Asian and Latin American countries. Tropical and South African countries

DEVELOPMENT WAYS IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	DEVELOPMENT WAYS IN ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA
Rubric (thematic category)	Politics

At the time of their transformation into colonies and semi-colonies of industrial powers, most of the peoples of the countries of Asia and Africa lived under the conditions of a feudal or tribal system. The results of their conquest by industrial countries were extremely ambiguous.

Especially destructive was colonialism, which used the methods of the pre-capitalist era in the exploitation of the colonies. Οʜᴎ included the robbery of colonies, the export of gold, silver, cultural monuments to the mother countries, the creation of a slave trade system, from which the population of Equatorial Africa in the 16th-19th centuries especially suffered.

Reasons for the rise of anti-colonial movements. Metropolises of the late XIX - early XX centuries, interested in expanding foreign markets, using the resources of the colonies, incl. and cheap labor, tried to create a system of orderly management of their possessions. The colonial administration, as a rule, tried to rely on the support of the local nobility (this was especially characteristic of Great Britain in India), while maintaining its power and privileges. Only the possibility of inciting feudal strife and pursuing an independent foreign and military policy was limited. The destruction of the traditional way of life was not the goal of the colonialists (for example, in India, the British left the caste system intact), nevertheless, the way of life of the peoples of the colonial countries underwent changes.

a system of communal farming and subsistence farming, that is, extremely conservative, inert ways that have not changed for centuries, incompatible with any development. The released cheap labor force was used in the newly created industries that served the economy of the metropolises. This, in turn, expanded the scope of commodity-money relations and accelerated the disintegration of traditional ways.

The policy of the industrial states had the same influence on the countries dependent on them, which became the object of trade and economic expansion. So, back in the 19th century, China, having suffered a defeat in the war with Great Britain, was forced to agree to open the five largest ports for free trade, to accept the obligation to establish low customs duties (no more than 5%) on British goods. In open ports, the British received the right to create settlements - settlements with their administration, troops and police. English subjects received the right of extraterritoriality, that is, not subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese authorities. Following Great Britain, detailed concessions, which have become typical for dependent countries, were obtained from China by France and the United States. Then began the division of China into economic spheres of influence, the seizure of strongholds on its territory.

Germany in 1898 ᴦ. occupied Kiao Chao Bay, imposing a 99-year lease agreement on the Chinese government. Russia at the same time took "lease" the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress of Port Arthur.
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Great Britain received on the same terms the Kowloon Peninsula and the islands adjacent to it, where it had been since 1842 ᴦ. colony of Hong Kong. Strengthening Japan as a result of the war with China 1894-1895. forced him to give up control over Korea, which became formally independent, but in fact - the sphere of influence of Japan. USA in 1899 ᴦ. came up with the doctrine of ʼʼopen doorsʼʼ in China. According to this doctrine, which only Russia objected to, no great power should enjoy greater economic benefits than the others. It also assumed that any additional Chinese concessions to one of them were accompanied by concessions to the rest of the powers.

Resistance to the domination of industrial powers over countries that found themselves in the position of colonies and semi-colonies has not ceased since the emergence of the colonial system. It became the most important feature of the historical development of the 20th century.

Asian countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the rise of mass anti-colonial movements was not uncommon. Their common feature was the focus on the restoration of the traditional way of life, the expulsion of foreigners. For example, during the so-called ʼʼBoxerʼʼ uprising in China in 1900 ᴦ. (another name is the Yihetuan uprising, ʼʼyellow bandsʼʼ), initiated by peasants and the urban poor, the rebels destroyed railways, communication lines, killed foreigners and Chinese who wore foreign clothes.

None of the anti-colonial actions under traditionalist slogans ended in success. The military-technical superiority of the colonialists was too great. At the same time, the idea of returning to the order of pre-colonial times was close only to the poorest, uneducated sections of the population, religious leaders, who were irritated by the activities of Christian missionaries. The local feudal nobility split into supporters and opponents of the new order.

In the colonies and dependent countries, there was an influential stratum of the ruling elite, officials, representatives of commercial and industrial capital, who collaborated with capital and the authorities of the metropolitan countries. In this stratum, which was called ʼʼkompradorskayaʼʼ (corrupt), as well as in other segments of the population, there was a desire for liberation. At the same time, the violent methods of the struggle for liberation were seen by her as harmful and senseless. It was clear to the educated part of the population that in response to the uprisings, the troops of the colonialists and their local allies would devastate vast territories, and, having won, would tighten the regime of government, which would weaken the chances of liberation.

Local officials, entrepreneurs, collaborating with the colonialists, tried to avoid violent methods of struggle for liberation. An alternative to them was a course towards a gradual, gradual weakening of the power of the metropolises by peaceful means. This course assumed the implementation of reforms, the mastery of industrial production in cooperation with the capital of the metropolitan countries.

In fact, the very idea of change and development was for most of the peoples of Asia a product of European conquest. The metropolises did not set themselves the goal of promoting the development of the economy of the colonies and dependent countries. Nevertheless, they created certain prerequisites for future modernization. In the colonial countries, a new layer of the ruling elite has formed, educated in developed countries and striving to modernize their societies. For the delivery of goods, the export of raw materials and plantation products, as well as for military-strategic purposes, a network of railways was created in most colonies, certain branches of the mining industry were developed, and the plantation economy was oriented to foreign markets. The peoples of the colonies gained access, albeit limited, to the achievements of European medicine. During the years of the First, and especially the Second World War, enterprises for the repair and assembly of military equipment arose in many overseas possessions and underdeveloped countries, and the production of electricity increased.

It is significant that in the 20th century the least developed countries turned out to be those Asian countries that managed to defend their independence, or those possessions where the power of the colonialists was purely nominal, limited. So, Afghanistan, which was repeatedly subjected to English invasions from the territory of British India and retained its independence, and by the end of the 20th century remains one of the few states in the world without railways, with a tribal structure of society, a predominance of subsistence economy, covered by religious and tribal wars.

The desire for accelerated development, to catch up with the powers that survived the industrial revolution, to create a modern industry, military equipment, manifested itself in many colonial and dependent countries. At the same time, only Japan managed to achieve quick results on this path. The source of her success was a compromise between supporters of traditionalism and modernization. The first realized that it was impossible to preserve the traditional image of Japanese society, the originality of its culture without modernizing, studying and mastering European and American science and technology, and creating a European-type education system. Such forms of implementation of the modernization process were found, which only when extremely important changed the habitual forms of life and life of the bulk of the population, an original and unique Japanese culture of the early 20th century was formed, combining many features inherent in feudal society (the special role of the emperor and the nobility , paternalistic relations of employers and employees), with a highly developed industry.

Other colonial and dependent countries also tried to enter the path of modernization. At the same time, the interests of its implementation came into conflict with the spontaneous traditionalism of the masses, shared by many religious leaders, as well as people from the environment of the clan and feudal nobility. Modernization could be carried out only with the involvement of foreign capital and technology. It assumed development along the capitalist path, demanded an effective central government capable of carrying out reforms and supporting industry. All this was difficult to combine with the ideas of egalitarian distribution of land or communal land use popular among the masses, the aspirations of the military-feudal, bureaucratic elite to strengthen their power.

In most Asian countries, the convergence of adherents of traditionalism and supporters of development along the European path turned out to be possible only for a short time. In China, dissatisfaction with the Manchu dynasty, making constant concessions to foreign powers, doing nothing to modernize the country, was widespread. In 1911-1912 he. As a result of the revolution, China was proclaimed a republic. At the same time, adherents of the Kuomintang party that made the revolution in 1913 ᴦ. were expelled from parliament, Kuomintang leader Sun Yat-sen emigrated. With death in 1916 ᴦ. General Yuan Shikai, who usurped presidential power, China became an arena of confrontation between feudal-militarist cliques that controlled power in the provinces.

In Turkey in 1908 ᴦ. the so-called Young Turk Revolution, spearheaded by a modernizing military, led to the collapse of absolutism and its replacement by a constitutional monarchy. A parliament was created, the majority of which was won by supporters of modernization. But the results of their reign were limited. Railway construction was expanded with the participation of German capital, the army was modernized with the involvement of German officers.

At the beginning of the 20th century, in the countries of the East, with the exception of Japan, only the prerequisites for modernization were formed. Separate centers of industrial production have developed in China and Turkey. The share of the working class, hired workers employed in industry, construction and transport did not exceed 1% of the economically active population.

Features of the development of Latin American countries. More serious prerequisites for modernization existed in the countries of Latin America. Colonial dependence on Spain and Portugal was eliminated there at the beginning of the 19th century. After the war of independence (1816), Argentina was liberated, in 1821 ᴦ. - Mexico, in 1824 ᴦ. - Peru, independence in 1822 ᴦ. Brazil also received, although until 1889 ᴦ. it remained a monarchy under the son and later grandson of the King of Portugal.

In 1823 ᴦ. The United States adopted the Monroe Doctrine, which proclaimed the inadmissibility of interference by European powers in the affairs of American states. Thanks to this, the danger of a second colonial conquest of Latin America disappeared. The United States, which had a vast and not yet fully developed territory, limited itself to the annexation of part of the territory of Mexico and the establishment of control over the Panama Canal zone, which previously belonged to Colombia.

By the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the influx of capital from the United States, partly from England, a developed network of railways was created in many Latin American countries. Only in Cuba its length turned out to be greater than in all of China. Oil production in Mexico and Venezuela grew rapidly. The mining industry developed in Chile, Peru and Bolivia, although the agrarian orientation of the economy generally prevailed.

A characteristic feature of Latin America was the existence of large landed estates - latifundia, which produced coffee, sugar, rubber, leather, etc. for the markets of developed countries. The local industry was poorly developed, the main needs for industrial goods were met by importing them from industrialized countries. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 20th century, in a number of Latin American states (Argentina, Chile), the trade union movement had already developed, and political parties had formed.

Traditionalism in Latin America had a specific character.
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The historical memory of the traditions in the states of the pre-Columbian civilization, destroyed by the European colonialists in the 16th century, was preserved only in certain hard-to-reach areas. Most of the population were descendants of children from mixed marriages of the indigenous population, Indians, immigrants from European countries, slaves exported from Africa (mestizos, mulattoes, creoles) who professed the Catholic religion. Only in Argentina did immigrants from European countries numerically predominate.

A stable tradition that has developed since the wars of independence has been the special role of the army in political life. The existence of dictatorial regimes based on the army met the interests, first of all, of the latifundist landowners. Οʜᴎ faced the protest of plantation workers against low wages and difficult conditions, the use of non-economic, feudal methods of forced labor by latifundists.

The planters and the military were more often than not interested in any change. Dissatisfaction with the agrarian and raw material orientation of the Latin American countries in the world market was manifested primarily by the national commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which was strengthening its positions.

The Mexican revolution of 1910-1917 became a symbol of the coming changes in Latin America, in which the bourgeoisie supported the war of the landless peasantry against the latifundists with its desire to establish democracy. Despite the US military intervention in the events in Mexico, the result of the revolution was the adoption of a compromise democratic constitution of 1917 ᴦ., which established a republican system in Mexico. It remained, unlike other Latin American countries, unchanged throughout the 20th century.

DOCUMENTS AND MATERIALS

From the US government note to the UK government regarding the ʼʼʼʼʼ policy in China, September 22, 1899 ᴦ.:

“My Government's sincere desire is, in essence, that the interests of its citizens within their respective spheres of interest in China should not be harmed by exceptional measures by any of the controlling powers. My Government hopes to keep an open market in them for the trade of the whole world,

remove dangerous sources of international irritation, and thereby hasten the combined action of the powers in Peking in order to carry out the administrative reforms so urgently needed to strengthen the imperial government and preserve the integrity of China, in which, in his opinion, the entire Western world is equally interested. It believes that the achievement of this result should be largely promoted and ensured by the declarations of various powers claiming spheres of interest in China.<...>essentially the following content:

1) that it will not in any way affect the rights of contractual ports or legitimate interests within the so-called sphere of interest or leased territory that it may have in China;

2) that the current Chinese contractual tariff will be equally applied in all ports located within the mentioned area of interest (with the exception of free ports), to all goods, regardless of nationality. That the duties thus collected are to be collected by the Chinese Government;

3) that in ports within that sphere she will charge no higher port dues on ships of a different nationality than on ships of her own, and that on railways built, controlled or operated within her sphere, no higher tariff rates will be imposed on goods belonging to subjects or citizens of other nationalities than those levied on similar goods belonging to the own citizens of this power and transported at equal distancesʼʼ.

From a Yihetuan revolutionary leaflet during the uprising in Northern China (1900):

ʼʼForeign devils have come with their teachings, and the number of Christian converts, Roman Catholics and Protestants is increasing every day. These churches have no kinship with our teaching, but, thanks to their cunning, they attracted to their side all the greedy and greedy, and perpetrated oppression on an extraordinary scale, until every honest official was bribed and became their slave in the hope of foreign wealth. This is how telegraphs and railways were founded, foreign guns and cannons began to be manufactured, and various workshops served as a delight for their spoiled nature. Foreign devils find locomotives, balloons, and electric lamps excellent. Although they ride on a stretcher that does not correspond to their rank, yet China considers them barbarians whom God condemns and sends spirits and geniuses to earth to exterminate themʼʼ.

From the final protocol between China and foreign powers in connection with the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, September 7, 1901 ᴦ .:

ʼʼArticle 5. China has agreed to ban the entry into its possession of weapons and ammunition, as well as material intended solely for the production of weapons and ammunition. Imperial Decree of August 25, 1901 ᴦ. It was decided to ban such imports for two years. New decrees are issued subsequently, to extend the given period every two years, if the Powers find it necessary. Article 6. Imperial Decree of May 22, 1901 ᴦ. His Majesty the Emperor of China undertook to pay to the Powers a reward of four hundred and fifty million haiguang lan (taels)<...>This amount will bring 4% per annum, and the capital will be paid by China at the age of 39<...>

Article 7. The Chinese Government has agreed to consider the quarter occupied by the missions to be specially reserved for their use and placed under the protection of their own police;

in this quarter, the Chinese will not have the right to settle<...>Article 8. The Chinese government has agreed to tear down the forts at Ta-ku, as well as those that can interfere with free communication between Peking and the sea. To this end, steps have been taken. Article 10 The Chinese government undertook to print and promulgate the following imperial decrees within two years in all the cities of the provinces:

a) Decree of February 1, 1901, prohibiting under pain of death to belong to an anti-European party;

b) decrees of February 13 and 21, April 29 and August 19, 1901, containing a list of punishments to which the guilty were sentenced<...>

e) a decree of February 1, 1901, by which it is declared that all governors general, governors and provincial or local officials are responsible for the order in their districts and that in the event of new anti-European disturbances or other violations of the treaties that will not be immediately suppressed and for which the perpetrators have not been punished, these officials will be immediately dismissed without the right to take up new positions and receive new honorsʼʼ.

From the work of D. Nehru ʼʼA look at world historyʼʼ. 1981. Vol. 1. P. 472,475,476:

ʼʼOne of the goals that English policy in India consistently sought was the creation of a propertied class, which, being a creature of the British, would depend on them and serve as their support in India. In this regard, the British strengthened the position of the feudal princes and created a class of large zamindars and talukdars, and even encouraged social conservatism under the pretext of non-interference in the affairs of religions. All these propertied classes were themselves interested in the exploitation of the country and in general could exist only thanks to such exploitation.<...>In India, a middle class gradually developed, accumulating some capital to invest in business.<...>The only class whose voice was heard was the new middle class; the offspring, born in fact of connection with England, began to criticize her. This class grew, and with it grew the national movementʼʼ.

QUESTIONS AND TASKS

1. Explain how you understand the term ʼʼtraditionalismʼʼ.

2. Describe the changes that have taken place in the colonies and dependent countries as a result of the creation of colonial empires.

3. There is an assertion that colonialism brought more positive changes to the countries of Asia and Africa than negative ones. Think about and justify your point of view on this statement.

4. Give examples of mass anti-colonial uprisings: what was their common feature, what distinguished them in terms of goals, direction, means of struggle?

5. Use the examples of the history of Japan, China, India and other countries to reveal the features and consequences of modernization attempts in colonial and dependent countries. Explain your understanding of the words ʼʼspontaneous traditionalism of the masses ʼʼ.

6. What are the characteristic features of the modernization of Latin America.

WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRIES OF ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "WAYS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE COUNTRIES OF ASIA, AFRICA AND LATIN AMERICA" 2017, 2018.

Especially destructive was colonialism, which used the methods of the pre-capitalist era in the exploitation of the colonies. They included the robbery of the colonies, the export of gold, silver, cultural monuments to the mother countries, the creation of a slave trade system, which especially affected the population of Equatorial Africa in the 16th-19th centuries.

Reasons for the rise of anti-colonial movements

The metropolises of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, interested in expanding foreign markets, using the resources of the colonies, including cheap labor, tried to create a system for the orderly management of their possessions. The colonial administration, as a rule, tried to rely on the support of the local nobility (this was especially characteristic of Great Britain in India), while maintaining its power and privileges. Only the possibility of inciting feudal strife and pursuing an independent foreign and military policy was limited. The destruction of the traditional way of life was not the goal of the colonialists (for example, in India, the British left the caste system intact), nevertheless, the way of life of the peoples of the colonial countries underwent changes.

The onslaught of European goods ruined many local artisans. The peasantry, which found itself forced to pay taxes not only to local princes, but also to the colonial authorities, was ruined and deprived of its land. This destroyed the system of communal farming and subsistence farming, that is, extremely conservative, inert ways that have not changed for centuries, incompatible with any development. The released cheap labor force was used in the newly created industries that served the economy of the metropolises. This, in turn, expanded the scope of commodity-money relations and accelerated the disintegration of traditional ways.

The policy of the industrial states had the same influence on the countries dependent on them, which became the object of trade and economic expansion. So, back in the 19th century, China, having suffered a defeat in the war with Great Britain, was forced to agree to open the five largest ports for free trade, to accept the obligation to establish low customs duties (no more than 5%) on British goods. In open ports, the British received the right to create settlements - settlements with their own administration, troops and police. English subjects received the right of extraterritoriality, that is, not subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese authorities. Following Great Britain, detailed concessions, which have become typical for dependent countries, were obtained from China by France and the United States. Then began the division of China into economic spheres of influence, the seizure of strongholds on its territory.

In 1898, Germany occupied Kiao Chao Bay, imposing a 99-year lease agreement on the Chinese government. Russia at the same time took the Liaodong Peninsula "for rent" with the fortress of Port Arthur. Great Britain received on the same terms the Kowloon Peninsula and the islands adjacent to it, where the colony of Hong Kong had been located since 1842. Strengthening Japan as a result of the war with China in 1894-1895. forced him to give up control over Korea, which became formally independent, but in fact - the sphere of influence of Japan. The United States in 1899 came up with the doctrine of "open doors" in China. Under this doctrine, which only Russia objected to, no one great power should enjoy greater economic benefits than the others. It also assumed that any additional Chinese concessions to one of them were accompanied by concessions to the rest of the powers.

Reasons for the rise of anti-colonial movements. The metropolises of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, interested in expanding foreign markets, using the resources of the colonies, including cheap labor, tried to create a system for the orderly management of their possessions. The colonial administration, as a rule, tried to rely on the support of the local nobility (this was especially characteristic of Great Britain in India), while maintaining its power and privileges. Only the possibility of inciting feudal strife and pursuing an independent foreign and military policy was limited. The destruction of the traditional way of life was not the goal of the colonialists (for example, in India, the British left the caste system intact), nevertheless, the way of life of the peoples of the colonial countries underwent changes.

The policy of the industrial states had the same influence on the countries dependent on them, which became the object of trade and economic expansion. So, back in the 19th century, China, having suffered a defeat in the war with Great Britain, was forced to agree to open the five largest ports for free trade, to accept the obligation to establish low customs duties (no more than 5%) on British goods. In open ports, the British received the right to create settlements - settlements with their own administration, troops and police. English subjects received the right of extraterritoriality, that is, not subject to the jurisdiction of the Chinese authorities. Following Great Britain, detailed concessions, which have become typical for dependent countries, were obtained from China by France and the United States. Then began the division of China into economic spheres of influence, the seizure of strongholds on its territory.

In 1898, Germany occupied Kiao Chao Bay, imposing a 99-year lease agreement on the Chinese government. Russia at the same time "leased" the Liaodong Peninsula with the fortress of Port Arthur. Great Britain received on the same terms the Kowloon Peninsula and the islands adjacent to it, where the colony of Hong Kong had been located since 1842. Strengthening Japan as a result of the war with China in 1894-1895. forced him to give up control over Korea, which became formally independent, but in fact - the sphere of influence of Japan. The USA in 1899 came up with the doctrine of "open doors" in China. Under this doctrine, which only Russia objected to, no one great power should enjoy greater economic benefits than the others. It also assumed that any additional Chinese concessions to one of them were accompanied by concessions to the rest of the powers.

Asian countries at the beginning of the 20th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the rise of mass anti-colonial movements was not uncommon. Their common feature was the focus on restoring the traditional way of life, the expulsion of foreigners. For example, during the so-called "Boxer" uprising in China in 1900 (another name is the Yihetuan uprising, "yellow bandages"), initiated by peasants and the urban poor, the rebels destroyed railways, communication lines, killed foreigners and Chinese wearing foreign clothing.

None of the anti-colonial speeches under traditionalist slogans ended in success. The military-technical superiority of the colonialists was too great. In addition, the idea of returning to the order of pre-colonial times was close only to the poorest, uneducated sections of the population, religious leaders who were irritated by the activities of Christian missionaries. The local feudal nobility split into supporters and opponents of the new order.

In the colonies and dependent countries, there was an influential stratum of the ruling elite, officials, representatives of commercial and industrial capital, who collaborated with capital and the authorities of the metropolitan countries. In this stratum, which was called "comprador" (corrupt), as well as in other sections of the population, there was a desire for liberation. At the same time, the violent methods of the struggle for liberation were seen by her as harmful and senseless. It was clear to the educated part of the population that, in response to the uprisings, the troops of the colonialists and their local allies would devastate vast territories, and, having won, would tighten the regime of government, which would weaken the chances of liberation.

In fact, the very idea of change and development was for most of the peoples of Asia a product of European conquest. The metropolises did not set themselves the goal of promoting the development of the economy of the colonies and dependent countries. Nevertheless, certain prerequisites for future modernization were created by them. In the colonial countries, a new layer of the ruling elite has formed, educated in developed countries and striving to modernize their societies. For the delivery of goods, the export of raw materials and plantation products, as well as for military-strategic purposes, a network of railways was created in most colonies, certain branches of the mining industry were developed, and the plantation economy was oriented to foreign markets. The peoples of the colonies gained access, albeit limited, to the achievements of European medicine. During the years of the First, and especially the Second World War, enterprises for the repair and assembly of military equipment arose in many overseas possessions and underdeveloped countries, and the production of electricity increased.

It is significant that in the 20th century the least developed countries turned out to be those Asian countries that managed to defend their independence, or those possessions where the power of the colonialists was purely nominal, limited. So, Afghanistan, which was repeatedly subjected to British invasions from the territory of British India and retained its independence, and by the end of the 20th century remains one of the few states in the world without railways, with a tribal structure of society, a predominance of subsistence economy, engulfed in religious and tribal wars.

The desire for accelerated development, to catch up with the powers that survived the industrial revolution, to create a modern industry, military equipment, manifested itself in many colonial and dependent countries. However, only Japan managed to achieve quick results on this path. The source of her success was a compromise between supporters of traditionalism and modernization. The first realized that it was impossible to preserve the traditional image of Japanese society, the originality of its culture without modernizing, studying and mastering European and American science and technology, and creating a European-type education system. Such forms of implementation of the modernization process were found that only when absolutely necessary changed the habitual forms of life and life of the bulk of the population, an original and unique Japanese culture of the early 20th century developed, combining many features inherent in feudal society (the special role of the emperor and the nobility, the paternalistic and employees), with a highly developed industry.

Other colonial and dependent countries also tried to enter the path of modernization. However, the interests of its implementation came into conflict with the spontaneous traditionalism of the masses, shared by many religious leaders, as well as people from the environment of the clan and feudal nobility. Modernization could be carried out only with the involvement of foreign capital and technology. It assumed development along the capitalist path, demanded an effective central government capable of carrying out reforms and supporting industry. All this was difficult to combine with the ideas of equal distribution of land or communal land use popular among the masses, the aspirations of the military-feudal, bureaucratic elite to strengthen their power.

In most Asian countries, the convergence of adherents of traditionalism and supporters of development along the European path turned out to be possible only for a short time. In China, dissatisfaction with the Manchu dynasty, making constant concessions to foreign powers, doing nothing to modernize the country, was widespread. In 1911-1912. As a result of the revolution, China was proclaimed a republic. However, the adherents of the Kuomintang Party, which made the revolution, were expelled from parliament in 1913, and Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Kuomintang, emigrated. With the death in 1916 of General Yuan Shikai, who had usurped presidential power, China became an arena for confrontation between feudal-militarist cliques that controlled power in the provinces.

In Turkey, in 1908, the so-called Young Turk Revolution, led by a modernizing military, led to the collapse of absolutism and its replacement by a constitutional monarchy. A parliament was created, the majority of which was won by supporters of modernization. But the results of their reign were limited. Railway construction was expanded with the participation of German capital, the army was modernized with the involvement of German officers.

At the beginning of the 20th century, in the countries of the East, with the exception of Japan, only the prerequisites for modernization were formed. Separate centers of industrial production have developed in China and Turkey. The proportion of the working class, hired workers employed in industry, construction and transport did not exceed 1% of the active population.

Features of the development of Latin American countries. More serious prerequisites for modernization existed in the countries of Latin America. Colonial dependence on Spain and Portugal was eliminated there at the beginning of the 19th century. After the war of independence (1816), Argentina was liberated, in 1821 - Mexico, in 1824 - Peru, Brazil also gained independence in 1822, although until 1889 it remained a monarchy under the rule of a son, and then grandson of the King of Portugal.

In 1823, the United States adopted the "Monroe Doctrine", which proclaimed the inadmissibility of interference by European powers in the affairs of American states. Thanks to this, the danger of a second colonial conquest of Latin America disappeared. The United States, which had a vast and not yet fully developed territory, limited itself to the annexation of part of the territory of Mexico and the establishment of control over the Panama Canal zone, which previously belonged to Colombia.

By the beginning of the 20th century, thanks to the influx of capital from the United States, partly from England, a developed network of railways was created in many Latin American countries. Only in Cuba was it longer than in all of China. Oil production in Mexico and Venezuela grew rapidly. The mining industry developed in Chile, Peru and Bolivia, although the agrarian orientation of the economy generally prevailed.

A characteristic feature of Latin America was the existence of large landed estates - latifundia, which produced coffee, sugar, rubber, leather, etc. for the markets of developed countries. The local industry was poorly developed, the basic needs for industrial goods were met by their import from industrialized countries. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 20th century, in a number of Latin American states (Argentina, Chile), the trade union movement had already developed, and political parties had formed.

Traditionalism in Latin America had a specific character. The historical memory of the traditions in the states of the pre-Columbian civilization, destroyed by the European colonialists in the 16th century, was preserved only in certain hard-to-reach areas. Most of the population were descendants of children from mixed marriages of the indigenous population, Indians, immigrants from European countries, slaves exported from Africa (mestizos, mulattos, creoles) who professed the Catholic religion. Only in Argentina did Europeans predominate numerically.

A stable tradition that has developed since the wars of independence has been the special role of the army in political life. The existence of dictatorial regimes based on the army met the interests, first of all, of the latifundist landlords. They faced the protest of plantation workers against low wages and harsh conditions, the use of non-economic, feudal methods of forced labor by latifundists.

Planters and the military most often showed disinterest in any change. Dissatisfaction with the agrarian and raw material orientation of the Latin American countries in the world market was manifested primarily by the national commercial and industrial bourgeoisie, which was strengthening its positions.

The Mexican revolution of 1910-1917 became a symbol of the coming changes in Latin America, in which the bourgeoisie supported the war of the landless peasantry against the latifundists with its desire to establish democracy. Despite US military intervention in the events in Mexico, the result of the revolution was the adoption of a compromise democratic constitution in 1917, which established a republican system in Mexico. It remained, unlike other Latin American countries, unchanged throughout the 20th century.

Documents and materials

From the US Government Note to the British Government on China's "Open Door" Policy, September 22, 1899:

"My Government's sincere desire is that the interests of its citizens within their respective spheres of interest in China should not be harmed by exceptional measures by any of the controlling powers. My Government hopes to keep them open to the trade of the whole world, eliminate dangerous sources of international irritation and thereby speeding up the combined action of the powers in Peking to bring about the administrative reforms so urgently needed to strengthen the imperial government and preserve the integrity of China, in which, in his opinion, the entire Western world is equally interested. degree promoted and secured by declarations of various powers claiming spheres of interest in China<...>essentially the following content:

1) that it will not in any way affect the rights of contractual ports or legitimate interests within the so-called sphere of interest or leased territory that it may have in China;
2) that the current Chinese contractual tariff will be equally applied in all ports within the said area of interest (excluding free ports), to all goods, regardless of nationality. That the duties thus collected are to be collected by the Chinese Government;
3) that in ports within that sphere, she will charge no higher port dues on ships of a different nationality than on ships of her own, and that on railways built, controlled or operated within her sphere, no higher tariff rates on goods belonging to subjects or citizens of other nationalities than those charged on similar goods belonging to the own citizens of a given power and transported at equal distances.

From a Yihetuan revolutionary leaflet during the uprising in Northern China (1900):

"Foreign devils have come with their teachings, and the number of Christian converts, Roman Catholics and Protestants is increasing every day. These churches have no family ties with our teaching, but, thanks to their cunning, they have attracted to their side all the greedy and selfish and perpetrated oppression on an extraordinary scale, until every honest official was bribed and became their slave in the hope of foreign wealth.So telegraphs and railways were founded, foreign guns and cannons began to be manufactured, and various workshops served as a delight for their spoiled nature. Foreign devils find locomotives, balloons, and electric lamps excellent. Although they ride on stretchers not befitting their rank, yet China considers them barbarians whom God condemns and sends spirits and geniuses to earth to exterminate them."

From the final protocol between China and foreign powers in connection with the suppression of the Yihetuan uprising, September 7, 1901:

"Article 5. China agreed to ban the importation into its possessions of weapons and ammunition, as well as material intended exclusively for the production of weapons and ammunition. By an imperial decree of August 25, 1901, it was decided to prohibit such imports for a period of two years. New decrees may be issued thereafter to extend this period every two years, if the Powers deem it necessary.Article 6 By Imperial Decree of May 22, 1901, His Majesty the Emperor of China undertook to pay to the Powers a reward of four hundred and fifty million haiguang lan (taels)<...>This amount will bring 4% per annum, and the capital will be paid by China at the age of 39<...>

Article 7. The Chinese Government has agreed to consider the quarter occupied by the missions to be specially reserved for their use and placed under the protection of their own police; in this quarter, the Chinese will not have the right to settle<...>Article 8. The Chinese government has agreed to tear down the forts at Taku, as well as those that may interfere with free communication between Peking and the sea. To this end, steps have been taken. Article 10 The Chinese Government undertook to print and promulgate the following imperial decrees within two years in all the cities of the provinces:

a) Decree of February 1, 1901, prohibiting under pain of death to belong to an anti-European party;
b) decrees of February 13 and 21, April 29 and August 19, 1901, containing a list of punishments to which the guilty were sentenced<...>
e) a decree of February 1, 1901, by which it is declared that all governors general, governors and provincial or local officials are responsible for the order in their districts and that in the event of new anti-European disturbances or other violations of the treaties that will not be immediately suppressed and for who the perpetrators have not been punished, these officials will be immediately dismissed without the right to take up new positions and receive new honors.

From the work of D. Nehru "A look at world history". 1981. Vol. 1. P. 472,475,476:

"One of the aims consistently pursued by English policy in India was the creation of a propertied class which, being a creature of the English, would depend on them and serve as their support in India. The English therefore strengthened the position of the feudal princes and created a class of great zamindars and talukdars and even encouraged social conservatism under the pretext of non-interference in religious affairs.All these propertied classes were themselves interested in the exploitation of the country and in general could exist only thanks to such exploitation<...>In India, a middle class gradually developed, accumulating some capital to invest in business.<...>The only class whose voice was heard was the new middle class; the offspring, born in fact of connection with England, began to criticize her. This class grew, and with it the national movement grew."

Questions and tasks

1. Explain how you understand the term "traditionalism".
2. Describe the changes that have taken place in the colonies and dependent countries as a result of the creation of colonial empires.
3. There is an assertion that colonialism brought more positive changes to the countries of Asia and Africa than negative ones. Think about and justify your point of view on this statement.
4. Give examples of mass anti-colonial uprisings: what was their common feature, what distinguished them in terms of goals, direction, means of struggle?
5. Use the examples of the history of Japan, China, India and other countries to reveal the features and consequences of modernization attempts in colonial and dependent countries. Explain your understanding of the words "spontaneous traditionalism of the masses".
6. What are the characteristic features of the modernization of Latin America.

Story. General history. Grade 11. Basic and advanced levels Volobuev Oleg Vladimirovich

§ 16. Countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America in the second half of the XX century

Elimination of colonial dependence. The events of World War II contributed to the decline of the political influence of the European powers in their colonies. The Dutch, English and French possessions in Southeast Asia were captured by Japan, which sought to weaken the influence of the former owners in these territories. And the metropolitan states themselves, occupied during the war years by Germany (the Netherlands, Belgium) or opposing the aggressor (Great Britain), could no longer seriously influence the situation in the colonies. The only exception was France, whose colonial possessions became the base for the forces of the Free French movement, led by Charles de Gaulle.

After liberation from the Japanese, the peoples of Indochina, Burma, Indonesia and other countries resisted the return of their former European masters. In the post-war world, the process of decolonization has grown from year to year. In 1946 - 1950. 13 independent states emerged in Asia and Africa, in 1951-1960. appeared 27, and in 1961 - 1970. - 27 more states. Small island possessions located in the Caribbean and Oceania also gained independence. These countries differed significantly from each other in terms of the level of political and economic development, ethnic composition, religion and culture. However, all of them were forced to solve similar problems - overcoming economic and cultural backwardness, resolving internal political conflicts related to the colonial past.

The leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement are J. Nehru, K. Nkrumah, G. A. Nasser, Sukarno, I. Broz Tito. 1960.

In an effort to join forces, the Third World states established several international regional communities: the Organization of African Unity, the League of Arab States, etc. During the Cold War in 1961, the leaders of a number of developing countries, as well as Yugoslavia, created the Non-Aligned Movement. In the context of the confrontation between the USSR and the USA, its members declared their non-participation in military blocs. At the same time, they tried to play an active role in international politics, trying to prevent conflicts dangerous for the world.

Pro-Western Modernization in South Asia. The most powerful blow to British colonialism, after which the decline of the British Empire came, was the independence of India. Negotiations between representatives of the British government and the leaders of the national liberation movement of India began even before the Second World War. They walked with great difficulty, often interrupted. Already during the war, actions of disobedience and armed uprisings by the Indians forced the British to make concessions.

In 1947, the Labor government of C. Attlee granted independence to the “pearl of the British crown”. On the site of the former colony, two states were formed - India and Pakistan. The boundaries between them were established on a religious basis. The formation of Pakistan, divided by the territory of India into Western and Eastern, met the interests of Indian Muslims who dreamed of their own state.

In 1971, the independent state of Bangladesh was formed on the territory of East Pakistan.

After the declaration of independence, violent clashes broke out between India and Pakistan, killing hundreds of thousands of people. Millions of Hindus and Muslims, fleeing religious persecution, were forced to leave their homes and cross the newly formed border. The spiritual leader of India, Mahatma Gandhi, tried to stop the bloody madness, but in 1948 he was killed by a Hindu fanatic. It was not possible to resolve the contradictions. The confrontation between India and Pakistan, now possessing nuclear weapons, continues to this day.

In 1950, India was proclaimed a republic, and a democratic parliamentary system was established in the country. The leading political party in power for many years was the Indian National Congress. Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of the INC, became the first prime minister of independent India. His government carried out a number of reforms: the peasants received land, partial nationalization of industrial enterprises and banks was carried out. As a result, a powerful public sector of the economy emerged in the country, capable of implementing science-intensive and expensive projects in various industries (nuclear energy, metallurgy, etc.). At the same time, the government of India firmly stood on the principles of a market economy.

In the 1980s - 1990s. India is facing serious problems with the rise of the religious extremism and separatism (in Kashmir, Punjab and Assam). As a result of terrorist attacks, two prime ministers of the country were killed - Indira Gandhi, and then her son Rajiv Gandhi. Nevertheless, India managed to cope with internal problems and maintain its status as the economically and militarily strongest state in South Asia. Traditions inherent in Indian civilization since ancient times are combined in the life of the country with the achievements of the West. Since independence, India has established friendly relations with the Soviet Union, and then with Russia, which has become its important partner in the economic, trade and military-technical sphere.

Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. 1984.

Japan and the Newly Industrialized Countries. A number of Asian countries, whose governments were oriented towards the West, chose the industrial path of development. Japan has been the most impressive. The country that was defeated in the war, subjected to nuclear bombardment and lost almost 40% of the national wealth, found the strength not only to restore economic power, but also to stand on a par with (and in some ways significantly outperform) the "old" industrialized powers of the West.

The American occupation authorities rebuilt the Japanese political system, which was based on democratic principles (parliamentary system, civil rights and freedoms). Legislation fixed the provision that Japan should not have an army. Thanks to this, the country got rid of the burden of military spending. Japanese monopolies were unbundled, which activated the free market; the peasants received the landlords' land.

10 years after the end of World War II, the country's economy was restored. The correctly chosen strategy of economic and scientific and technological development allowed Japan to become a world leader in such industries as the automotive industry, shipbuilding, machine tool building, and radio electronics. Japan's successes were made possible by combining advanced technical thought with centuries-old traditions of culture, labor, discipline, harmony in the relationship between elders and juniors, which are largely associated with the tenets of Confucianism and Shintoism, which are widespread in Japan. This Asian country, according to the main features of the economic and political system, can now be attributed to the countries of the West.

Tokyo, Japan. Modern look

The accelerated pace of economic development is also characteristic of the so-called "new industrial countries" of Asia - Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Malaysia, Indonesia. Thanks to the use of cheap labor and high technology, "new industrial countries" by the end of the 20th century. managed to achieve impressive economic success, pushing the US and the states of Western Europe on the world market.

The influence of Islam on the development of Asian and African countries. In many parts of Asia and Africa, traditional values, mostly related to religion, continue to play an important role. Islam has a great influence on the life of the countries of the Near and Middle East, as well as a number of other states in Asia and Africa. In the context of the process of Westernization, the imposition of Western (primarily American) standards of life, Islam has become a way of protecting against alien influence.

in Iran since the 1950s. The government of Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi began to carry out reforms, the purpose of which was to transfer the country to the path of Western, capitalist development. Increase in oil production in the 1960s - 1970s caused an economic boom in Iran. However, the traditional foundations of life, closely associated with the Shia direction in Islam, came into conflict with the pro-Western transformations. The repressions of the Shah's government, directed against the leaders of the religious opposition, only exacerbated the situation. In 1979, an Islamic revolution took place in Iran, led by ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. All aspects of the life of the country were subordinated to the tenets of Islam. Iran's relations with the West have deteriorated sharply, especially with the United States, which the Islamic revolutionaries have proclaimed as their main enemy.

Election poster depicting the former leader of the Islamic Revolution in Iran, Ayatollah R. M. Khomeini, and the President of Iran in 1981-1989. Ayatollah A. Khomeney

In the last decades of the twentieth century. the influence of the Islamic clergy in the life of a number of Asian and African countries increased even more. The example of the Iranian revolution contributed to the fact that supporters of the organization of society on the basis of Sharia increasingly sought state power. Building a society on the principles of Islam is also characteristic of Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and Afghanistan under the rule of the Taliban. Strong Islamic opposition to secular regimes exists in Algeria and Turkey. Significant in terms of size and influence, Muslim communities appeared in the United States and Western Europe. To achieve their political goals, supporters of radical movements in Islam created extensive terrorist organizations, the most famous of which was Al-Qaeda.

Ideas of socialism in the countries of the "third world". The ideas of socialism had a serious influence on the processes that took place in developing countries after the Second World War. The desire of the people of post-colonial countries for social justice was explained by the persistence of poverty and poverty, strong traditions of communal life, and also by the fact that they were inspired by the example of the Soviet Union, which promoted its own achievements in various fields.

In 1949, the communists came to power in China, having defeated the supporters of the Kuomintang in the civil war (the remnants of their defeated army crossed over to the island of Taiwan). Communist Party leader Mao Zedong formed a regime of personal power. An era of social and economic experiments began, the victims of which were millions of Chinese. After the failure of the "Great Leap Forward" policy - an attempt at forced industrialization - Mao launched the "cultural revolution". In the course of it, the "great helmsman" dealt with real and imaginary oppositionists; party cadres and representatives of the educated part of society were subjected to mass repressions.

Mao Zedong proclaims the establishment of the People's Republic of China. 1949.

After Mao's death in 1976, the leadership of the Communist Party, gradually revising its policy, gave a powerful impetus to the country's economic development based on attracting Western capital, using the latest technologies and market mechanisms. Deng Xiaoping became the ideologist of the new course. In the 1980s - 1990s. China has become a global industrial giant. However, market reforms did not affect the political system of the country. The activities of supporters of democratic reforms were suppressed by the authorities. In this regard, the bloody events of 1989 on Beijing's Tiananmen Square are typical, during which the troops suppressed the students' uprising.

In Vietnam, despite the preservation of communist power, market reforms were carried out that stimulated the development of the economy. The only Asian state in which the model of "barracks socialism" has been preserved to this day is North Korea (DPRK).

In some Muslim countries, socialism was intertwined with religion. Their leaders turned to the principles of "original Islam" - the ideas of justice and equality. Thus, the leader of the Libyan revolution, Muammar Gaddafi, who called himself a socialist, approved the Koran as the constitution of Libya. Leftist ideologues in developing countries have often spoken of "national socialism", given the specifics of a particular country. They proposed a special, "third way" of development - between the Soviet "real socialism" and Western capitalism. Revolutions and upheavals took place under the flag of national socialism in Iraq, Syria, South Yemen, Algeria, Ethiopia and other countries. Their leaders announced the implementation of socialist reforms in the hope of receiving economic, financial and military assistance from the USSR. However, as the crisis in the Soviet Union grew, the countries of “socialist orientation” (Angola, Mozambique, Somalia, Ethiopia, etc.) changed their course, focusing on Western assistance.

In this regard, the political evolution of Egypt, the largest Arab state, is characteristic. In 1952, the revolutionary organization "Free Officers" led by Gamal Abdel Nasser carried out a coup d'état. The new government proclaimed its goal to build socialism. Despite the stubborn resistance of Western countries and Israel, which resulted in an armed conflict in 1956, it nationalized the Suez Canal. Soon large enterprises passed into the hands of the state. Close political and military ties were established with the USSR.

Egyptian President A. Sadat, US President J. Carter and Israeli Prime Minister M. Begin during the signing of a peace treaty. 1979.

However, the defeat of Egypt in the Arab-Israeli war of 1967 and the death of G. A. Nasser changed the situation. After a new failure in the war with Israel in 1973, President Anwar Sadat took a course towards curtailing relations with the Soviet Union, denationalizing the inefficient public sector of the economy. He went for rapprochement with the United States and, through their mediation, signed a peace treaty with Israel in 1979. Sadat died in 1981 at the hands of a fanatical Muslim assassin, but Egypt's pro-Western course has not changed under new President Hosni Mubarak.

Features of the development of Latin America. The countries of Latin America belong to a special civilization that includes both Western features and elements of traditional local Indian cultures. A significant contribution to the formation of this civilization was made by the descendants of African slaves brought by the colonizers to the New World.

The Latin American states are brought together by a linguistic community, the affiliation of the population to the Catholic Church and the similarity of the elements of the political structure and economic development. Despite significant differences from the countries of Asia and Africa, Latin American states solve many problems typical of developing countries: economic modernization, mitigation of acute social problems, overcoming domestic political instability, achieving economic independence from developed countries and international financial institutions.

Unlike Asia and Africa, before the states of Latin America in the XX century. there was no problem of achieving national independence. Most of them achieved liberation from the colonialists in the 19th century. However, formally sovereign states found themselves in political and economic dependence on the United States. In 1823, American President John Monroe proclaimed the political formula "America for Americans", according to which the United States demanded that the European powers refrain from interfering in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. It was assumed that only the United States could influence the countries of Latin America. They considered the Latin American states as junior partners, using not only economic levers and political pressure, but also military force to resolve conflict situations.

The economic development of Latin America during the colonial period and for many subsequent decades was based on the supply of raw materials and agricultural products to Western states. It is no coincidence that some of the Latin American countries have been given the name "banana republics". Brazil was the largest exporter of coffee, while Argentina supplied grain and meat to the world market.

The situation changed in the 1920s-1930s. As a result of the global economic crisis, prices for agricultural products fell sharply, which led to catastrophic consequences for the economy of Latin America, caused the impoverishment of the population and unemployment. Latin American countries were swept by a wave of popular uprisings and riots. The governments of a number of states (often coming to power as a result of military coups) were forced to carry out economic reforms in order to accelerate industrialization. As a result, imported manufactured goods began to be replaced by local ones in the domestic market. The policy of import substitution was successfully carried out in Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, allowing these countries to embark on the path of industrial development. A significant role in the transformations was played by the state, which regulated the development of the economy.

Latin America in the second half of the 20th century A new period in the development of Latin American countries began in the 1960s and 1970s. At that time, many states of the region faced the problem of choosing the path of further development.

Left, populist ideas have always had a significant impact on the socio-political life of Latin America, so it was not surprising that a number of countries turned towards socialism.

After the overthrow of the pro-American dictatorship in 1959, a government led by Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba, which began building a socialist society on the Soviet model. With the support of the USSR, industry developed on the island, major successes were achieved in the social sphere. Cuba, which took an anti-American position, was subjected to military, political and economic pressure from the United States, which established a blockade of the island. However, "the first socialist state in the Western Hemisphere" was actively assisted by the Soviet Union. The development of Cuba was influenced by the same factors that caused the crisis of the socialist system as a whole.

In Chile, attempts at socialist transformation were made in the early 1970s. government of "People's Unity" headed by Salvador Allende. In the 1980s the government of Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua tried to put socialist slogans into practice. In 1990, Ortega was defeated in the elections, but in 2006 he again became president. The leader of the left in Latin America at the end of the 20th century. Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez became a fierce critic of US policy and an opponent of globalization.

The leaders of the Cuban Revolution F. Castro, E. Che Guevara and a member of the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU A.I. Mikoyan

Another model of modernization in Latin America was the policy of accelerated development of the economy based on market principles, which was carried out, as a rule, by right-wing dictatorial regimes. Significant success in the 1960s - 1970s. Brazil has achieved, the military authorities of which used state levers to encourage private initiative, the widespread attraction of foreign capital to the country. At the same time, despite the fact that social programs were cut, the government managed to ensure internal stability. As a result of the “economic miracle”, Brazil has come close to the developed countries of the West and the “newly industrialized countries” of Asia in a number of indicators.

Venezuelan President U. Chavez

In Chile, the military, led by General Augusto Pinochet, came to power, overthrowing the government of S. Allende in September 1973. Under the new government, the country managed to achieve economic success, which was accompanied, however, by the rejection of democracy and repressions against the opposition. The establishment of authoritarian regimes was also characteristic of many other Latin American states. At the end of the 20th century, the opposite trend prevailed - dictatorial regimes in all countries of the region fell, and were replaced by democratic governments.

Most of the Latin American states managed to achieve success in economic development, but external debt became a serious obstacle to their further growth. The problem for debtors is not only the repayment of debts, but also the timely payment of interest on them. In many countries of the region, there is a gap between the richest and the poorest segments of the population. Inequality gives rise to social tension, often resulting in popular uprisings (Mexico, the countries of Central America) and a partisan movement (Peru, Colombia, etc.).

In the last decades of the twentieth century. the “new industrial countries” of Asia and Latin America began to assert themselves more and more loudly.

Rapid economic development has made some of them leaders of modern civilization. At the same time, a lot of problems remain in the countries of the "third world" - poverty, backwardness in economic development, political instability.

Questions and tasks

1. Explain why decolonization accelerated significantly after World War II.

2. What are the most important features that characterized the political and economic development of India after independence?

3. How did Japan and the "newly industrialized countries" manage to reach the forefront of the world economy?

4. What was the strengthening of the position of Islam in the countries of the "third world"?

5. What are the characteristics of the development of Latin American countries? What common problems do they have to solve?

6. What is the fate of the socialist idea in the countries of the "third world"?

7. What are the common features and differences in the development of the "new industrial countries" of Asia and Latin America.

8. The modern borders of African countries were formed in colonial times. The European colonialists conducted them not along the boundaries of the settlement of peoples and tribes, but along the meridians, parallels, arcuate lines that looked beautiful on the map. As a result, the African peoples were fragmented between different colonial possessions. In 1964, at the Assembly of Heads of State and Government of the Organization of African Unity, all independent African countries agreed to abandon the revision of borders. What do you think was the reason for this decision? Was it correct?

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