1. Affixation.
2. Internal flexion.
3. Service words.
4. The order of words in a sentence.
5. Repetition of words (reduplication).
6. Addition of bases.
7. Emphasis.
8. Intonation.
9. Supletivism.
1. Affixation– expression of grammatical meanings with the help of affixes. Affixation is characteristic of the Russian language and other Indo-European languages. In Russian, this is the main means of expressing grammatical meanings. To express grammatical meanings in Russian, inflections are mainly used (including zero), less often - prefixes and suffixes. In Russian, English, French and other European languages, affixes are usually: 1) polysemantic, for example, in the word horse the ending - I expresses grammatical meanings a) gender. n., b) units. h, c) husband. R.; 2) synonymous: the same meaning can be expressed using different affixes, for example, in Russian endings - a , -at express the grammatical meanings of gender. p. units hours for nouns husband. R. 2nd declension: a piece of sugar a, lump of sugar at; 3) homonymous, for example, in Russian the ending is - s (-and ) are used in nouns of the 1st declension in gender. p. units h ( countries y , land and ) and in them. n. pl. h. ( countries s , earth and ); in English ending - s (-es ) can be used to denote pl. hours for nouns ( pen s "pens" , tabl es "tables") and to designate 3l. units present temp. (read s"reads, go es"goes").
2. internal flexion- this is the alternation of sounds within the basis, which is a means of expressing grammatical meanings. It should be borne in mind that only such alternations that express grammatical meanings have the status of internal inflection. Such alternations are usually historical alternations. historical are called such alternation, which can be explained historically, i.e. based on the phonetic laws of previous eras. For example, historical alternations to//h, G//well, X//w, t//h//sch, d//well//railway, with//w, h//well and others can be explained by the law of palatalization (mitigation) that was in force in the Proto-Slavic era (until the 5th-6th century AD). And alternation about//ø , e//ø associated with the fate of reduced phonemes b and b, which in the X1-X1I centuries. lost as independent phonemes. Wherein b and b in strong positions changed accordingly b→ oh b→ e, and lost in weak positions. For example: with b n〤 → sleep; d b n〥 → day(s), resulting in alternations about//ø , e//ø.
Having arisen as a phonetic phenomenon, such alternations turned into a morphological means of expressing grammatical meanings, i.e. acquired the status of internal inflection.
In Russian, internal inflection in its pure form is rare, for example, in aspectual pairs of verbs: collect - collect, send - send, avoid - avoid. More often internal inflection accompanies affixation. For example: convince(owl) - convince(Non-Sov.) Species difference is expressed here by affixation - and- (owls), - a- (nesov.), internal inflection d//railway.
Internal inflection in its pure form is especially characteristic of the Semitic languages, as well as the Germanic languages. For example, in Hebrew Mr about b"steal", G a n a b"stole" G about neb"stealing"; in english s i ng"sing", s a ng"sang" s u ng"pety".
3. Service words express the grammatical meaning of the word. Functional words are prepositions, conjunctions, particles, articles, postfixes, auxiliary verbs, words of degree of comparison etc. Functional words are widely used in those languages where affixation is poorly developed: in Chinese, Vietnamese, English, German, French. For example, in it. lang. case meanings are expressed mainly with the help of articles, cf .: der(im. p. units h. male. R.), den(wine. p. unit h. male. R.), dem(dat. p. unit h. male. R.). In Russian, function words often accompany affixation.
Prepositions express various relationships between members of a sentence: spatial ( in, on, over, under, behind, at, about etc.), temporary ( before, after, before), goals ( for), causes ( owing to, due to, owing to) and etc.
Conjunctions express composing relations between words and predicative units (connective - and, Yes, opposing - a, but, Yes in meaning but, separating - whether-or, or-or, either-or etc.), subordinating relations between predicative units ( what, how, if, when, so that, because, since, if - then, although - however).
Particles are used to express inclination values 1) would- to express the subjunctive mood; 2) let be, let, Yes- to express the imperative mood.
Articles are used in Arabic, Romance and Germanic languages. The articles are multi-valued. First of all, they are grammatical accompaniments of the noun, i.e. denote a noun. Wed: English. play- play, a play- a game; German schreiben- write, das schreiben- letter. In addition, articles have meanings:
1) certainty-uncertainty - cf .: eng. the letter- a letter; German der brief- ein brief;
2) kind - cf .: it. (female) die mutter,(cf. R.) das kind,(male. p.), der Vater;
3) case - cf .: it. (im.p.) der Vater, (win.p.) den Vater, (dat.p.) dem Vater;
4) numbers - cf .: it. (units) das kind, (plural) d ie kinder.
Auxiliary verbs are also functional words. Auxiliary verbs are used in analytical forms and express grammatical meanings, for example, in the form of the future tense, the auxiliary verb expresses the meanings of person and number. In Russian it is a verb I will(will be, will be, will be etc.) , in English shall (will): I shall…, you will… etc.
Comparison words: for example in Russian more, less, very, most (-th, -th), in english lang. - more, most.
4. Word order can also be a way of expressing grammatical meanings. Word order as a grammatical tool is more often used in languages with poorly developed affixation (English, French, Turkic languages). For example, in English lang. only thanks to a fixed word order can one determine what is the subject and what is the object: The father loves the son. Wed: rus. Father loves son. Here, the addition is expressed by affixation - the use of a grammatical means of expressing the category of animation - the form of the genitive-accusative case.
5. Repetition of words (reduplication). In a number of languages, repetition is used to denote the plural. For example, in Malay orange"man" and orange-orange"people"; in dead Sumerian chickens"the country", chickens-chickens"countries". In Russian, repetition is used 1) to reinforce the message: yes-yes, no-no, no-no; 2) to express a high degree of quality: beautiful-beautiful, tall-tall and etc.; 3) to express the duration of an action: walk-walk.
6. The addition of the basics. In Russian, this is a way of forming new words. But in ancient languages, for example, in Latin, the addition of stems could serve as a grammatical tool: (present.) do « I give”, (past time) dedi « gave».
7. stress as a grammatical means it is used only in languages that have heterogeneous, i.e. moving accent. For example, in Russian: 1 ) arms(genus p. unit h.) - arms(im. p. pl.) , the mountains(genus p. unit h.) - the mountains(im. p. pl.); 2) slice(non-Sov. v.) - slice(Sov. V.).
8. Intonation used to form a proposal. The sentence is characterized by intonational completeness. Intonation is one of the main features of a sentence. With the help of intonation, the types of sentences are distinguished: exclamatory, interrogative, narrative, incentive; parts of non-union complex sentences are connected; homogeneous members, isolated members of the sentence, appeals, introductory words are distinguished. Wed He might be in a lecture right now. He might be at a lecture right now.
9. suppletivism(from Latin suppleo "replenish", "complete") - this is an expression of grammatical meanings using
heterogeneous forms. So, in Russian, suppletivism is used to express:
1) species differences: take - take, put - put;
2) temporary differences: I'm going(present time) - walked(past time), cf.: eng. go – went;
3) for nouns - number values: Human(unit) – people(pl.), child(unit) – children(pl.);
4) for pronouns - the meanings of number and case: I(unit) – we(pl.), I(im.p.) - me(genus p.), we(im. p. pl.) - us(gen. n. pl.), cf.: eng. I-me, we-us;
5) for adjectives and adverbs - values of the degree of comparison: good is better,bad - worse; good - better,bad - worse; cf.: English. good - better; bad - worse.
Synthetic ways of expressing GZ:
1) Affixation is the use of affixes to express grammatical meaning (do - do, exchange - exchange, table - table - table). The most common way of expressing GZ.
2) Internal inflection - a grammatically significant change in the phonemic composition of the root (walked - walked, wild - game, dial - dial)
3) Reduplication (repetition) - the expression of the GZ by a complete or partial repetition of the basis (walk-walk, barely, the very best).
4) Emphasis. The change in stress serves as a way of expressing the GZ. In PR, stress can distinguish between forms of nouns, moods and the form of the verb (Windows - windows, love - love, pour - pour)
5) Suppletivism - combining heterogeneous words into one grammatical pair to express the GZ (good - better, bad - worse, I - me, child - children)
Analytical ways of expressing CG:
1) Word order. Distinguishes the syntactic functions of words in a sentence (subject-object relations, relations of the defined and the definition) and the communicative types of the sentences themselves: Joy (S) replaces sadness (O) - Sadness (S) replaces joy (O); deaf scientists are deaf scientists.
2) Functional words - units that accompany significant words and free them from the expression of grammar or accompany inflectional affixation.
Prepositions (or postpositions)
Particles
Articles
Reformed also highlights auxiliary verbs, words of degree (more, less)
3) Intonation. This method does not refer to a word, but to a phrase, therefore it is associated with a sentence and its structure.
ü Distinguishes between communicative and modal characteristics of a sentence: distinguishes interrogative sentences from affirmative ones, expressing doubt, surprise, motivation, etc. (You wrote. Did you write? You wrote!)
ü Arrangement and gradation of pauses can divide the sentence in different ways (Walk for a long time - could not and Walk - could not walk for a long time)
ü Pausing can distinguish between a simple and a complex sentence: I see a face in tears - I see: a face in tears.
Mixed (hybrid) way of expressing the GZ:
Combines features of synthetic and analytical types.
The GZ of prepositional and other cases is expressed in two ways - case inflection and preposition (tell about the conference, visit the Botanical Garden, go fishing, meet the artist)
Means of expressing CG (grammatical indicators):
1) Endings (beautiful-th-th)
2) Formative suffixes (verbs, adjectives: shouting, shouting, woven)
3) Alternation (friend-friends)
4) Emphasis (windows - Windows)
5) Prepositions (without a hat, in a hat, under a hat)
6) Intonation (I hope you are sitting comfortably? Sit.)
7) Auxiliary words (I will study, stronger)
4. Basic concepts of morphology: grammatical meaning, grammatical way, grammatical form, grammatical category. The concept of morphological paradigm.
Grammatical meaning is a generalized, abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words, word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its own regular/standard expression in the language.
The grammatical way is the way of expressing the GZ
Grammatical form - regular modifications of the word, united by the identity of its LZ and differing in morphological / grammatical meanings.
GK - a system of rows of morphological forms opposed to each other with homogeneous values.
An example of a category that has a dual position is the category of number in nouns. The GC can be recognized as a bilateral unit of the morphological level of the language, since it has a plan for the content of PS and a plan for expressing PV.
From a semantic point of view, GC is a set of homogeneous gram values. Thus, the general meaning of the category of a case includes the particular meaning of 6 cases. Private CAs can also be composite. On the example of cases: in R.p. stand out: the values of belonging, parts, subject, spatial. They are elementary and cannot be decomposed into other meanings.
From a formal point of view, GK - a set of grammatical forms that serve to express particular gram values.
GCs differ from each other:
By the nature of the relationship
By the number of opposing members
Binary opposition - number
Trinity - time
GK system in NRY
Inflectional and non-inflectional GK
inflectional- categories, the forms of members of which can be represented by forms of the same word.
Non-inflective (classification)- cannot be represented by forms of the same word.
A paradigm is an ordered set of grammatical forms of a word. Service parts of speech do not have a paradigm.
The totality of all particular paradigms is a complete paradigm. The complete noun paradigm consists of all singular and plural forms.
At the head of each complete paradigm is the original form, which has a naming function and is fixed in the dictionary.
Incomplete (scissors, barefoot, vacuuming, dusk) and redundant paradigms (tea-tea, years-summer) are also distinguished.
Words with a complete paradigm - table, fresh, run, etc.
With an incomplete (defective) paradigm - milk, barefoot (does not have a degree of comparison), dawn (because it describes the state of nature, cannot be applied to a person).
With a zero paradigm - borrowed words, for example: subway, cliche, cockatoo, burgundy, beige
With an excessive paradigm - word forms that have two paradigms (wave - wave)
GCs are expressed using various grammatical means (=grammatical indicators, formal indicators).
In Russian, there are the following means of expressing grammatical meanings.
1. The main intra-word means of expressing grammatical meanings:
1) endings (= inflections) express CG forms of gender, number, case of nouns, adjectives, participles, pronouns: mo her new oh unfinished oh books and ; case of numerals: twenty and dv mind ; persons, numbers, gender of the verb: write at, wrote a and bud at write.
2) formative affixes:
a) suffixes- past tense of the verb speak l, writing l a, moving l is; comparative and superlative adjectives fast her, strong her, new eysh ii; aspectual forms of the verb know wa th, redistribution ywa th, sense well th.
b) prefixes- aspectual forms of the verb on the write, about read; superlative forms of adjectives: nai best, nai smartest.
in) postfixes- pledge forms wash Xia , captivate Xia , bend Xia .
2. Additional intra-word means of expressing grammatical meanings:
1) stress– stress only: case forms house a (I.p. pl.) - d about ma(Gen. p.s.ch.), waters s (Gen. n.) - in about dy(pl.); stress + affixation: person forms of the verb: write at (1 l.) - P and sew(2 l.), forms of the form: vst a t (owl) - getting up a t (inn.); stress + alternation of sounds: wives s (Gen.p. unit) - well yo us(Im.p., singular).
2) alternation of sounds in the base- case forms of the noun: well e n a(Im.p., singular) - f yo us(Im.p., pl.), alternating with zero sound in case forms: with about n(I.p.) - sleep(R.p.); specific forms of the verb: Izve st it - know sch at; personal forms of the verb: ka hat (1 l.) - ka tish (2 l.), etc.
3) intonation- grammatical forms of the imperative mood: go!, sit down!, write!;
3. Non-verbal means of expressing grammatical meanings:
1) prepositions- in unity with inflections, they are a means of expressing case meanings: About work(object value P..p.), at work(local value of P. p.), at home(R..p.), To home(D.p.);
2) auxiliary words– forms of the subjunctive mood of the verb: particle would go, would meet; forms of the future tense of imperfective verbs: linking verb be: I will, you will, we will ... read; forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs: deeper, most wonderful, more detailed.
Depending on the nature of the means of expressing the grammatical meaning, the grammatical form of a word can be represented either by one word form say, say, or a combination of two word forms: a significant word and a function word (linking verb, particle) I'll speak, would say. In the first case we have synthetic morphological forms, and in the second - analytical word forms. In the Russian language there are also suppletive word forms that, as part of the morphological paradigm, are formed from different lexical bases with the same lexical meaning: a) singular forms. and many others. noun numbers - Human(unit) – people(pl.), b) owls. and nesov. verb type: put(unsov.v.) - put(sov.v.); c) verb tense: go - went; d) case forms of pronouns: me - me, he is his; e) comparative degree of adjectives: good - better.
Therefore, there are 3 ways to express grammatical meaning in a word:
1. Synthetic, in which the means of expressing grammatical meanings are in the word itself.
2. Analytical, in which the means of expressing grammatical meanings are outside the word.
3 suppletive, in which the grammatical meaning is expressed in word forms of the same lexeme, formed from different roots.
In the morphological paradigm of one word, there may be word forms formed in all three ways. For example, go, go, go, go.
The above means and ways of expressing grammatical meaning are associated with the formation of word forms as part of morphological paradigms, therefore they are called paradigmatic. In addition to paradigmatic, grammatical meanings can be expressed syntagmatic means - with the help of other word forms with which the given one is combined as part of a syntagma (in a phrase and a sentence).
In the case of the speech use of grammatically modified words, paradigmatic and syntagmatic means of expressing grammatical meanings complement each other. For example, in the phrase new suit new suits the meanings of the number are expressed in the endings of both the noun and the adjective. If a grammatically invariable word functions in speech, in which there are no paradigmatic means of expressing the GP, then the only way to detect grammatical meaning is syntagmatics - grammatical compatibility: new coat – new coats, new coats etc.
The Russian language is inflectional, it is characterized by a synthetic way of expressing the GZ. However, in the 20th century there is a trend towards an increase in the degree of analyticism. About 2000 unchangeable words, the grammatical meanings of which are expressed outside of this word. Analytic (invariable) adjectives appear beige dress, flared trousers.
When determining the grammatical meanings of word forms, it is necessary to take into account all the means of expressing grammatical meanings in the complex.
- grammar category.
Formally expressed grammatical meanings that are in opposition (opposed to each other) are grammatical category.
E.V. Klobukov: « Grammar category is a systemic opposition of all homogeneous grammatical meanings expressed by formal grammatical means” (2005, p. 498).
L.I. Rakhmanov: « Grammar category generalizes correlative and opposing grammatical meanings that find their expression in certain grammatical forms.
Grammatical (=morphological) category is a two-way language unit, represented by the unity of grammatical semantics, morphological forms of the word and their formal indicators expressing this semantics. Within the framework of the grammatical category, the morphological meanings of the word are opposed to other morphological meanings expressed by formal indicators.
From a semantic point of view, grammatical categories represent a set of homogeneous but contrasting grammatical meanings; From a formal point of view, grammatical categories are a set of grammatical forms that express this grammatical meaning.
Brief Russian grammar (V.V. Lopatin): "A grammatical category is a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous meanings" (KG, 1989, p. 11).
GK = MK belong to the most common grammatical classes of words - significant parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, numerals, verbs, pronouns.
Grammar categories have paradigmatic organization. A paradigm is a system of grammatical forms united by an integral meaning and opposed to each other at the same time by components of a grammatical meaning that have formal means of expression. The opposition of series of forms within a grammatical category is carried out on the basis of the presence or absence of one of the formally expressed particular grammatical meanings in the opposed forms. (Ibid.). For example, within the category of noun gender, masculine, feminine, and neuter forms are distinguished.
Particular grammatical meanings expressed by grammatical forms as part of a category form oppositions.
Differ private and equivalent opposition:
AT privative oppositions are opposed by a strong (+) and a weak (-) member of the opposition. A strong member of the opposition is characterized by the presence of a certain component of grammatical meaning, and a weak member of the opposition is characterized by the absence of this component of meaning.
The perfective form of the verb (+) expresses CG 'action limited by a limit', the imperfective form (-) - 'a long action that has no limit'.
The indicative mood of the verb (+) expresses GZ ‘actually occurring action’,
Imperative and subjunctive (-) – ‘unreal (desired, possible) action’.
AT equivalent oppositions are opposed to equally specific members, each of which is opposed to all the others.
Feminine, masculine, neuter; singular - plural.
There are binary oppositions, in which two terms are opposed to each other, and non-binary oppositions, which include a greater number of oppositions.
inflectional category, if the paradigm of one lexeme contains at least two meanings of this grammatical category (categories of number and case, tense of the verb).
classifying categories, if one grammatical meaning of the category is represented in the paradigm of one lexeme - the category of the gender of the noun.
Grammatical categories are obligatory and regular for all words of one part of speech; they characterize significant parts of speech and determine their morphological specificity. They are distributed differently between parts of speech: nouns - gender, number, case; verb - aspect, pledge, mood, tense, person, number, gender. GC, characterizing the words of different parts of speech, are in a relationship of hierarchical subordination. For example, the category of case characterizes nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, participles. But the basic category is the case of nouns. GCs are systemic and hierarchical in nature and within one part of speech. So, the basic verbal categories are aspect, voice, tense and mood, because characterize the action itself, called the verb. The category of a person is communicatively oriented, the categories of number and gender are syntagmatically (syntactically) determined by the combination of a verb with nouns. GCs are in close interaction with each other and show a tendency to interpenetrate: the form and tense of the verb, the person of verbs and pronouns, the number of the noun and other parts of speech.
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
RUSSIAN STATE UNIVERSITY them. I. KANTA
FACULTY OF LINGUISTICS AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
DEPARTMENT OF THEORY OF LANGUAGE AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
WAYS OF EXPRESSING GRAMMAR MEANINGS
Work completed:
student of FLIMK, 1st year, group 2AP
A. A. Slobodskikh
Kaliningrad
INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….3
CHAPTER 1………………………………………………………..4
CHAPTER 2………………………………………………………..5
CHAPTER 3………………………………………………………..9
CHAPTER 4………………………………………………………..12
CONCLUSION………………………………………………...13
References……………………………………………..14
Annex 1…………………………………………………...15
INTRODUCTION
Grammar [ Appendix 1] defines the type of language, being the most stable part of it. If phonetics and vocabulary occupy a peripheral position in the structure of the language, then grammar occupies a central position. But at the same time, it is always indirect, since its connection with reality is carried out only through vocabulary. Also, grammar is unthinkable without phonetics, since what is not expressed phonetically is also absent in grammar.
Thus, we can say that every grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: the internal one - the grammatical meaning, and the external one - the grammatical way of expression.
As a science, grammar includes two parts - morphology [ Appendix 1] and syntax. The object of study in morphology are individual words and their grammatical properties.
Each significant word, in turn, has two meanings - lexical and grammatical. If there can be only one lexical meaning, then a word can have several grammatical meanings, and they find their morphological and syntactic expression in the language.
In the field of morphology, grammatical meaning is the general meaning of words as parts of speech (for example, the meaning of objectivity in nouns), as well as particular meanings of word forms and words in general, opposed to each other within the framework of grammatical categories [ Appendix 1] (for example, the meaning of a particular tense, person, number, or gender).
The various ways of expressing grammatical meanings in the language will be discussed in this paper.
The concept of grammatical meaning .
Grammatical meaning is a generalized abstract linguistic meaning inherent in a number of words or word forms, syntactic constructions and finding its regular expression in the language.
As already mentioned, each significant word has a lexical and grammatical meaning. The carrier of lexical meaning is the basis of the word. The grammatical, on the other hand, acts as an additive to the lexical and expresses relations. For example, the relation to other words in a phrase or sentence, the relation to the person performing the action, or the relation of the reported fact to reality and time. .
The grammatical meaning is not determined by the lexical meaning of the word and, unlike the lexical meaning inherent in a particular word, does not focus on one word. It is common to many words in the language. In addition, the same word can have several grammatical meanings, changing its grammatical form, but retaining its lexical meaning. For example, the word table has a number of forms table , table , tables, - which express the grammatical meanings of number and case.
The grammatical meaning of a certain word in one form or another is expressed in a certain grammatical way. [ Appendix 1]. There are a limited number of these methods used in languages - affixation, internal inflection, reduplication, suppletivism, stress and intonation, word order, auxiliary words. The grammar of any language can only be expressed in these ways. Some languages (for example, Russian, English) use all of the above methods, while others (for example, French, Chinese) use only some. In addition, it should be noted that in different languages these methods are combined with different grammatical meanings, which creates a new form each time.
Grammatical ways of expressing grammatical meanings are easily countable and visible. There are three main ways of expression: synthetic, analytical and mixed.
Synthetic Ways of Expressing Values
The synthetic method consists in expressing the meaning in the word itself and includes affixation, alternations and internal inflection, reduplication, suppletivism, additions and stress mode.
Way of affixing
The affixing method consists in attaching various affixes to the roots or stems of words [ Appendix 1], serving to express grammatical meanings.
For example: home home a- house at, make - with do, write n to write, to be late - to be late ywa th.
Affixes can be divided into prefixes before the root and postfixes after the root. There are languages that do not use prefixes (for example, Turkic), but express grammar only with postfixes, and vice versa - languages that do not recognize postfixes (for example, Swahili). The Indo-European group of languages, in particular Russian, use both prefixes and postfixes, which in turn are divided into suffixes and inflections. Suffixes are postfixes with a derivational meaning, and inflections are postfixes with a relational meaning.
There are also affixes of a different type, although suffixes and prefixes are most common in the languages of the world:
1) Interfixes– service morphemes [ Appendix 1], which serve to connect roots in compound words. For example, connecting vowels in Russian: stars- about-fall, snow- about-move .
2) Confixes- combinations of two affixes - prefix and postfix - that act together. For example, German verbs: loben- "praise" and ge - lob - t- "praised", where -ge and - t surround the root, making the word together.
3) Infixes- affixes inserted inside the root or stem. For example, in Latin: en - m - p - o- "I'm breaking" r ū p -ī - "I've broken". "Insertive" nasal consonant type [m].
4) Transfixes- affixes that break the root, consisting of only consonants. This phenomenon is characteristic of the Semitic languages. For example, the Hebrew GNōB- "to steal" GāNaB- “stealed”, where is the root HDD means the idea of "stealing", and transfix vowels mean word forms: the infinitive and the past tense form.
It also plays an important role in many languages. zero affix - the absence of an affix in one form of the paradigm in the presence of affixes in other forms. For example, for the word horn the zero affix is an indicator of the nominative case, the singular, since in all other cases of the singular and plural there are affixes - horn-a, horn-y, horn-á, horn-ov.
Method of alternation and internal inflection
Grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself. Alternations of sounds - mutual replacement in the same places and in the same morphemes - can be:
1) Phonetic. The change in sound is due to position, and variants of one phoneme alternate. For example, the alternation of stressed and unstressed vowels in Russian: water[water] - water[vadá], or voiced and voiceless consonants: friend[druk] - friend[friend].
2) Non-phonetic. Sound changes do not depend on position, different phonemes alternate. For example, [friend-] - [druz׳-] - [friend-] in words friend - friends - friendly .
Among the non-phonetic alternations, in turn, there are:
a) Morphological. Alternation is not determined by phonetic position, but it does not express grammatical meaning either, but only accompanies the formation of grammatical forms. For example, forehead - forehead, stump - stump- the phenomenon of "fluent vowel". Alternation [k - h], [g - f], [x - w] - ne to y - ne h eat, be G y - be well uh, su X oh-su w e. Alternating combinations of consonants with one consonant: [sk - u], [st - u], [zg - f], [zd - f] - plo ck awn - flat sch hell, about st oh - easy sch order zd at - by zzh e.
b) Grammar. The alternation does not depend on the phonetic position, and independent phonemes alternate with each other, with zero, or one phoneme with two. .That's what it is internal flexion .
Ablaut - the most ancient type of internal inflection, characterized by a change in the vowel in the root during the formation of the main forms of the verb. For example, the English verb:
In this case, the alternation of the vowel in the root of the word is clearly visible.
Umlaut - a kind of internal inflection, formed in the medieval period in various languages independently. Umlaut is characterized by a change in vowels in the root during the formation of the plural form. For example, in English:
F oo t – f ee t
"leg legs"
reduplications
reduplication (repeat) consists in the complete or partial repetition of the root, stem or the whole word without changing the sound composition or with its partial change.
Grammatical meaning is a part of the content side, which is inherent in a number of words and has an abstract, generalizing character, abstracted linguistic content of a grammatical unit. Each grammatical phenomenon always has two sides: an internal, grammatical meaning, what is expressed, and an external, grammatical way of expression, what is expressed. Consideration of any grammatical phenomenon in these two aspects is mandatory. All grammatical methods can be divided into two fundamentally different types: 1) synthetic- ways of expressing grammar within a word are internal inflection, affixation, repetitions, additions, stress and suppletivism, 2) analytical- ways of expressing grammar outside of a word are ways of function words, word order and intonation.
Synthetic method: a) internal inflection: grammatical meanings can be expressed by changes in the sound composition of the root itself, or, otherwise, by internal inflection, however, not all sound changes in the root are internal inflection. Grammatical alternations are very similar to morphological alternations, however, the essential difference between grammatical alternations and morphological alternations is that grammatical alternations do not just accompany various word forms formed and distinguished in other ways (for example, by affixation, as in vozh-u - voz-ish, etc. .), but independently express grammatical meanings. Example: in English: sing-sang-sung-song.
b) the method of affixing consists in attaching affixes to the roots (or stems).
c) repetitions, or reduplications, consist in the complete or partial repetition of the root, stem or the whole word without changing the sound composition or with a partial change in it. Very often, repetition is used to express the plural, for example, in the Malay language orang - "person", orang-orang - "people".
d) in addition, in contrast to affixation, not the root morpheme with affixes, but the root morpheme with the root one, are combined in one lexeme, as a result of which a single new compound word arises; thus addition serves for word formation. Example: in German: Kopfschmerz - "headache".
e) Stress can only be an expressive means in grammar when it is changeable. Therefore, tone stress can always be a grammatical way due to its polytonicity, i.e. variability of tone on the same syllable; for example, in Lithuanian. It is impossible to use dynamic stress in this way due to its monotonicity, i.e. homogeneity. But if it is possible to move the stress, it is done in a very convenient grammatical way. So, genitive singular arms, legs, fleas the place of stress differs from the nominative plural form of the same words: arms, legs, fleas.
f) suppletivism - combining into one grammatical pair (or into one grammatical series) words with different roots or different bases, when, despite the difference in roots or stems, the lexical meaning does not change, and the “word difference” serves only as a grammatical way to distinguish grammatical meanings. In Indo-European languages, it is typical to use root suppletivism to form degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs with the meaning "good" and "bad"; compare: Russian: good-better, English: good-better.
Analytical method: a) function words free significant ones from grammar expression or accompany inflectional affixation. Service words are devoid of a nominative function, since they do not name anything and only show the relationship between the members of the sentence (prepositions, conjunctions) or between sentences (unions), and also indicate some grammatical meanings that do not depend on the combination of words in the sentence (articles, particles, auxiliary verbs, degree words). Functional words often perform the same role as affixes. Example: Masha is more beautiful than Natasha and Masha is more beautiful than Natasha. Among the service words are divided: Prepositions. (Subordinate relations between members of a sentence or case meanings. They serve to express spatial, temporal, target, causal and other relationships). Unions. (composing relations in simple and complex sentences; connecting, dividing, adversative conjunctions). Particles. 1) modal meanings (whether, would, after all) 2) non-modal meanings (only, exactly, just, yet, so, even). Article. 1) A sign of a name, substantiation of verbs, the transition from non-nominal parts of speech to nominal 2) Distinguishing between the grammatical category of definiteness and indefiniteness (a-the). 3) The distinction of gender in its purest form. 4) Distinguishing number (French). 5) Declension (German). Degree words. Empty words. They do not form a particularly clear category, but they are official (a female doctor, a male laundress).
b) Word order. The dependence of the object on the subject, the distinction between the definition and the defined, is a strong stylistic tool. in analytic languages.
c) intonation. Intonation refers not to a word, but to a phrase, and thus is grammatically related to the sentence and its structure. 1) modal sentence form. (interrogative, motivating intonation, etc.). 2) Arrangement and gradation of pauses within the sentence. Walk for a long time - could not; I couldn't walk for a long time. 3) Distinguishing between simple and complex sentences using pausing. I see a face with wrinkles; I see: the face is in wrinkles. 4) Intonation can distinguish a coordinating connection from a subordinating one. They cut the forest, the chips fly; They cut the forest - the chips fly. 5) Logical stress, that is, this or that shift of phrasal stress for the logical selection of any elements of the sentence. 6) Highlighting introductory words and sentences.
