industrial business was declared, all kinds of monopolies were abolished, as well as internal customs duties, which contributed to the inclusion in internal trade of new lands annexed to the Russian state during the reign of Catherine II: some regions of Ukraine, Belarus, the Baltic states, the Black Sea, Azov, Kuban steppes, Crimea. Considerable attention under Catherine II was paid to the development of the education system: educational houses, institutes for girls, and cadet corps were created. In the 80s. when organizing provincial and district public schools, the principle of classless education was proclaimed.

2.4 Strengthening of serfdom

.5 Central control apparatus

2.6 Provincial administration

.8 Judiciary

.8 Noble self-government

2.9 City government

3. Counter-reforms of the 80s and 90s 19th century

In the second half of the XIX century. Russia experienced major changes in the sphere of public administration. The defeat in the Crimean War showed the need for socio-economic, political, cultural transformations and, above all, the abolition of serfdom. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the development of capitalism proceeded at an accelerated pace. The reforms of the 1960s and 1970s, aimed at modernizing the economy and the social sphere, were suspended during the reign of Alexander III. Early 20th century was marked by the rise of the mass workers' and peasants' movement. The aggravation of socio-political contradictions in Russia led to revolutions. On October 17, 1905, Nicholas II signed the Manifesto, which marked the beginning of the formation of parliamentarism in Russia.

Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s. with all the shortcomings and incompleteness, they led to noticeable changes in the socio-economic and state structure of Russia. Elements of the rule of law and civil society were emerging, which was, of course, progressive. In the field of local self-government, the young Russian bourgeoisie has noticeably strengthened its position. But the conservatism of the nobility and bureaucracy, the weakness of the liberal movement, the obviously insufficient activity of the bourgeoisie, the onslaught of radical revolutionary forces led to the fact that the reforms were interrupted before the planned creation under Alexander II of a representative institution that limited the autocracy. Alexander 3 (1881-1894), who ascended the throne, was distinguished by conservatism of thinking, insufficient education for a statesman. He could not understand his father's intentions and see the need to continue reforms. At first, he led a policy of maneuvering between liberalism and reaction. When he became convinced of the weakness of the revolutionary forces, he switched to a reactionary course in domestic politics, intensified the attack on democratic principles, and began to carry out counter-reforms.

March 1881 were rejected developed by the Chairman of the Council of Ministers M.T. Loris-Melikov projects, the adoption of which assumed the expansion of the social base of the monarchy at the expense of the liberal public. On August 14, 1881, the Regulations on Measures for the Preservation of State Security and Public Peace were adopted, which allowed declaring any locality in a position of enhanced or emergency protection; each suspected resident of this area could be arrested by order of the local authorities for up to three months, fined, his case referred to a military court. This provision gave the right to local authorities to close educational institutions, industrial and commercial enterprises, press organs and suspend

activities of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas. According to the law of July 12, 1889, the position of zemstvo chiefs was introduced, who concentrated all administrative and judicial power in the localities in their hands. Zemstvo chief supervised the activities of rural and local institutions. Not a single serious issue was resolved without their approval. The number of magistrates' courts was significantly reduced, and later they were completely abolished. Cases seized from justices of the peace began to be considered by county members of the district court, and in the cities city courts appointed by the Minister of Justice functioned. The second instance of appeal for these courts was the county congress, which included members of the district court, several city judges and zemstvo chiefs. The courts of cassation were the provincial presences, which generally consisted of state officials and were led by the governor. All this meant the intervention of state bodies in legal proceedings and a departure from the principles of the judicial reform of 1864. In order to strengthen the role of the nobility in the judicial system, the qualification for jurors was changed in 1887: the income qualification was increased and the qualification for real estate owners was lowered. At the same time, the openness and publicity of the court was limited, which received the right to consider cases behind closed doors. In 1890, the new “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” limited the rights of zemstvo institutions and strengthened the positions of the nobility. With the introduction of a new circular about "cook's children", the University Charter, the government of Alexander III brought the school under the control of the state. Police supervision of students was strengthened, and women's higher education was curtailed. According to the new "City Regulations" of June 1892, the property qualification for voters increased significantly, which led to the exclusion of the lower strata of the population from the electorate. Thus, in the new and old capitals of Russia, 0.7% of the population of the city had the right to elect the City Duma. Thus, the autocracy reorganized the social and political institutions that arose in the 60s and 70s, and the emerging reformist tendencies were suppressed in the 80s and 90s. 19th century The autocracy retained the most important administrative positions in the country.

4. Formation of the Soviet system of government

The bourgeois-democratic stage of the revolution that had begun is replaced by the Soviet stage of the country's development. In 1918 the first Constitution of the RSFSR was adopted. After Russia's withdrawal from the First World War in the spring of 1918, the Civil War in the country took on a full-scale character. Under the conditions of the Civil War, new governing bodies appeared - central offices and centers. In 1922, Soviet republics formed on the territory of the former Russian Empire, and the USSR was formed. In 1924, the first Constitution of the USSR was approved. The constitution established the principles of the dictatorship of the proletariat in the state. The 1936 constitution proclaimed the victory of socialism in the country. The state apparatus during the Great Patriotic War underwent fundamental changes. Led by I.V. Stalin created the State Defense Committee, which concentrated all power in the country.

In the post-war period, the military state bodies were abolished, changes were made in the organizational structure of the ministries. It was decided that the state of the dictatorship of the proletariat had grown into a socialist state of the whole people. In subsequent years, the state apparatus underwent reorganizations related to the reform of the command and administrative system. As a result, this only led to the restoration of the main pre-war control parameters.

.1 Transformations of the October Revolution

The beginning of the official formation of a new system of government in Russia began on October 25, 1917, when the capital of the Russian Empire, Petrograd, was actually under the control of the rebels (the State Bank, the telephone exchange, and the Varshavsky railway station were captured). In this regard, the question arose of the formation of new authorities. It was defined in the following way. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets was declared the supreme body of power. Between congresses, the functions of this body were assigned to the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK). Of its 101 members, 62 were Bolsheviks, 29 were Left Social Revolutionaries, and 6 were Menshevik-Internationalists. L.B. was elected Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Kamenev, who was replaced by YaM on November 8. Sverdlov. Subsequently, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee created departments that had the right to control, remove the government or change its composition. The Congress of Soviets formed a temporary (that is, until the convocation of the Constituent Assembly) workers' and peasants' government - the Council of People's Commissars. The Council of People's Commissars received the right of legislative initiative, while remaining accountable and responsible to the Congress of Soviets and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee. The People's Commissariat, called upon to lead this or that side of state activity, became the main link among the central organs of state administration.

The Council of People's Commissars constituted the government of the Russian Republic. The combination of legislative and executive functions was a characteristic feature of the new government. __ There was a heated discussion at the congress about the principles of forming a government (multi-party or one-party). The Left Socialist-Revolutionaries, striving to create a broad socialist government coalition, refused to enter the government. Thus, at the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the foundations were laid for a new state structure - the Soviet Republic, designed to express and protect the interests of the working people. Speaking about the decisions of the congress, one cannot fail to emphasize the importance of the first state acts adopted by the new government: the Decree on Peace and the Decree on Land.

4.2 Constitution of the RSFSR 1918

the deepening of the economic crisis that began in connection with the World War and was aggravated by natural processes after October 1917 (the development of the nationalization of industry and transport, the beginning of the "black redistribution" of land and the problems associated with the supply of cities with allowances);

acute political situation. The primary task of this period was the implementation of the slogan "Peace to the peoples", i.e. exit from the First World War (Brest-Litovsk crisis);

party methodological guidelines, which implied that the republic, for which the Constitution was drawn up, is a transitional stage on the way to a world socialist revolution or a federation of republics;

organizational problems associated with the transfer of the government from Petrograd to Moscow.

April 1918, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee decided to create a Commission to draft the Constitution. Ya.M. Sverdlov. The draft was published on July 3, 1918, and on the same day it was submitted for approval to the Central Committee of the Party, before discussion at the V All-Russian Congress of Soviets (July 4-10, 1918), and adopted at the meeting of July 10.

The Constitution consolidated the system of state administration, the basis of which was declared the Soviets of workers, peasants, Red Army and Cossack deputies, as a form of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The foundations of national policy and the principles of the Soviet Federation were proclaimed and legally consolidated. The first four chapters (Section One) repeated the Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People, adopted at the III All-Russian Congress of Soviets in January 1918.

Chapter five of the second section outlined a number of "general provisions", including: the federal nature of the republic (Article 11); the separation of church from state and school from church (v. 13); freedom of speech, opinion and assembly for workers, guaranteed by the provision at their disposal of technical means for the publication of newspapers, pamphlets and books, as well as meeting rooms with furnishings, lighting and heating (Article 15); recognition of labor as the duty of all citizens to work with the proclamation of the principle "He who does not work, let him not eat" (Article 18); universal military service for workers, “non-working elements are entrusted with the administration of other military duties” (Article 19); the right of citizenship for all workers living in the territory of Russia, and the right of asylum for foreigners persecuted for political or religious reasons; elimination of any discrimination on racial or national grounds (art. 20-22). Draw attention to Art. 9 and 23, where it was determined that the Constitution was designed for a transitional period and its main task "is to establish the dictatorship of the urban and rural proletariat and the poorest peasantry ... in order to establish socialism, in which there will be neither division into classes, nor state power" (Article 9), and in order to achieve this goal and “guided by the interests of the working class as a whole”, individuals and certain groups are deprived of the rights “which they use to the detriment of the interests of the socialist revolution” (Article 23).

4.2.1 Supreme authority

Chapters six through eight dealt with the organization of the central government. The supreme power belonged to the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, which consisted of representatives of city councils (at the rate of one deputy for 25 thousand voters) and provincial councils (one deputy for 125 thousand inhabitants). The All-Russian Congress of Soviets elected the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of Soviets (VTsIK) “entirely responsible” (Art. 29) to it, consisting of no more than 200 members, which exercised all the power of the Congress in the periods between congresses and was the highest legislative, administrative and controlling body (Art. .31).

VTsIK formed the Council of People's Commissars (Sovnarkom), whose functions included "the general administration of the affairs of the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic", as well as the publication of "decrees, orders, instructions" (Article 38). Members of the Council of People's Commissars headed the 18 people's commissariats that were being formed (Article 42), as well as the boards created under each of them. Chapter nine defined the functions of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets and the All-Russian Central Executive Committee, in particular, the approval, amendment and addition of the Constitution, changes in the boundaries and competences of regional Soviet unions, declaration of war and the conclusion of peace, national legislation, etc. Chapters ten through twelve were devoted to the organization of regional , provincial, county, volost congresses of Soviets and the formation of urban and rural Soviets.

4.2.2 Electoral system

The thirteenth chapter defined voting rights. The right to elect and be elected was recognized as "all those who earn their livelihood through productive and socially useful labor", soldiers and the disabled. However, the exceptions were those who use hired labor to make a profit, living on interest from capital, private merchants and intermediaries, monks and clergymen, employees and agents of the former police, a special corps of gendarmes and security departments, as well as members of the house that reigned in Russia. Although it was proclaimed that the Constitution is the most democratic in the world, it had a pronounced class character. This was determined, first of all, by the procedure for granting the right to vote. In addition, the Constitution gave the workers advantages in the election of the highest authorities. Thus, the provincial (i.e., rural) congresses of Soviets elected delegates to the All-Russian congresses from four times more voters than the city Soviets. Thirdly, in order to achieve “the main goal of expropriating the bourgeoisie and preparing conditions for the general equality of the citizens of the Republic in the field of production and distribution of wealth, the financial policy of the RSFSR sets itself the task of placing at the disposal of the organs of Soviet power all the necessary means without stopping before invading the right of private property (Art. .79). The Soviets were granted the broadest rights. On the territory of the respective administrative units, they were recognized as the highest bodies of state power and were subordinate only to the higher Soviets. At the same time, the principle of democratic centralism was steadily introduced into the basis of the functioning of all bodies of Soviet power, which, it was believed, created the most favorable conditions both for the deployment of local initiatives and for the protection of national interests.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Introduction

The system of public administration and government reforms of Catherine II

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