Remember:

1. How did ancient people study the Earth?

Answer: For example, we are talking about the relief of a country. The ancient geographer would have considered his task accomplished if he could describe where and what landforms exist.

2. How does modern man study the Earth?

Answer: The modern geographer cannot be satisfied with this: he not only describes the existing forms of relief, but also finds out the reasons for such an arrangement of mountains, plains, hills, their connection and interdependence with other geographical factors, etc. Therefore, geography is considered an explanatory science.

What do you think:

Can the methods of geographical research be applicable in other sciences?

Answer: Many of these methods are also applied in other sciences. The basic philosophical methods of research are the same as those of other sciences.

Let's check your knowledge:

1. What is the feature of the descriptive research method?

Answer: The descriptive method in geography answers the question: a) why is this happening? b) where is it located? c) What happens if this happens?

2. What is the basis of the cartographic research method?

Answer: The cartographic research method is a research method based on obtaining the necessary information using maps for scientific and practical knowledge of the phenomena depicted on them.

3. What is the name of the youngest research method?

Answer: space

Now for the more difficult questions:

1. What is the difference between ancient maps and modern cartographic images?

Answer: The first geographical images of the area were rock carvings, drawings on bark, skin, wood, bone. In the Roman Empire, maps were used to organize and conduct military campaigns. Modern geographical maps are more accurate and have much more geographical features, as over time, researchers have discovered more and more new places on Earth.

2. What would you call the research method associated with the organization and conduct of scientific expeditions?

Answer: Expeditionary, from the word "expedition".

From theory to practice:

1. Classify the sources of geographic information you use in geography lessons.

Answer: Maps and atlases, newspapers and magazines, radio, television, the Internet, museum exhibits, expeditions, etc.

2. Write a description of the geography classroom.

Answer: In my opinion, the most remarkable thing in our class is a huge globe mounted on a round base. His usual place is on a special bedside table at the end of the classroom, but during the lessons he always stands in front of us - on the teacher's table. In the geography classroom, everyone can find something interesting for themselves. A whole collection of binoculars, compasses, various measuring instruments, and even camping equipment is stored in a special cabinet. Schoolchildren are especially fond of a small shelf with multi-year filings of the Vokrug Sveta magazine, many issues of which have been read to the Holes. Interesting stories and a wonderful design of the geography classroom helped many students of our school not only understand the subject well, but also fall in love with this science forever. There is a board right in front of me, and to the left and right of it there are a lot of geographical maps that can be moved using a special mechanism. There is no need to constantly remove them and attach them to the board with a string, if necessary - the card is immediately in front of your eyes. The political map will tell you how many countries there are in the world, how unusually the cities are called in them, the physical map shows the location of rivers and lakes, mountains and forests. And on this map - the temperature regime, here - underwater currents, here - rocks. And here is a completely amazing map - a map of the starry sky. Of course, because humanity is developing not only new lands, but also outer spaces. There are bookshelves along the wall. On the topmost shelf stands a large multicolored globe, followed by a dozen smaller ones; Perhaps they will hand them out to us in class. And here is a shelf with magazines "Around the World". And here is a book about the first expeditions and trips around the world. On another shelf I see atlases, neat stacks of contour maps. Here is a place prepared for us. I will be happy to come to the lessons in our geography classroom.

Final tasks on the topic of the section:

1. Which of the ancient scientists first used the word "geography"?

2. The word "geography" is translated into Russian as:

3. The main reason for increasing the accuracy of maps in the 15th century was:

4. The exact outlines of the continents and islands can be obtained using:

5. Which of the following research methods was not available to ancient scientists?

6. Scientific ideas about the nature of the Earth can be obtained using:

7. Establish a correspondence between the name of the research method and its characteristics:

Answer: 1-B, 2-A, 3-C

8. What research method are we talking about?

Answer: descriptive method

9. Complete the statement.

Answer: 1 - cartography, 2 - cartography, 3 - XV

10. Complete the statement.

Answer: Cartographic

Research methods in a generalized representation are ways of cognizing phenomena and processes.

Methods of geographical research - ways of analyzing geographic information in order to identify regional features and spatio-temporal patterns of development of processes and phenomena in nature and society.

Methods of geographical research can be divided into general scientific and subject-geographical, traditional and modern (Fig. 1.1).

The main methods of geographical research are listed below.

• 1. Comparative geographical. This is a traditional and currently widespread method in geography. The well-known expression "Everything is known in comparison" directly refers to comparative geographical research. Geographers often have to identify the similarities and differences of certain objects, conduct a comparative assessment of objects and phenomena in different territories, and explain the reasons for similarities and discrepancies. Of course, such a comparison is carried out at the level of descriptions and is not strictly proven, so this method is often called comparatively descriptive. But with its help, you can notice many of the most clearly defined properties of geographical objects. For example, a change in natural zones, a change in the agricultural development of territories, etc.
• 2. cartographic method- study of spatial objects and phenomena with the help of geographical maps. This method is as widespread and traditional as the comparative geographical method. The cartographic method consists in using a variety of maps to describe, analyze and understand phenomena, to obtain new knowledge and characteristics, to study development processes, establish relationships and

Rice. 1.1.

gnosis of phenomena. The cartographic method has two components: 1) analysis of published maps; 2) drawing up your own maps (maps) with their subsequent analysis. In all cases, the map is a unique source of information. The classic of Russian economic geography N.N. Baransky figuratively called maps the second language of geography. With the help of geographical maps presented in various atlases, educational and scientific publications, on the Internet, you can get an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their size, quality characteristics, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

In modern geography is actively used geoinformation research method- use of geoinformation systems for spatial analysis. Using the geoinformation method, one can quickly obtain new information and new knowledge about geographical phenomena.

• 3. Regionalization method- one of the key in geography. The geographical study of a country, any territory involves the identification of internal differences, for example, in population density, the proportion of urban residents, the specialization of the economy, etc. The result of this, as a rule, is the zoning of the territory - its mental division into constituent parts according to one or more characteristics (indicators). This allows not only to understand and evaluate regional differences in indicators, the degree of distribution of objects, but also to identify the causes of these differences. For this, along with the zoning method, historical, statistical, cartographic and other methods of geographical research are used.
• 4. Historical (historical-geographical) research method -

it is the study of changes in geographical objects and phenomena over time. How and why did the political map of the world, the size and structure of the population change, how was the transport network formed, how did the structure of the economy change? The answers to these and other questions are given by historical and geographical research. It allows us to understand and explain many modern features of the geographical picture of the world, to identify many causes of modern geographical problems. In the course of historical research, each geographical object (phenomenon) is considered in conjunction with the political and socio-economic processes and events that took place in a particular period. That is why the study of modern geography requires knowledge of world and national history.

5. Statistical method- this is not only the search and use of quantitative (numerical) information to illustrate regional differences: for example, data on population, area, production volumes, etc. Statistics as a science has numerous methods to generalize and systematize quantitative information in order to make the characteristic features easily noticeable. With regard to geography, statistical methods make it possible to classify (group) objects according to the magnitude of indicators (countries by territory, by GDP, etc.); calculate the average value of indicators (for example, the average age of the population) and the size of deviations from the average value; receive relative values ​​(in particular, population density - the number of people per sq. km of territory, the share of the urban population - the percentage of citizens of the total population); compare some indicators with others and identify the relationship between them (correlation and factor analyses), etc.

Previously, the use of statistical methods in geography was very time-consuming, it was necessary to carry out complex calculations of large amounts of information manually or using special tables. With the spread of computer technology, the use of these methods is greatly facilitated, in particular, the functions of the widely used MS Excel and SPSS programs make it easy to perform many statistical operations.

• 6. Method of field research and observations is traditional and has not lost its significance not only in physical, but also in socio-economic geography. Empirical information is not only the most valuable geographical information, but also an opportunity to correct, bring closer to reality the conclusions obtained as a result of cartographic, statistical and other studies. Field research and observations make it possible to understand and more clearly present many features of the studied regions, to identify many of the original features of the territory, to form unique images of the regions. The impressions received as a result of field research and observations, documentary evidence in the form of photographs, sketches, films, conversation records, travel notes are invaluable materials for geographers.
• 7. Method of remote observations. Modern aerial and especially space photography is a significant help in the study of geography. At present, continuous space sounding of the territory of our planet is being carried out from satellites, and this information is effectively used in various fields of science and areas of economic activity. Space images are used in the creation and prompt updating of geographical maps, monitoring the natural environment (climate, geological processes, natural disasters), studying the features of economic activity (agricultural development, crop productivity, forest supply and reforestation), environmental studies (environmental pollution and its sources) . One of the complex problems of using satellite images is a huge flow of information that requires processing and understanding. For geographers, this is truly a treasure trove of information and an effective method for updating geographic knowledge.
• 8. Geographic modeling method- creation of simplified, reduced, abstract models of geographical objects, processes, phenomena. The most famous geographical model is the globe.

According to their most important characteristics, the models repeat real objects. Among the main advantages of models is the ability to represent a geographical object, usually significant in size, in its most characteristic features and from different angles, often inaccessible in reality; carry out measurements and calculations using the model (taking into account the scale of the object); conduct experiments to identify the consequences for a geographical object of certain phenomena.

Examples of geographic models: maps, three-dimensional relief models, mathematical formulas and graphs that express certain geographic patterns (population dynamics, the relationship of socio-economic development indicators, etc.).

9. Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. It is geography, which is a complex science with a holistic vision of the surrounding world, that is able to reasonably foresee many changes taking place on Earth.

A geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems in the “nature-population-economy” system.

§ 3. Classification of methods of geographical research. Traditional Methods

Studying the content of the paragraph provides an opportunity to:

Ø to deepen and systematize knowledge of traditional methods of geographical research obtained in elementary grades;

Methods(ways) research- these are specific methods of studying geographical objects and phenomena. To geographical methods(methods) of research include: traditional - expeditionary, descriptive, cartographic, comparative geographical, mathematical and statistical, and new methods - experimental, modeling, remote (aerospace), geographical monitoring, geographical forecasting, GIS technologies, etc.

Far back centuries, the fundamental method of geographical research, the primary source of all geographical knowledge - forwarding method. Much that people learned about the Earth, about its great natural diversity and richness, they learned in the course of their wanderings and travels, and in modern language - expeditions.

Fixation by travelers of what they saw led to the emergence description method. The very name of science geography(from Greek. geo– earth and grapho- I describe), proposed by the ancient Greek scientist Eratosthenes, testifies to the importance of this method. The description includes not only the collection of information about the object of study, but also its systematization, explanation and construction of a theory. In the XVIII century. began to develop a scientific description, which included elements of analysis, comparison, explanation. This method is especially important in works of a regional study character, where it has developed from an element-by-element description of countries (nature, population, economy, etc.) to a complex regional study characteristic. At present, the description is not necessarily associated with the fixation of information on paper. It can be spoken into a voice recorder, the use of electronics allows you to transfer the description over long distances, store, edit. Of great importance for memorization and emotional perception is the literary and artistic description (literary works of I. A. Bunin, K. G. Paustovsky, M. M. Prishvin, etc.). There are the following types of geographical descriptions: ascertaining (stating facts); description of dynamic processes and phenomena; description of causal relationships; predictive descriptions.

With the advent of the description, a special geographical way of depicting and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study appeared - various “drawings”, diagrams, maps. Thus arose a very important and necessary geography cartographic method research.

The origins of geographical maps come from graphic images (on a tree, on a rock, on a bone, etc.) intended for orientation in space. Maps were used for navigation purposes, to establish the boundaries of possessions, lands, orientation in the area, etc. In Italy, starting from the 14th century. began to create maps of coastlines - partholans.

Currently, the cartographic method, in addition to compiling maps of the study area, includes visual search and analysis of objects on the map; measurement on the map of distances, areas, heights, etc.; comparison of various geographical phenomena and the study of their connection and causes; analysis of maps by building profiles, etc. The need to describe new countries, territories and compare them with already existing, known ones contributed to the development comparative research method which has been successfully used to this day. (Which of the famous geographers successfully used the comparison method? Who was the first to apply the historical method in the study of geographical phenomena?)

Later, on the basis of a comparison of objects and phenomena, a analogy method(from Greek. apology - similarity, correspondence). The analogy method is also widely used by modern geographers. Having noticed the similarity of objects in some way, we can assume that they are similar to each other and to others. The use of analogies will be more reliable if the similarity is established not by external, but by the main (essential) features. For example, in geography, knowledge about the processes occurring in one landscape can be transferred to another. In science, this technique is widely used. Often analogies serve as the basis of scientific hypotheses, without which science cannot develop.

Society gradually began to ask geography questions of a completely different nature, for example, such as: why is the river wide in the plains and narrow in the mountains? How much water flows in it in general and at different times of the year? Why do forests grow in one place and steppes in another? etc. . In search of answers to these and other questions, mathematical and statistical methods geographical studies, which can be attributed to the traditional ones, since already in the Middle Ages there were geographical works performed using mathematical approaches.

At the end of the XIX - the beginning of the XX centuries. in connection with the development of chemistry in geographical research began to be actively used laboratory-analytical methods. This made it possible to qualitatively assess the state of natural complexes and resources, and to create an objective database.

Questions and tasks:

1. What methods of studying geographical objects appeared first in the history of science and why?

2. What tasks does the descriptive method solve in geography? What is its current role?

3. What is the essence of the method of observations?

4. Name the activities in which various types of geographical research are widely used.

5. Why is there a need for the integrated use of geographical and non-geographical methods for studying geographical objects? Give examples.

To study our Earth and obtain information about all geographical objects and processes, several geographical research methods are used. There are quite a few of them, but still the main methods are considered:
1 - Historical method. Nothing comes out of nowhere, everything develops historically. To know geography, it is necessary to know history: the history of the development of mankind, the history of the development of the Earth.
2 - Economic and mathematical method. In geography, the following indicators are calculated: migration balance, resource availability, birth rate, mortality and population density calculations, calculation of natural population growth.
3 - Cartographic method . As the founder of Russian geography N.N. Baransky: "The map is the second language of geography." Indeed, the map provides information that no other method can provide. The location and size of objects, the distribution of various phenomena, a visual representation of mineral deposits - all this is shown on the map.
4 - Comparative geographical. Slower - faster, more - less, higher - lower, profitable - unprofitable: absolutely everything is compared. Comparison helps to more accurately and fully describe the differences and similarities of various geographical objects.
5 - Static method. Static data: the area of ​​the country, height or depth, reserves of natural resources, demographic indicators, population - all this gives a figurative idea of ​​​​a camp or object.
6 -
Method of field research and observations . Observation of phenomena with one's own eyes, collection of materials and samples, description of geographical objects - all this is the subject of study.
7 - Geographic forecast . The goals of geography as a science are not only in describing various phenomena and objects, but also in predicting the consequences of human development. To use natural resources rationally, to solve global problems, to reduce the negative impact of man on nature, to avoid undesirable phenomena - these are the goals of geographical forecasting.
8 - Geographical zoning . With this method of geographical research, natural (physico-geographical) and economic regions are distinguished.
9 - Geographic Modeling . An important method used in the study of geography is the creation of geographic models. A simple example is a globe.
10 - Method of remote observations . The method of remote observation is aerial and space photography.

1.4 Methods of geographical research

In geography, along with methods common to all sciences, special (geographical) methods are also used.

Methods of geographical research can be divided into three groups. Firstly, these are field research methods, when the study of geographical objects takes place directly in the field. Geographic expeditions and permanent stations and laboratories are one of the most important sources of information about the processes taking place in the geographic envelope. With the help of another group of methods - cameral (from Latin camera - room, treasury) - geographic information is processed, systematized, generalized. An example of such work is the processing of materials from aerial and space surveys of the Earth. With the help of cameral methods, the essence of geographical phenomena is known, the laws of their development are established. The third group is experimental methods, with the help of which scientists can test the truth of their assumptions, penetrate deeper into the secrets of nature. As you can see, all methods of geographical research are closely related. At each stage of research, certain methods are used. In order to get to know them in more detail, we will use the historical approach traditional for geography.

Descriptive, expeditionary and cartographic methods are the first in the history of geography. The descriptive method was the very first way of knowing the world around us. For many centuries, geography remained primarily a descriptive science.

Everything that a person learned about new lands, he received during expeditions (travels). During the expeditions, various geographical objects and phenomena are observed and described. The cartographic method appeared simultaneously with the emergence of geography. Along with the description of objects on the earth's surface, a special one appears - a geographical way of displaying and systematizing knowledge about the territory under study. It is no coincidence that the map is called the "second language" of geography. Geographical research begins and ends with it. But the main thing is that with the help of a map you can “embrace” the entire surface of our planet at once.

Methods of comparison, historical and generalization in geography. The accumulation of a huge amount of information about our planet put forward the problem of their generalization and systematization. Comparison of different elements of the geographic envelope led to the fact that similar elements were combined with each other. Such a generalization and at the same time a comparison of geographical data made it possible to group phenomena into different classes, which became the reason for the formation of a typological approach in geography.

Geography was one of the first sciences that mastered the historical approach in the knowledge of the phenomena of the world. Geographers began to compare objects not only by their location, but also by the time of formation. In geography, the historical method is also widely used because the connection between geography and history has always been close.

Mathematical methods and modeling in geography. As long as there were undiscovered lands, geography was not faced with the urgent task of explaining the world. A superficial description of the various territories was sufficient for the study to be considered geographical. But the rapid growth of human economic activity required penetration into the secrets of nature. To do this, geographers were forced to borrow research methods from other sciences. The use of mathematical methods made it possible not only to measure geographical objects, but also to find average indicators in a number of observations, to identify statistical (mathematical) patterns. This led to the discovery of the causes of rain floods on rivers, the emergence of ideas about cyclones and anticyclones, principles for choosing places for building enterprises, etc.

All geographic systems (natural, economic, natural-economic) have a structure, that is, a certain way of organizing the relationships between elements. With the advent of the modeling method in geography, knowledge of the structure of different geosystems has gone far ahead. Models are widely used to simulate processes that cannot be reproduced in experiments and experiments. The models reflect the main properties of the object, and the secondary ones are discarded.

Methods of remote research. Achievements of science and technology in the XX century. greatly changed the traditional ways of studying the Earth. Remote methods are called when the observer (or measuring apparatus) is at some distance from the object of study. At the same time, the area covered by observation is significantly increased. The appearance of materials from aerospace surveys of the earth's surface has led to an increase in the flow of new information about long-known objects and phenomena of the Earth.

Shooting the earth's surface in the optical range (in red, blue, green and other colors) provides information about the state of the soil and vegetation cover of the territory, the transparency of water in reservoirs, etc. Shooting in the infrared range, invisible to the human eye, allows you to obtain information about the temperature land and oceans, on the concentration of agricultural pests. Shooting with radio waves shows the amount of moisture in the soil, the level of groundwater, etc.

With the help of remote methods, information is received in a form that allows it to be put into a computer and automatically processed. This led to the creation of geographic information systems, geographic data banks, which are widely used in cartography and mathematical modeling of geosystems.

Stationary, laboratory and experimental methods. In modern geography, instead of short-term expeditions, complex geographical stations are organized. The stationary method of studying the geographic envelope involves the use of permanent stations, laboratories, and expeditions. The methods of sciences close to geography make it possible to observe under constant conditions a whole complex of geographical phenomena. Thus, geophysical, geochemical and biological methods appeared in geography using the laboratory method characteristic of them (for example, the study of the chemical composition of the soil or the physical properties of polluted air).

The main task of conducting complex stationary studies is to reveal the connections between phenomena. The disclosure of these basic relationships allows, firstly, to create a model of the object under study, and secondly, to conduct an experiment or experiment in nature.

For example, to find out how agriculture affects soil erosion, two sites with the same conditions are selected. The experimental site is plowed up and sown with agricultural crops, while the other (control) site remains unchanged. The extent and rate of soil erosion at the two sites is then measured and a conclusion is made about the impact of agricultural activities on the soil cover.

Today it is not enough to explain why and how geosystems and their elements develop; it is also necessary to foresee how they can change under the influence of man. A new stage of geographical research is coming - the stage of prediction. At this stage, the tasks of what the object will be in the future are solved. For this, environmental monitoring and geographic forecasting are used.

Environmental monitoring. Monitoring (from Latin monitor - warning) is an information system, the task of which is to observe and evaluate the environment under the influence of human impact. The purpose of this method is the rational use of natural resources and environmental protection. There are three main types of monitoring: local, regional, global. Unlike the first two, a global monitoring system has not yet been created. It should provide monitoring of planetary changes in the geographic envelope - in the composition of the atmosphere, in the cycles of substances, etc. So far, there are fragments of such monitoring in the form of biosphere reserves, scientific stations and laboratories. They monitor and control physical, chemical, biological changes in the environment. The information received is transmitted to national and international centers.

Geographic forecast. One of the tasks of geographic forecasts is the development of scientifically based predictions about the state and development of the natural environment in the future. In order to make the forecast reliable, it is necessary, first of all, to rely on the historical approach to the object and, accordingly, to consider it in the process of development. There are several hundred forecasting methods. Some of them are familiar to you. The method of geographical analogies makes it possible to transfer the patterns of development of some geosystems to others. At the same time, it can be foreseen that younger systems will follow the path of geosystems that are at a high stage of development. One of the most important methods of forecasting is extrapolation - it is like a continuation of existing patterns into the future. To do this, it is necessary to study the object well enough. Successfully used in forecasting and methods of mathematical modeling.

Geographers are also involved in the preparation of economic and social forecasts, which must also take into account the dynamics of the environment. As a rule, forecasts are related to a specific territory and are made for a specific purpose. For example, the forecast for the integrated development of new territories.

Ahead of the scientific and geographical community and did not have an impact on it. We know of only one geographer of this time, who consistently and purposefully applied advanced philosophical methodology in geographical science. This is N. Desmarais. He was the first and last of the geographers to set forth the principles of scientific knowledge in relation to geography. It should also be noted that the principles were stated very briefly ...

For example, A. Khodiyev was actively engaged in such propaganda, being sure that he was doing a great job for positivism. But these were all separate episodes. The connection between positivism and geographical science did not improve. One can understand why the positivist philosophers neglected geography. For most of them, geography was a second-class science, doomed to forever bear the burden of descriptiveness. This opinion...

During the period, material is also accumulated on the study of the nature of our country. All this makes it possible to create a number of major consolidated geographical works that were of great importance for the development of economic geography. Among them stand out: “Geographical and Statistical Dictionary of the Russian Empire” (5 volumes, 1863-1885), “Statistics of Land Property and Settlements of European Russia” (8 issues, 1880-...