“Gone are the times when other peoples divided land and water among themselves, and we, the Germans, were content only with the blue sky ... We also demand a place under the sun for ourselves,” said Chancellor von Bülow. As in the time of the crusaders or Frederick II, the emphasis on military force is becoming one of the leading guidelines for Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification allowed Germany to significantly increase its potential, and rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power. At the beginning of the XX century. it came second in the world in terms of industrial production.

The reasons for the brewing world conflict were rooted in the intensification of the struggle of rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat its three most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in the face of the emerging threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - the colonies from England and France and the western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus). Thus, the most important direction of the aggressive strategy of Berlin remained the "onslaught to the East", to the Slavic lands, where the German sword was to win a place for the German plow. In this, Germany was supported by its ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where the Austro-German diplomacy managed to split the alliance of the Balkan countries on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions and cause a second Balkan war between Bulgaria and the rest of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing Austria-Hungary's dominance in the Balkans. Aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states, created by the centuries-old struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilization, and then, breaking off negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.

Two days later, William declared war on France, which was defended by England. Turkey became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing her to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After Turkey entered the war, which closed the straits, the Russian Empire found itself virtually isolated from its allies. Thus began the First World War. Unlike other main participants in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. The Russian state by the end of the XVIII century. achieved its main territorial objectives in Europe. It did not need additional lands and resources, and therefore was not interested in war. On the contrary, it was its resources and sales markets that attracted the aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force holding back German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic problems. First of all, they were associated with the seizure of control over the straits and the provision of free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where there were Uniate centers hostile to the Russian Orthodox Church, was not ruled out.

The German attack found Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the insistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing aggression, the delay with which deprived the Germans of the chance of success. In addition to military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles' heel" has become the insufficient moral preparation of the population. The Russian leadership was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle were used, including ideological ones. This was of great importance for Russia, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and cartridges with a firm and clear belief in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, which had not fought the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was largely unexpected. And in the highest circles, not everyone saw the German Empire as a cruel enemy. This was facilitated by: family dynastic ties, similar political systems, long-standing and close relations between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also drew attention to the weakening of the feeling of patriotism in the educated strata of Russian society, who were sometimes brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. So, in 1912, the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: "The French have "che" re France", the British have "Old England". The Germans have "our old Fritz". Only the last Russian gymnasium and university - "damned Russia". A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military clash. As for Russian society, as a rule, it did not feel the prospect of a long and exhausting struggle against a strong, energetic enemy. Few foresaw the onset of the "terrible years of Russia." Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.

1914 campaign Western theater

The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by the Chief of the General Staff, A. von Schlieffen. It envisaged the containment of the slowly mobilizing Russians by small forces and the main attack in the west against France. After its defeat and surrender, it was supposed to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was drawn up under the influence of the allies. Even before the completion of the mobilization, he envisaged an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to ensure a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, proceeded from the fact that the Germans would strike the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilna-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. In the end, events began to develop according to the first option. Starting the war, Germany brought down all its power on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to the slow mobilization in the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, true to its allied obligations, went on the offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by the persistent requests for help from the allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught of the Germans.

East Prussian operation (1914). From the Russian side, this operation was attended by: 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies. The front of their offensive was divided by the Masurian Lakes. The 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, the 2nd - to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the German 8th Army (Generals Prittwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, the first battle took place near the city of Stallupenen, in which the 3rd Corps of the 1st Russian Army (General Yepanchin) fought with the 1st Corps of the 8th German Army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle was decided by the 29th Russian Infantry Division (General Rosenshield-Paulin), which struck the Germans in the flank and forced them to retreat. Meanwhile, the 25th division of General Bulgakov captured Stallupenen. The losses of the Russians amounted to 6.7 thousand people, the Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, the German troops gave a new, larger battle to the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, advancing from two directions to Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break the 1st Army in parts. On the morning of August 7, the German shock group fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to pincer them. The Germans pressed the right Russian flank. But in the center they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to begin a retreat. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. The total losses of the Germans amounted to about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off the path to the west of Pritvitz, forced the German commander to initially order a retreat beyond the Vistula (this was provided for by the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out, largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood still for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the attack and regroup forces. Not having accurate information about the location of Prittwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Koenigsberg. Meanwhile, the German 8th Army withdrew in a different direction (to the south of Koenigsberg).

While Rennenkampf was marching on Koenigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against the army of Samsonov, who did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radio messages, were aware of all the plans of the Russians. On August 13, Hindenburg attacked the 2nd Army with an unexpected blow from almost all of its East Prussian divisions and in 4 days of fighting inflicted a severe defeat on it. Samsonov, having lost command of the troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage of the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. They then attacked the 1st Army, which had withdrawn behind the Neman by 2 September. The East Prussian operation had severe tactical and especially moral consequences for the Russians. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, tactically won by the Germans, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the blitzkrieg plan. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a disastrous struggle for her on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon again went on the offensive in East Prussia.

Battle of Galicia (1914). The most grandiose and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It involved 4 armies of the Russian Southwestern Front (under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German group of Woyrsch. The parties had an approximately equal number of fighters. In total, it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholm and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them surpassed the scale of the East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with an attack by the Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the region of Lublin and Kholm. There were: 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce oncoming battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed against Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation was taking place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and the 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle near the Rotten Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th Army captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian group advancing in the Kholmsko-Lublin direction. However, the general situation at the front was threatening for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created a favorable opportunity for the Germans to advance in a southerly direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Kholm and Lublin. Poland.

But despite the persistent appeals of the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not advance on Sedlec. First of all, he took up the cleansing of East Prussia from the 1st Army and left his allies to the mercy of fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and on August 22 went on the counteroffensive. However, it developed slowly. Restraining the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lvov direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th army of General Brusilov still managed to close the breakthrough with the last of his strength and hold positions west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the onslaught of Russians from the north (from the Lublin-Kholmsky region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. Pursuing them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the strength of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. In the future, Austria-Hungary, if it achieved success on the Russian front, then only with the strong support of the Germans.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). The victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to help their allies. To prevent a Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army to the area of ​​the Warta River (including those that had arrived from the western front). Of these, the 9th German Army was formed, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl), on September 15, 1914, went on the offensive against Warsaw and Ivangorod. In late September - early October, the Austro-German troops (their total number was 310 thousand people) reached the nearest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% of the personnel). Meanwhile, the Russian command deployed additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this sector to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty retreat. The autumn thaw, the destruction of the lines of communication by the retreating, the poor supply of the Russian units did not allow active pursuit. By the beginning of November 1914, the Austro-German troops retreated to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states in 1914.

First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in this area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German army, it launched the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sievers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was dealt in the Augustow forests (near the Polish city of Augustow), as the fighting in the forest area did not allow the Germans to use the advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian Army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen-Masurian Lakes line. Fierce battles flared up at this turn, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to hold the front in East Prussia alone.

Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). The siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops in September 1914 laid siege to Przemysl. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created, led by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, the Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the fierce October battles near Khyrov and Sana, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their original lines. This made it possible at the end of October 1914 to block Przemysl for the second time. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful, but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his sortie on March 5, 1915, ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1 thousand guns. This was the biggest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl due to a general retreat from Galicia.

Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the North-Western Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here, the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. The German command from the intercepted radiograms knew about the upcoming offensive. In an effort to prevent him, the Germans launched a powerful preemptive strike on October 29 in order to surround and destroy the 5th (General Plehve) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz region. The core of the advancing German grouping with a total number of 280 thousand people. were parts of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which, under the onslaught of superior German forces, retreated, putting up stubborn resistance. The most heated battles broke out in early November north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough on November 5-6 of the German corps of General Schaeffer in the region of eastern Lodz, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But units of the 5th Army, which approached from the south in a timely manner, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin the withdrawal of troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the Lodz Piglet, and the German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and connected with units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap at the site of the breakthrough of Schaeffer's corps was closed, and he himself was surrounded. Although the German corps managed to break out of the bag, the plan of the German command to defeat the armies of the North-Western Front failed. However, the Russian command had to say goodbye to the plan of attack on Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the Lodz operation ended without giving a decisive success to either side. Nevertheless, the Russian side still lost strategically. Having repelled the German onslaught with heavy losses (110 thousand people), the Russian troops were no longer able to really threaten German territory. The damage of the Germans amounted to 50 thousand people.

"Battle on Four Rivers" (1914). Having not achieved success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back beyond the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, the German troops with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and the Woyrsh group on November 19 again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction. After heavy fighting in the area of ​​the Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After that, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dankl) to the south went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce "battle on four rivers" (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire Russian front line in Poland. Russian troops, alternating defense and counterattacks, repelled the onslaught of the Germans on Ravka and drove the Austrians back beyond Nida. The "Battle of the Four Rivers" was distinguished by extreme stubbornness and significant losses on both sides. The damage of the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. Its personnel suffered especially, which directly affected the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German Army exceeded 100 thousand people.

Campaign of 1914. Caucasian theater of operations

The Young Turk government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already in 1914 entered the war. Turkish troops, without serious preparation, immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasian direction in order to recapture the lands lost during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. The Minister of War Enver Pasha led the 90,000th Turkish army. These troops were opposed by units of the 63,000-strong Caucasian army under the general command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkov (general A.Z. Myshlaevsky actually commanded the troops). The Sarykamysh operation became the central event of the 1914 campaign in this theater of operations.

Sarykamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Having thrown back the advanced units of the Russians (Oltinsky detachment), the Turks on December 12, in a severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units (up to 1 battalion) here. Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was passing through there, they heroically repelled the first onslaught of an entire Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived in time for the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led his defense. Having failed to take Sarykamysh, the Turkish corps in the snowy mountains lost only 10 thousand frostbitten people. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and drove the Turks back from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main blow to Karaudan, which was defended by parts of General Berkhman. But here, too, the furious onslaught of the Turks was repulsed. Meanwhile, the Russian troops advancing near Sarykamysh on December 22 completely surrounded the 9th Turkish Corps. On December 25, General Yudenich became commander of the Caucasian army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was carried out in a 20-degree cold. Enver Pasha's troops lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and captured. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory near Sarykamysh stopped the Turkish aggression in Transcaucasia and strengthened the positions of the Caucasian army.

Campaign of 1914 War at sea

During this period, the main actions unfolded on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war by shelling Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (which was based on the German battlecruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.

Battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 The German battlecruiser Goeben, under the command of Rear Admiral Souchon, attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships off Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle was reduced to an artillery duel between the "Goeben" and the Russian lead battleship "Evstafiy". Thanks to the well-aimed fire of Russian artillerymen, "Goeben" received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the rest of the Russian ships to join the battle, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (the Goeben was being repaired there until December, and then, having gone out to sea, hit a mine and again stood up for repairs). "Evstafiy" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having checked the fortress of the Black Sea borders of Russia in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active operations near the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the contrary, gradually seized the initiative in sea lanes.

Campaign of 1915 Western Front

By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front not far from the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse of the German Schlieffen plan. “If there had been no casualties from Russia in 1914,” said the English Prime Minister Lloyd George a quarter of a century later (in 1939), “the German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still be in Belgium and France. In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This meant the occupation of East Prussia and the invasion of the Hungarian plain through the Carpathians. However, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means for a simultaneous offensive. During the active military operations of 1914 on the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia, the Russian cadre army was killed. Its loss had to be made up for by a reserve, insufficiently trained contingent. “From that time on,” recalled General A.A. Brusilov, “the regular nature of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained militia army.” Another major problem was the arms crisis, one way or another characteristic of all warring countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition is ten times higher than the calculated ones. Russia, with its underdeveloped industry, was particularly affected by this problem. Domestic factories could only meet the needs of the army by 15-30%. With all the obviousness, the task of urgently restructuring the entire industry on a war footing arose. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was aggravated by poor supplies. Thus, the Russian armed forces entered the New Year with a shortage of weapons and military personnel. This had a fatal effect on the 1915 campaign. The results of the fighting in the east forced the Germans to radically revise the Schlieffen plan.

The main rival of the German leadership now considered Russia. Her troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to send their main forces to the east in order to finish off Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task was facilitated by the possibility of waging a maneuver war in the east (in the west, by that time, a solid positional front had already emerged with a powerful system of fortifications, the breakthrough of which cost huge victims). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region gave Germany an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal attack in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted in a deep coverage from the north (from East Prussia) of the right flank of the Russian troops in Poland. At the same time, Austro-Hungarian troops attacked from the south (from the Carpathian region). The ultimate goal of these "strategic Cannes" was to be the encirclement of the Russian armies in the "Polish bag".

Carpathian battle (1915). It was the first attempt by both sides to implement their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had offensive plans in the Carpathians. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of the Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, was aimed at encircling the Russian troops in Poland. The battle in the Carpathians began on January 7 with the almost simultaneous offensive of the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). There was an oncoming battle, called the "rubber war". Both sides that put pressure on each other had to either go deeper into the Carpathians or retreat. The battles in the snow-capped mountains were distinguished by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to push the left flank of the 8th Army, but they could not break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repulsed their offensive. "While driving around the troops in mountainous positions," he recalled, "I bowed to these heroes, who steadfastly endured the horrendous burden of a winter mountain war with insufficient weapons, having three times the strongest enemy against them." Partial success was achieved only by the 7th Austrian Army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi. In early March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive in the conditions of spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian steeps and overcoming the fierce resistance of the enemy, the Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command deployed new forces to this area. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the Southwestern Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Carpathian battle, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.

Second August operation (1915). Soon after the start of the Carpathian battle, fierce battles broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Belov) and 10th (General Eichhorn) German armies went on the offensive from East Prussia. Their main blow fell on the area of ​​the Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian Army (General Sivere) was located. Having created a numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of the Sievers army and tried to surround it. At the second stage, a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front was envisaged. But due to the resilience of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans failed to completely take it into pincers. Only the 20th Corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repulsed the attacks of the German units in the snowy Augustow forests, preventing them from conducting a further offensive. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overturned the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. "The attempt to break through was sheer madness. But this holy madness is the heroism that showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the time of the assault on Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the assault on Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all sorts of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable at the same time! ”Wrote in those days the German war correspondent R. Brandt. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw most of its forces from the attack by mid-February and took up defensive positions on the Kovno-Osovets line. The North-Western Front held out, and then managed to partially restore the lost positions.

Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out in another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian Army (General Plehve) stood. On February 7, in the Prasnysh area (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Belov). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, who for several days heroically repulsed the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But its staunch defense gave the Russians time to bring up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for the winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, the 1st Siberian Corps of General Pleshkov approached Prasnysh, who attacked the Germans on the move. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians utterly defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on the general offensive, which, after stubborn battles, threw the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. In the meantime, the 10th Army also went on the offensive, which cleared the Augustow forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. Meeting battles near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians exhausted the reserves of the Russian army on the eve of the formidable blow that the Austro-German command was already preparing for it.

Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). Beginning of the Great Retreat. Having failed to push the Russian troops near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement the third option for a breakthrough. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, more than half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. On the 35-kilometer breakthrough section near Gorlice, an attack group was created under the command of General Mackensen. It outnumbered the 3rd Russian Army (General Radko-Dmitriev) standing in this area: in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, the Mackensen group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the buildup of forces in this area, did not provide a timely counterattack. Large reinforcements were sent here belatedly, introduced into battle in parts and quickly perished in battles with superior enemy forces. Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly revealed the problem of lack of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this greatest success of the Germans on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible rumble of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down entire rows of trenches along with their defenders,” recalled General A.I. Denikin, a participant in those events. the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood flowed, the ranks thinned, grave mounds grew ... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire.

The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat of encirclement of Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the Southwestern Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left the whole of Galicia. Thanks to the courageous resistance of Russian soldiers and officers, the Mackensen group was unable to rapidly enter the operational space. In general, its offensive was reduced to "pushing through" the Russian front. He was seriously pushed back to the east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the advance of the Germans from East Prussia created a threat of encirclement of the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called. The great retreat, during which the Russian troops in the spring - summer of 1915 left Galicia, Lithuania, Poland. Meanwhile, Russia's allies were engaged in strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The allied leadership used the respite allotted to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. "We," Lloyd George later admitted, "left Russia to its fate."

Prasnysh and Narew battles (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began the second act of its "strategic Cannes" and struck from the north, from East Prussia, at the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, the 12th German Army (General Galwitz) went on the offensive in the Prasnysh area. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and the 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. The German troops had superiority in the number of personnel (177 thousand against 141 thousand people) and weapons. Especially significant was the superiority in artillery (1256 against 377 guns). After a hurricane of fire and a powerful onslaught, the German units captured the main line of defense. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, and even more so the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians stubbornly defended themselves everywhere, going over to counterattacks in threatened areas. For 6 days of continuous fighting, the soldiers of Galwitz were able to advance 30-35 km. Not even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began a regrouping of forces and pulled up reserves for a new strike. In the battle of Prasnysh, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The steadfastness of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger looming from the north over the Warsaw region forced the Russian command to begin the withdrawal of its armies beyond the Vistula.

Pulling up the reserves, the Germans on July 10 again went on the offensive. The 12th (General Galwitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies participated in the operation. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narew front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. With an almost double superiority in manpower and a fivefold superiority in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narew line. They succeeded in forcing the river in several places, but the Russians with furious counterattacks until the beginning of August did not give the German units the opportunity to expand their bridgeheads. A particularly important role was played by the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The steadfastness of its defenders did not allow the Germans to reach the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. Meanwhile, Russian troops were able to evacuate without hindrance from the Warsaw area. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the Battle of Narew. The Germans also suffered considerable damage. After the July battles, they were unable to continue an active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the Prasnysh and Narew battles saved the Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.

Battle of Vilna (1915). End of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the Northwestern Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to launch a flank counterattack against the advancing German armies from the Kovno (now Kaunas) region. But the Germans preempted this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Kovno positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and surrendered the fortress to the Germans on August 5 (for this he was subsequently sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the troops of the North-Western Front beyond the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive bogged down. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful grouping in the Sventsyan region (north of Vilna) and on August 27 attacked Molodechno from there, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Because of the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilna. However, the Germans failed to capitalize on the success. Their path was blocked by the 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which approached in time, which had the honor of finally stopping the German offensive. Resolutely attacking the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to the Sventsians. By September 19, the Sventsyansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this sector stabilized. The battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great Retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted their offensive forces, the Germans are moving in the east to positional defense. The German plan to defeat the Russian armed forces and withdraw from the war failed. Thanks to the courage of their soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army escaped encirclement. "The Russians escaped from the pincers and achieved a frontal withdrawal in a direction favorable to them," Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, chief of the German General Staff, was forced to state. The front has stabilized on the Riga-Baranovichi-Ternopil line. Three fronts were created here: Northern, Western and Southwestern. From here, the Russians did not retreat until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the biggest losses of the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage to Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.

Campaign1915 Caucasian theater of operations

The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian landing operation on the Bosphorus, which was planned to support the allied forces that landed in Gallipoli, fell through. Under the influence of the successes of the Germans, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.

Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, in the region of Alashkert (Eastern Turkey), the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) went on the offensive. Under the onslaught of superior Turkish forces, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky), who defended this sector, began a retreat to the Russian border. This created a threat of a breakthrough of the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian Army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, who delivered a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish grouping. Fearing encirclement, units of Mahmud Kiamil began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation destroyed Turkey's hopes to seize the strategic initiative in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Hamadan operation (1915). On October 17 - December 3, 1915, Russian troops launched offensive operations in Northern Iran to prevent a possible intervention of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which became more active in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great Retreat of the Russian army. The introduction of Russian troops into Iran was also sought by the British allies, who thereby sought to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran. Having advanced to Hamadan, the Russians defeated the Turkish-Persian detachments (8 thousand people) and liquidated the German-Turkish agents in the country . Thus, a reliable barrier was created against German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army was also eliminated.

Campaign of 1915 War at sea

Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for the Russian fleet. Of the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can single out the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosporus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irben operation (Baltic Sea).

Campaign to the Bosphorus (1915). In the campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915, a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet participated, consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes. On May 2-3, the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the area of ​​the Bosporus, fired at its coastal fortifications. On May 4, the battleship "Rostislav" opened fire on the fortified area of ​​Iniady (northwest of the Bosporus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosporus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battlecruiser "Goeben" and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship "Evstafiy" distinguished himself, which put the "Goeben" out of action with two accurate hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. This campaign to the Bosporus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet in the Black Sea communications. In the future, German submarines posed the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With Bulgaria's entry into the war, the zone of operations of the Black Sea Fleet expanded, covering a large new area in the western part of the sea.

Gotland Fight (1915). This naval battle took place on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer ). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the skirmish, the Germans lost the Albatross minelayer. He was severely injured and thrown onto the Swedish coast, engulfed in flames. There his team was interned. Then there was a cruising battle. It was attended by: from the German side the cruisers "Roon" and "Lübeck", from the Russian side - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, the German ships ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. The Gotlad battle is significant in that for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio intelligence data were used for firing.

Irben operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) tried to break through the Irben Strait to the Gulf of Riga at the end of July to destroy Russian ships in the area and blockade Riga . Here the Germans were opposed by the ships of the Baltic Fleet, led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite the significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to complete the task due to minefields and the successful actions of Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats ("Sivuch"> and "Korean"). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irben operation, the Germans failed to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and switched to defensive actions. In the future, the serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.

Campaign 1916 Western Front

Military failures forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to the defense of private industry was expanding, the activities of which were coordinated by the military-industrial committees (MIC). Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the provision of the front improved by 1916. So, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, various types of guns - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew by 1.4 million people due to additional mobilizations. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for a transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to inflict the main blow on the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous "Verdun meat grinder" began to spin, forcing France to once again turn to its eastern ally for help.

Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, on March 5-17, 1916, the Russian command launched an offensive by the forces of the troops of the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts in the area of ​​​​Lake Naroch (Belarus) and Jakobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. The Russian command set the goal of driving the Germans out of Lithuania, Belarus and pushing them back to the borders of East Prussia, but the preparation time for the offensive had to be sharply reduced due to requests from the Allies to speed it up due to their difficult situation near Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch region was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragoza). For 10 days, she unsuccessfully tried to break through the powerful German fortifications. The lack of heavy artillery and the spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20,000 dead and 65,000 wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here, Russian losses amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage of the Germans amounted to 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, the allies of Russia, since the Germans could not transfer a single division from the east near Verdun. “The Russian offensive,” wrote the French General Joffre, “forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to put all these reserves into action and, in addition, to attract stage troops and transfer entire divisions taken from other sectors.” On the other hand, the defeat near Naroch and Yakobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western fronts. They were never able, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, to carry out successful offensive operations in 1916.

Brusilovsky breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people) began, which was led by General Alexei Alekseevich Brusilov. The Austro-German armies opposing him at that moment numbered 448 thousand people. The breakthrough was carried out by all the armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov applied a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted in alternating active and passive sections of the breakthrough. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate their forces in the threatened areas. The Brusilovsky breakthrough was distinguished by thorough preparation (up to training on exact models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, there was even a special inscription on the charging boxes: "Do not spare the shells!". Artillery preparation in various sectors lasted from 6 to 45 hours. According to the figurative expression of the historian N.N. Yakovlev, on the day the breakthrough began, "the Austrian troops did not see the sunrise. Instead of serene sun rays from the east, death came - thousands of shells turned the inhabited, heavily fortified positions into hell." It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops succeeded to the greatest extent in achieving coordinated actions of infantry and artillery.

Under the cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilovsky method of "rolling attack" was then used by the Allies in breaking through the German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was supposed to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned in the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), to which the main reserves were intended. But the entire offensive of the Western Front was reduced to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group of Woyrsch. Going on the attack after many hours of artillery preparation, the Russians managed to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful, defense in depth (only at the forefront there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire). After the bloody battles that cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of the Woirsh group amounted to 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.

The Stavka was unable to timely shift the task of delivering the main blow to the Southwestern Front, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans launched a counterattack against the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the Southwestern Front in the Kovel region, using the forces of the created group of General Lizingen. But she repulsed the onslaught and on June 22, together with the 3rd Army, finally received as reinforcements, launched a new offensive against Kovel. In July, the main battles unfolded in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport hub) were unsuccessful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians brought reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the gaps that had formed. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.

During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke into the Austro-German defense along its entire length from the Pripyat marshes to the Romanian border and advanced 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to ease the pressure on France and Italy. Under the influence of the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians managed to somewhat push back the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But stubborn attacks on the Kovel direction, which lasted until the beginning of October, ended in vain. Reinforced by that time, the Austro-German units repelled the Russian onslaught. On the whole, despite tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not change the course of the war. They cost Russia huge sacrifices (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.

Campaign of 1916. Caucasian theater of operations

At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by carrying out the Erzrum and Trebizond operations. In them, Russian troops achieved the biggest success in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Erzrum and Trebizond operations (1916). The purpose of these operations was to capture the fortress of Erzrum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for operations against the Russian Transcaucasus. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went on the offensive against Erzrum. The offensive took place in the snow-capped mountains with strong wind and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzrum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in the conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk, but Yudenich nevertheless decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its conduct. On the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzurum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzrum and then began to pursue the Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzrum. During the operation, Russian troops advanced more than 150 km from their borders deep into Turkish territory. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was also ensured by reliable material preparation. The warriors had warm clothes, winter shoes and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of mountain snows. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.

Russian losses amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbite). The damage of the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of ships of the Black Sea Fleet (captain of the 1st rank Rimsky-Korsakov). The sailors supported the ground forces with artillery fire, landings and reinforcements. After stubborn fighting, the Primorsky Detachment (15,000 men) reached the fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River on April 1, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. On April 2, the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan Regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov were the first to cross the stormy cold river. Supported by the fire of the fleet, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced west to Polatkhane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The capture of Eastern Turkey by the Russians was of great political importance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies regarding the future fate of Constantinople and the straits.

Kerind-Kasreshirinskaya operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20 thousand people) carried out a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to assist the English detachment, surrounded by the Turks in Kut-el-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. The Baratov Corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Khanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign through the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison at Kut-el-Amar capitulated. After the capture of Kut-el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the Russian corps, which had been greatly thinned (from heat and disease). At Khaneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad) Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps left the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. East of this Iranian city, the Turkish offensive was stopped.

Erzrindzhan and Ognot operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzrum and Trebizond. On June 13, the 3rd Turkish army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people) went on the offensive from the Erzincan region. The most heated battles broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan regiment was stationed. With his fortitude, he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzrum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamakhatun, and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of the Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. Having suffered a defeat near Erzincan, the Turkish command assigned the task of returning Erzurum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, she went on the offensive in the Erzurum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). Thus, a threat was created to the left flank of the Caucasian army. In response, Yudenich delivered a counterattack to the Turks at Ognot by the forces of General Vorobyov's group. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognot direction, which continued throughout August, the Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go on the defensive. The losses of the Turks amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to seize the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. In the course of two operations, the 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and stopped active operations against the Russians. The Ognot operation was the last major battle of the Russian Caucasian army in the First World War.

Campaign of 1916 War at sea

In the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army, which was defending Riga, with fire, and also sank German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines were also quite successful in this. Of the response actions of the German fleet, one can name the shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This raid, based on insufficient ideas about Russian defense, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation on Russian minefields, 7 out of 11 German destroyers participating in the campaign blew up and sank. None of the fleets during the entire war knew such a case. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transport of troops, landings and fire support of the advancing units. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet continued to block the Bosphorus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also attacked the enemy's sea lanes. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.

Campaign of 1917

By the end of 1916, Russia's strategic position, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained fairly stable. Its army firmly held its positions and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If the Germans were more than 500 km from St. Petersburg, then only 120 km from Paris. However, the internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. Grain harvest decreased by 1.5 times, prices rose, transport went wrong. An unprecedented number of men - 15 million people - were drafted into the army, and the national economy lost a huge number of workers. The scale of human losses has also changed. On average, every month the country lost as many soldiers at the front as in the whole years of past wars. All this demanded from the people an unprecedented exertion of strength. However, not all of society bore the burden of the war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, placing military orders at private factories brought huge profits. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed to inflate prices. It was widely practiced to evade the front with the help of a device in the rear organizations. In general, the problems of the rear, its correct and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places in Russia in the First World War. All this created an increase in social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war with lightning speed, World War I became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in terms of the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages to a large extent depended on the mood of the nation, firm and skillful leadership.

In this regard, Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere was there such an irresponsible split at the top of society. Representatives of the State Duma, the aristocracy, the generals, the left parties, the liberal intelligentsia and the circles of the bourgeoisie associated with it expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious end. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, who failed to restore proper order in the rear in wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, were helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which had become a hostage of this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus to the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, which deprived the officers of disciplinary power over the soldiers. As a result, discipline fell in the units and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. The officer corps, which became the first victim of the soldiers' discontent, suffered greatly. The purge of the senior command staff was carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army increasingly lost its combat effectiveness. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position by successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by Minister of War Alexander Kerensky.

June Offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The attack was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was propagandistic in nature and aimed to raise the prestige of the new government. At first, the Russians were successful, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). She broke through the front and moved forward 50 km, taking the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the larger troops of the Southwestern Front could not be reached. Their pressure quickly subsided under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the increased resistance of the Austro-German troops. In early July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the South-Western Front were defeated and were thrown back far to the east of their initial lines, to the state border. The offensive actions in July 1917 of the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts were also associated with the June offensive. The offensive in Romania, near Mareshtami, developed successfully, but was stopped by order of Kerensky under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jakobstadt completely failed. The total loss of the Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. A significant role in their failure was played by political events that had a corrupting effect on the troops. "These were no longer the former Russians," German General Ludendorff recalled those battles. The defeats of the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and aggravated the internal political situation in the country.

Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June - July, the Germans on August 19-24, 1917, carried out an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Gutierre) in order to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian Army (General Parsky). On August 19, the German troops went on the offensive. By noon, they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go to the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where, on the occasion of this celebration, the German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (of which 8 thousand prisoners). German damage - 4 thousand people. The defeat at Riga caused an aggravation of the internal political crisis in the country.

Moonsund operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy the Russian naval forces there. To do this, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. For its implementation, they allocated the Naval Special Purpose Detachment, consisting of 300 ships of various classes (including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. For the landing on the Moonsund Islands, which closed the entrance to the Gulf of Riga, the 23rd reserve corps of General von Caten (25 thousand people) was intended. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the heroically fought battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom. Despite the great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which retreated in an organized manner to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron's path to Petrograd. The battle for the Moonsund Archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and adequately completed their participation in the First World War.

Brest-Litovsk truce (1917). Peace of Brest (1918)

In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who were in favor of an early conclusion of peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, an armistice was concluded between the Bolshevik government and the German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Significant territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of Finland and Ukraine that gained independence, as well as from the districts of Ardagan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk pushed it back in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). In addition, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy, establish favorable customs duties for Germany, and also pay the German side a significant indemnity (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a severe defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks assumed historical responsibility for it. But in many ways, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk only fixed the situation in which the country found itself, brought to collapse by the war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic States, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. In World War I, the number of deaths in the Russian army amounted to 1.7 million people. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia 25 billion dollars. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.

Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Russia to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

WORLD WAR I
(July 28, 1914 - November 11, 1918), the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. About 73.5 million people were mobilized; 9.5 million of them were killed and died from wounds, more than 20 million were injured, 3.5 million were left crippled.
Main reasons. The search for the causes of the war leads to 1871, when the process of unification of Germany was completed and the hegemony of Prussia was consolidated in the German Empire. Under Chancellor O. von Bismarck, who sought to revive the system of alliances, the foreign policy of the German government was determined by the desire to achieve Germany's dominant position in Europe. To deprive France of the opportunity to avenge the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war, Bismarck tried to link Russia and Austria-Hungary with Germany by secret agreements (1873). However, Russia came out in support of France, and the Union of the Three Emperors fell apart. In 1882, Bismarck strengthened Germany's positions by creating the Tripartite Alliance, which united Austria-Hungary, Italy and Germany. By 1890, Germany came to the fore in European diplomacy. France emerged from diplomatic isolation in 1891-1893. Taking advantage of the cooling of relations between Russia and Germany, as well as Russia's need for new capital, she concluded a military convention and an alliance treaty with Russia. The Russian-French alliance was supposed to serve as a counterbalance to the Triple Alliance. Great Britain has so far stood aloof from rivalry on the continent, but the pressure of political and economic circumstances eventually forced her to make her choice. The British could not but be disturbed by the nationalist sentiments prevailing in Germany, its aggressive colonial policy, rapid industrial expansion and, mainly, the buildup of the power of the navy. A series of relatively quick diplomatic maneuvers led to the elimination of differences in the positions of France and Great Britain and the conclusion in 1904 of the so-called. "cordial consent" (Entente Cordiale). Obstacles to Anglo-Russian cooperation were overcome, and in 1907 an Anglo-Russian agreement was concluded. Russia became a member of the Entente. Great Britain, France and Russia formed an alliance Triple Entente (Triple Entente) as opposed to the Triple Alliance. Thus, the division of Europe into two armed camps took shape. One of the causes of the war was the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. In formulating their interests, the ruling circles of each of the European countries sought to present them as popular aspirations. France hatched plans for the return of the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning their lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate the state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples who inhabited Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of the countries of Central Europe under the leadership of Germany. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany. Tension in international relations was intensified by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908-1909; finally, the Balkan wars of 1912-1913. Great Britain and France supported Italy's interests in North Africa and thereby weakened her commitment to the Triple Alliance so much that Germany could hardly count on Italy as an ally in a future war.
July crisis and the beginning of the war. After the Balkan Wars, active nationalist propaganda was launched against the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A group of Serbs, members of the conspiratorial organization "Young Bosnia", decided to kill the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The opportunity for this presented itself when he and his wife went to Bosnia for the teachings of the Austro-Hungarian troops. Franz Ferdinand was killed in the city of Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip on June 28, 1914. Intending to start a war against Serbia, Austria-Hungary enlisted the support of Germany. The latter believed that the war would take on a local character if Russia did not defend Serbia. But if she helps Serbia, then Germany will be ready to fulfill its treaty obligations and support Austria-Hungary. In an ultimatum presented to Serbia on July 23, Austria-Hungary demanded that its military formations be allowed into Serbian territory in order to prevent hostile actions together with Serbian forces. The answer to the ultimatum was given within the agreed 48-hour period, but it did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and on July 28 it declared war on Serbia. SD Sazonov, Minister of Foreign Affairs of Russia, openly spoke out against Austria-Hungary, having received assurances of support from French President R. Poincaré. On July 30, Russia announced a general mobilization; Germany used this occasion to declare war on Russia on August 1, and on France on August 3. Britain's position remained uncertain due to its treaty obligations to protect Belgian neutrality. In 1839, and then during the Franco-Prussian War, Great Britain, Prussia and France provided this country with collective guarantees of neutrality. After the Germans invaded Belgium on August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany. Now all the great powers of Europe were drawn into the war. Together with them, their dominions and colonies were involved in the war. The war can be divided into three periods. During the first period (1914-1916), the Central Powers achieved superiority on land, while the Allies dominated the sea. The situation seemed to be a stalemate. This period ended with negotiations on a mutually acceptable peace, but each side still hoped for victory. In the next period (1917), two events occurred that led to an imbalance of power: the first was the entry into the war of the United States on the side of the Entente, the second was the revolution in Russia and its exit from the war. The third period (1918) began with the last major advance of the Central Powers in the west. The failure of this offensive was followed by revolutions in Austria-Hungary and Germany and the surrender of the Central Powers.
First period. Allied forces initially included Russia, France, Great Britain, Serbia, Montenegro and Belgium and enjoyed overwhelming naval superiority. The Entente had 316 cruisers, while the Germans and Austrians had 62. But the latter found a powerful countermeasure - submarines. By the beginning of the war, the armies of the Central Powers numbered 6.1 million people; Entente army - 10.1 million people. The Central Powers had an advantage in internal communications, which allowed them to quickly transfer troops and equipment from one front to another. In the long term, the Entente countries had superior resources of raw materials and food, especially since the British fleet paralyzed Germany's ties with overseas countries, from where before the war German enterprises received copper, tin and nickel. Thus, in the event of a protracted war, the Entente could count on victory. Germany, knowing this, relied on a lightning war - "blitzkrieg". The Germans put into action the Schlieffen plan, which was supposed to ensure a rapid success in the West with a large offensive against France through Belgium. After the defeat of France, Germany, together with Austria-Hungary, hoped, by transferring the liberated troops, to strike a decisive blow in the East. But this plan was not carried out. One of the main reasons for his failure was the sending of part of the German divisions to Lorraine in order to block the enemy's invasion of southern Germany. On the night of August 4, the Germans invaded Belgian territory. It took them several days to break the resistance of the defenders of the fortified areas of Namur and Liège, which blocked the path to Brussels, but thanks to this delay, the British transported almost 90,000 expeditionary force across the English Channel to France (August 9-17). The French, on the other hand, gained time to form 5 armies, which held back the German advance. Nevertheless, on August 20, the German army occupied Brussels, then forced the British to leave Mons (August 23), and on September 3, the army of General A. von Kluk was 40 km from Paris. Continuing the offensive, the Germans crossed the Marne River and on September 5 stopped along the Paris-Verdun line. The commander of the French forces, General J. Joffre, having formed two new armies from the reserves, decided to go on the counteroffensive. The first battle on the Marne began on 5 and ended on 12 September. It was attended by 6 Anglo-French and 5 German armies. The Germans were defeated. One of the reasons for their defeat was the absence of several divisions on the right flank, which had to be transferred to the eastern front. The French advance on the weakened right flank made it inevitable that the German armies would retreat northward to the line of the Aisne River. The battles in Flanders on the rivers Yser and Ypres on October 15 - November 20 were also unsuccessful for the Germans. As a result, the main ports on the English Channel remained in the hands of the Allies, which ensured communication between France and England. Paris was saved and the Entente countries got time to mobilize resources. The war in the west took on a positional character; Germany's hopes of defeating and withdrawing France from the war turned out to be untenable. The opposition followed a line running south from Newport and Ypres in Belgium to Compiègne and Soissons, then east around Verdun and south to the salient near Saint-Miyel, and then southeast to the Swiss frontier. Along this line of trenches and barbed wire, approx. 970 km trench war was fought for four years. Until March 1918, any, even minor changes in the front line were achieved at the cost of huge losses on both sides. Hopes remained that on the Eastern Front the Russians would be able to crush the armies of the Central Powers bloc. On August 17, Russian troops entered East Prussia and began to push the Germans to Koenigsberg. The German generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff were entrusted with directing the counteroffensive. Taking advantage of the mistakes of the Russian command, the Germans managed to drive a "wedge" between the two Russian armies, defeat them on August 26-30 near Tannenberg and force them out of East Prussia. Austria-Hungary did not act so successfully, abandoning the intention to quickly defeat Serbia and concentrating large forces between the Vistula and the Dniester. But the Russians launched an offensive in a southerly direction, broke through the defenses of the Austro-Hungarian troops and, having captured several thousand people, occupied the Austrian province of Galicia and part of Poland. The advance of the Russian troops posed a threat to Silesia and Poznan, important industrial regions for Germany. Germany was forced to transfer additional forces from France. But an acute shortage of ammunition and food stopped the advance of the Russian troops. The offensive cost Russia huge losses, but undermined the power of Austria-Hungary and forced Germany to keep significant forces on the Eastern Front. As early as August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany. In October 1914, Turkey entered the war on the side of the bloc of the Central Powers. With the outbreak of war, Italy, a member of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on the grounds that neither Germany nor Austria-Hungary had been attacked. But at the secret London talks in March-May 1915, the Entente countries promised to satisfy the territorial claims of Italy in the course of the post-war peace settlement if Italy came out on their side. On May 23, 1915, Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany. On the western front, the British were defeated in the second battle of Ypres. Here, during the battles that lasted for a month (April 22 - May 25, 1915), chemical weapons were used for the first time. After that, poison gases (chlorine, phosgene, and later mustard gas) began to be used by both warring parties. The large-scale Dardanelles landing operation, a naval expedition that the Entente countries equipped in early 1915 with the aim of taking Constantinople, opening the Dardanelles and Bosporus for communication with Russia through the Black Sea, withdrawing Turkey from the war and attracting the Balkan states to the side of the allies, also ended in defeat. On the Eastern Front, by the end of 1915, German and Austro-Hungarian troops had ousted the Russians from almost all of Galicia and from most of the territory of Russian Poland. But it was not possible to force Russia to a separate peace. In October 1915 Bulgaria declared war on Serbia, after which the Central Powers, together with a new Balkan ally, crossed the borders of Serbia, Montenegro and Albania. Having captured Romania and covered the Balkan flank, they turned against Italy.

War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lanes open for US merchant ships. The German colonies were captured, and the trade of the Germans through the sea routes was suppressed. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine - was blocked in their ports. Only occasionally did small fleets come out to attack British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war, only one major naval battle took place - when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British near the Danish coast of Jutland. The battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 led to heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, approx. 6,800 killed, captured and wounded; Germans who considered themselves winners - 11 ships and approx. 3100 people killed and wounded. Nevertheless, the British forced the German fleet to withdraw to Kiel, where it was effectively blockaded. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas. Having occupied a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off the Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered "military contraband" to other neutral countries - the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could be delivered to Germany. However, the warring countries usually did not bind themselves to the observance of international law, and Great Britain so expanded the list of goods considered contraband that in fact nothing passed through its barriers in the North Sea. The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Its only effective means at sea remained the submarine fleet, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to save the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships. On February 18, 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamer Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President Wilson protested, the US and Germany exchanged sharp diplomatic notes.
Verdun and the Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and seek a way out of the deadlock in action on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut-el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to ask for peace. The key point of the French defense was the ancient fortress of Verdun. After an artillery bombardment of unprecedented power, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans slowly advanced until the beginning of July, but they did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun "meat grinder" clearly did not justify the calculations of the German command. Operations on the Eastern and Southwestern Fronts were of great importance during the spring and summer of 1916. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, holding 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive on the Southwestern Front. During the fighting under the command of A.A. Brusilov, it was possible to carry out a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period of trench warfare, the front was broken through. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To relieve pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River, near Bapaume. For four months - until November - there were incessant attacks. Anglo-French troops, having lost approx. 800 thousand people were never able to break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.
Basis for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century completely changed the way of warfare. The length of the fronts increased significantly, the armies fought on fortified lines and attacked from the trenches, machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth inhabitant of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries, there was almost no room for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to the titanic efforts aimed at maintaining the military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, according to various estimates, ranged from 208 to 359 billion dollars. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the right moment had come to start peace negotiations.
Second period.
On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers asked the United States to send a note to the Allies with a proposal to start peace negotiations. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made to break up the coalition. In addition, she did not want to talk about a world that would not provide for the payment of reparations and the recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and December 18, 1916 turned to the warring countries with a request to determine mutually acceptable peace terms. As early as December 12, 1916, Germany proposed to convene a peace conference. The civil authorities of Germany were clearly striving for peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their terms: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe. The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take seriously the idea of ​​peace negotiations. Germany intended to take part in a peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of her martial law. The case ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain laid claim to the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to receive Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all the allies.
US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - like the Irish-Americans who were hostile to England, and the German-Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens leaned more and more on the side of the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, and above all the propaganda of the Entente countries and the German submarine war. On January 22, 1917, President Wilson presented in the Senate terms of peace acceptable to the United States. The main one was reduced to the demand for "peace without victory", i.e. without annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of the equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace is made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, then a world organization of states can be created that guarantees security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unlimited submarine warfare in order to disrupt enemy communications. Submarines blocked the supply lines of the Entente and put the allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility towards Germany among Americans, as the blockade of Europe from the west boded ill for the United States. In the event of a victory, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean. Along with the noted circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to the war on the side of the allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly connected with the countries of the Entente, since military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred on by plans to develop combat training programs. The anti-German sentiments of the North Americans increased even more after the publication on March 1, 1917 of Zimmermann's secret dispatch of January 16, 1917, which was intercepted by British intelligence and handed over to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmerman offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it would support Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States reached such a pitch that on April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany.
Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The provisional government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was concluded. Russia gave up its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. Ardagan, Kars and Batum went to Turkey; huge concessions were made to Germany and Austria. In total, Russia lost approx. 1 million sq. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.
Third period.
The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then her withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of the offensive. The allies, not knowing where the blow would come from, were forced to strengthen their positions along the entire front. American help was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatism grew with threatening force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.
German offensive 1918. On a foggy morning on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on the British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the united Anglo-French front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance. On May 27, the Germans launched a powerful offensive against the French in the south, pushing them back to Château-Thierry. The situation of 1914 was repeated: the Germans reached the Marne River, just 60 km from Paris. However, the offensive cost Germany heavy losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shattered. The Allies were able to neutralize the German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany. Soon long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France. On July 15, 1918, the Germans made their last attempt to break through at Château-Thierry. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to leave Reims, which, in turn, could lead to the retreat of the allies along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, the German troops advanced, but not as fast as expected.
The last offensive of the allies. On July 18, 1918, a counterattack by American and French troops began to relieve pressure on Château-Thierry. At first they advanced with difficulty, but on August 2 they took Soissons. In the battle of Amiens on August 8, the German troops suffered a heavy defeat, and this undermined their morale. Earlier, German Chancellor Prince von Gertling believed that the Allies would sue for peace by September. “We hoped to take Paris by the end of July,” he recalled. “So we thought on the fifteenth of July. And on the eighteenth, even the most optimistic among us realized that everything was lost.” Some military men convinced Kaiser Wilhelm II that the war was lost, but Ludendorff refused to admit defeat. The Allied advance began on other fronts as well. On June 20-26, the Austro-Hungarian troops were driven back across the Piave River, their losses amounted to 150 thousand people. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the defection of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered the last of their forces to contain the expected invasion of Hungary. The way to Germany was open. Tanks and massive artillery shelling became important factors in the offensive. In early August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called August 8 - the beginning of the battle of Amiens - "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight. By the end of September, even Ludendorff was ready to surrender. After the September offensive of the Entente on the Solonik front, Bulgaria signed a truce on September 29. A month later, Turkey capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary. For peace negotiations in Germany, a moderate government was formed, headed by Prince Max of Baden, who already on October 5, 1918, invited President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. The Italian cavalry and armored vehicles made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters in Vittorio Veneto, the city that gave the battle its name. On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918, he agreed to a peace on any terms.
Revolution in Germany. On October 29, the Kaiser secretly left Berlin and headed for the General Staff, feeling safe only under the protection of the army. On the same day, in the port of Kiel, a team of two warships broke out of obedience and refused to go to sea on a combat mission. By November 4, Kiel came under the control of the rebellious sailors. 40,000 armed men intended to establish councils of soldiers' and sailors' deputies on the Russian model in northern Germany. By November 6, the rebels took power in Lübeck, Hamburg and Bremen. Meanwhile, the Supreme Allied Commander, General Foch, announced that he was ready to receive representatives of the German government and discuss with them the terms of a truce. The Kaiser was informed that the army was no longer under his command. On November 9, he abdicated and a republic was proclaimed. The next day, the German emperor fled to the Netherlands, where he lived in exile until his death (d. 1941). On November 11, at the Retonde station in the Compiègne forest (France), the German delegation signed the Compiègne truce. The Germans were ordered to liberate the occupied territories within two weeks, including Alsace and Lorraine, the left bank of the Rhine and the bridgeheads in Mainz, Koblenz and Cologne; establish a neutral zone on the right bank of the Rhine; transfer to the Allies 5,000 heavy and field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aircraft, 5,000 steam locomotives, 150,000 railway wagons, 5,000 vehicles; immediately release all prisoners. The naval forces were to surrender all submarines and almost the entire surface fleet and return all Allied merchant ships captured by Germany. The political provisions of the treaty provided for the denunciation of the Brest-Litovsk and Bucharest peace treaties; financial - the payment of reparations for the destruction and the return of valuables. The Germans tried to negotiate a truce based on Wilson's Fourteen Points, which they believed could serve as a provisional basis for a "peace without victory." The terms of the armistice demanded almost unconditional surrender. The Allies dictated their terms to a bloodless Germany.
The conclusion of the world. A peace conference was held in 1919 in Paris; during the sessions, agreements on five peace treaties were determined. After its completion, the following were signed: 1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany on June 28, 1919; 2) Saint-Germain peace treaty with Austria on September 10, 1919; 3) Neuilly peace treaty with Bulgaria November 27, 1919; 4) Trianon peace treaty with Hungary on June 4, 1920; 5) Sevres Peace Treaty with Turkey on August 20, 1920. Subsequently, according to the Lausanne Treaty on July 24, 1923, amendments were made to the Sevres Treaty. At the peace conference in Paris, 32 states were represented. Each delegation had its own staff of specialists who provided information on the geographical, historical and economic situation of those countries on which decisions were made. After Orlando left the internal council, dissatisfied with the solution of the problem of territories in the Adriatic, the "big three" - Wilson, Clemenceau and Lloyd George - became the main architect of the post-war world. Wilson compromised on several important points in order to achieve the main goal - the creation of the League of Nations. He agreed with the disarmament of only the Central Powers, although he initially insisted on general disarmament. The size of the German army was limited and was supposed to be no more than 115,000 people; universal military service was abolished; The German armed forces were to be recruited from volunteers with a service life of 12 years for soldiers and up to 45 years for officers. Germany was forbidden to have combat aircraft and submarines. Similar conditions were contained in the peace treaties signed with Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. Between Clemenceau and Wilson unfolded a fierce discussion on the status of the left bank of the Rhine. The French, for security reasons, intended to annex the area with its powerful coal mines and industry and create an autonomous Rhineland. France's plan ran counter to the proposals of Wilson, who opposed annexations and advocated the self-determination of nations. A compromise was reached after Wilson agreed to sign free military treaties with France and Great Britain, under which the United States and Great Britain pledged to support France in the event of a German attack. The following decision was made: the left bank of the Rhine and the 50-kilometer strip on the right bank are demilitarized, but remain part of Germany and under its sovereignty. The Allies occupied a number of points in this zone for a period of 15 years. Coal deposits, known as the Saar basin, also passed into the possession of France for 15 years; the Saarland itself came under the control of the Commission of the League of Nations. After a 15-year period, a plebiscite was envisaged on the question of the state ownership of this territory. Italy got Trentino, Trieste and most of Istria, but not the island of Fiume. Nevertheless, Italian extremists captured Fiume. Italy and the newly created state of Yugoslavia were given the right to decide for themselves the issue of disputed territories. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany lost its colonial possessions. Great Britain acquired German East Africa and the western part of German Cameroon and Togo, the British dominions - the Union of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand - were transferred to South-West Africa, the north-eastern regions of New Guinea with the adjacent archipelago and the Samoa Islands. France got most of the German Togo and the eastern part of Cameroon. Japan received the German-owned Marshall, Mariana and Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean and the port of Qingdao in China. Secret treaties among the victorious powers also assumed the division of the Ottoman Empire, but after the uprising of the Turks, led by Mustafa Kemal, the allies agreed to revise their demands. The new Treaty of Lausanne canceled the Treaty of Sevres and allowed Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Turkey took back Armenia. Syria passed to France; Great Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan and Palestine; the Dodecanese islands in the Aegean were ceded to Italy; the Arab territory of the Hijaz on the Red Sea coast was to gain independence. Violations of the principle of self-determination of nations caused Wilson's disagreement, in particular, he sharply protested against the transfer of the Chinese port of Qingdao to Japan. Japan agreed to return this territory to China in the future and fulfilled its promise. Wilson's advisers suggested that, instead of actually handing over the colonies to new owners, they should be allowed to administer as trustees of the League of Nations. Such territories were called "mandatory". Although Lloyd George and Wilson opposed penalties for damages, the fight over the issue ended in victory for the French side. Reparations were imposed on Germany; there was also a lengthy discussion about what should be included in the list of damages presented for payment. At first, the exact amount did not figure, only in 1921 was its size determined - 152 billion marks (33 billion dollars); later this amount was reduced. The principle of self-determination of nations has become a key one for many peoples represented at the peace conference. Poland was restored. The task of defining its boundaries proved to be difficult; of particular importance was the transfer to her of the so-called. "Polish corridor", which gave the country access to the Baltic Sea, separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany. New independent states arose in the Baltic region: Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. By the time the conference was convened, the Austro-Hungarian monarchy had already ceased to exist, and Austria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, and Romania arose in its place; the borders between these states were disputed. The problem turned out to be difficult due to the mixed settlement of different peoples. When establishing the borders of the Czech state, the interests of the Slovaks were hurt. Romania doubled its territory with Transylvania, Bulgarian and Hungarian lands. Yugoslavia was created from the old kingdoms of Serbia and Montenegro, parts of Bulgaria and Croatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Banat as part of Timisoara. Austria remained a small state with a population of 6.5 million Austrian Germans, a third of whom lived in impoverished Vienna. The population of Hungary has greatly decreased and is now approx. 8 million people. At the Paris Conference, an exceptionally stubborn struggle was waged around the idea of ​​creating a League of Nations. According to the plans of Wilson, General J. Smuts, Lord R. Cecil and their other associates, the League of Nations was to become a guarantee of security for all peoples. Finally, the League's charter was adopted, and after lengthy debate, four working groups were formed: the Assembly, the Council of the League of Nations, the Secretariat and the Permanent Court of International Justice. The League of Nations established mechanisms that could be used by its member states to prevent war. Within its framework, various commissions were also formed to solve other problems.
See also LEAGUE OF NATIONS. The League of Nations Agreement represented that part of the Treaty of Versailles that Germany was also asked to sign. But the German delegation refused to sign it on the grounds that the agreement was not in line with Wilson's Fourteen Points. In the end, the German National Assembly recognized the treaty on June 23, 1919. The dramatic signing took place five days later at the Palace of Versailles, where in 1871 Bismarck, ecstatic with victory in the Franco-Prussian War, proclaimed the creation of the German Empire.
LITERATURE
History of the First World War, in 2 vols. M., 1975 Ignatiev A.V. Russia in the imperialist wars of the early 20th century. Russia, the USSR and international conflicts in the first half of the 20th century. M., 1989 On the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the start of the First World War. M., 1990 Pisarev Yu.A. Secrets of the First World War. Russia and Serbia in 1914-1915. M., 1990 Kudrina Yu.V. Returning to the origins of the First World War. Pathways to safety. M., 1994 The First World War: debatable problems of history. M., 1994 World War I: pages of history. Chernivtsi, 1994 Bobyshev S.V., Seregin S.V. The First World War and the prospects for the social development of Russia. Komsomolsk-on-Amur, 1995 World War I: Prologue of the 20th century. M., 1998
Wikipedia

The First World War was the largest military conflict of the first third of the twentieth century and all the wars that took place before that. So when did World War I start and in what year did it end? The date July 28, 1914 is the beginning of the war, and its end is November 11, 1918.

When did World War I start?

The beginning of World War I was the declaration of war by Austria-Hungary on Serbia. The reason for the war was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian crown by the nationalist Gavrilo Princip.

Speaking briefly about the First World War, it should be noted that the main reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the conquest of a place in the sun, the desire to rule the world with the emerging balance of power, the emergence of Anglo-German trade barriers, such a phenomenon in the development of the state as economic imperialism and territorial claims that reached the absolute. one state to another.

On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a Serb of Bosnian origin, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary in Sarajevo. On July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, starting the main war of the first third of the 20th century.

Rice. 1. Gavrilo Princip.

Russia in the First World

Russia announced mobilization, preparing to defend the fraternal people, thereby incurring an ultimatum from Germany to stop the formation of new divisions. On August 1, 1914, Germany officially declared war on Russia.

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In 1914, military operations on the Eastern Front were carried out in Prussia, where the rapid advance of the Russian troops was driven back by the German counteroffensive and the defeat of Samsonov's army. The offensive in Galicia was more effective. On the Western Front, the course of hostilities was more pragmatic. The Germans invaded France through Belgium and moved to Paris at an accelerated pace. Only in the Battle of the Marne was the offensive stopped by the Allied forces and the parties switched to a long trench war, which dragged on until 1915.

In 1915, Germany's former ally, Italy, entered the war on the side of the Entente. Thus was formed the southwestern front. Fighting unfolded in the Alps, giving rise to mountain warfare.

On April 22, 1915, during the Battle of Ypres, German soldiers used chlorine poison gas against the Entente forces, which was the first gas attack in history.

A similar meat grinder happened on the Eastern Front. The defenders of the Osovets fortress in 1916 covered themselves with unfading glory. The German forces, several times superior to the Russian garrison, could not take the fortress after mortar and artillery fire and several assaults. After that, a chemical attack was applied. When the Germans, walking in gas masks through the smoke, believed that there were no survivors left in the fortress, Russian soldiers ran out to them, coughing up blood and wrapped in various rags. The bayonet attack was unexpected. The enemy, many times superior in number, was finally driven back.

Rice. 2. Defenders of Osovets.

In the Battle of the Somme in 1916, tanks were used for the first time by the British during an attack. Despite frequent breakdowns and low accuracy, the attack had more of a psychological effect.

Rice. 3. Tanks on the Somme.

In order to distract the Germans from the breakthrough and draw forces away from Verdun, the Russian troops planned an offensive in Galicia, the result of which was to be the surrender of Austria-Hungary. This is how the “Brusilovsky breakthrough” occurred, which, although it moved the front line tens of kilometers to the west, did not solve the main task.

At sea, a pitched battle took place between the British and the Germans in 1916 near the Jutland peninsula. The German fleet intended to break the naval blockade. More than 200 ships took part in the battle, with a majority of the British, but during the battle there was no winner, and the blockade continued.

On the side of the Entente in 1917, the United States entered, for which entry into the world war on the side of the winner at the very last moment became a classic. The German command from Lans to the River Aisne erected a reinforced concrete "Hindenburg Line", behind which the Germans retreated and switched to a defensive war.

The French General Nivel developed a plan for a counteroffensive on the Western Front. Massive artillery preparation and attacks on different sectors of the front did not give the desired effect.

In 1917, in Russia, during two revolutions, the Bolsheviks came to power, by which the shameful separate Brest peace was concluded. On March 3, 1918, Russia withdrew from the war.
In the spring of 1918, the Germans launched their last "spring offensive". They intended to break through the front and withdraw France from the war, however, the numerical superiority of the Allies did not allow them to do so.

Economic exhaustion and growing dissatisfaction with the war forced Germany to sit down at the negotiating table, during which a peace treaty was concluded at Versailles.

What have we learned?

Despite who fought with whom and who won, history has shown that the end of the First World War did not solve all the problems of mankind. The battle for the redivision of the world did not end, the allies did not finish off Germany and its allies completely, but only economically exhausted, which led to the signing of peace. The Second World War was only a matter of time.

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Until the beginning of the 20th century, mankind experienced a series of wars in which many states took part and large territories were covered. But only this war was called the First World War. It was dictated by the fact that this military conflict has become a global war. Thirty-eight of the fifty-nine independent states that existed at that time were involved in it to one degree or another.

Causes and start of the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, the contradictions between the two European coalitions of European states - the Entente (Russia, England, France) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) - intensified. They were caused by the intensification of the struggle for the redistribution of already divided colonies, spheres of influence and markets. Having begun in Europe, the war gradually acquired a global character, covering the Far and Middle East, Africa, the waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, Arctic and Indian oceans.

The reason for the start of the war was the terrorist attack committed in June 1914 in the city of Sarajevo. Then a member of the Mlada Bosna organization (a Serbian-Bosnian revolutionary organization that fought for the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Greater Serbia) Gavrilo Princip killed the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand.

Austria-Hungary presented Serbia with unacceptable ultimatum terms, which were rejected. As a result, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia stood up for Serbia, true to its obligations. France promised to support Russia.

Germany demanded that Russia stop the mobilization actions, which were continued, as a result, on August 1, she declared war on Russia. Germany declares war on France on August 3, and on Belgium on August 4. Great Britain declares war on Germany and sends troops to help France. August 6 - Austria-Hungary vs. Russia.

In August 1914, Japan declared war on Germany, in November Turkey entered the war on the side of the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc, and in October 1915 Bulgaria entered the war.

Italy, which initially held a position of neutrality, in May 1915, under British diplomatic pressure, declared war on Austria-Hungary, and on August 28, 1916, on Germany.

Main events

1914

		The troops of Austria-Hungary were defeated by the Serbs in the region of the Cera ridge.
		The invasion of troops (1st and 2nd armies) of the Russian North-Western Front into East Prussia. The defeat of the Russian troops in the East Prussian operation: the losses amounted to 245 thousand people, including 135 thousand prisoners. The commander of the 2nd Army, General A.V. Samsonov, committed suicide.
		Russian troops of the Southwestern Front defeated the Austro-Hungarian army in the Battle of Galicia. On September 21, the Przemysl fortress was besieged. Russian troops occupied Galicia. The losses of the Austro-Hungarian troops amounted to 325 thousand people. (including up to 100 thousand prisoners); Russian troops lost 230 thousand people.
		Border battle of French and British troops against the advancing German armies. The allied troops were defeated and were forced to retreat across the Marne River.
		The German troops were defeated in the Battle of Marne and were forced to retreat across the rivers Aisne and Oise.
		Warsaw-Ivangorod (Demblin) defensive-offensive operation of Russian troops against the German-Austrian armies in Poland. The enemy suffered a crushing defeat.
		Battle in Flanders on the rivers Yser and Ypres. The parties switched to positional defense.
		The German squadron of Admiral M. Spee (5 cruisers) defeated the English squadron of Admiral K. Cradock in the Battle of Coronel.
		Battles of Russian and Turkish troops in the Erzurum direction.
		An attempt by German troops to encircle the Russian armies in the Lodz region was repulsed.

1915

	An attempt by German troops to encircle the 10th Russian army in the August operation in East Prussia (Winter battle in Masuria). Russian troops retreated to the Kovno-Osovets line.
	During the Prasnysh operation (Poland), German troops were driven back to the borders of East Prussia.
February March	During the Carpathian operation, the 120,000-strong garrison of Przemysl (Austro-Hungarian troops) capitulated by Russian troops.
	Gorlitsky breakthrough of the German-Austrian troops (General A. Mackensen) on the Southwestern Front. Russian troops left Galicia. On June 3, the German-Austrian troops occupied Przemysl, on June 22 - Lvov. Russian troops lost 500 thousand prisoners.
	The offensive of the German troops in the Baltic. On May 7, Russian troops left Libau. German troops reached Shavli and Kovno (taken on August 9).
Aug. Sept	Sventsyansky breakthrough.
September	British troops defeated by the Turks near Baghdad and besieged in Kut-el-Amar. At the end of the year, the British Corps was transformed into an expeditionary army.

1916

		Erzurum operation of the Russian Caucasian army. The Turkish front was broken through and the Erzurum fortress was taken (February 16). Turkish troops lost about 66 thousand people, including 13 thousand prisoners; Russians - 17 thousand killed and wounded.
	Trebizond operation of the Russian troops. Busy Turkish city of Trebizond.
February-December	Battle of Verdun. Losses of the Anglo-French troops-750 thousand people. German 450 thousand.
	Brusilovsky breakthrough.
July-November	Battle of the Somme. Losses of allied troops 625 thousand, Germans 465 thousand.

1917

	February bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia. The overthrow of the monarchy. Formed Provisional Government.
	The unsuccessful April offensive of the allies ("Nievel massacre"). Losses amounted to 200 thousand people.
	Successful offensive of the Romanian-Russian troops on the Romanian front.
	The offensive of the Russian troops of the Southwestern Front. Unsuccessful.
	During the Riga defensive operation, Russian troops surrendered Riga.
	Moonsund defensive operation of the Russian fleet.
	Great October Socialist Revolution.

1918

	Separate Brest peace of Soviet Russia with Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. Russia renounced sovereignty over Poland, Lithuania, parts of Belarus and Latvia. Russia pledged to withdraw troops from Ukraine, from Finland, Latvia and Estonia and to carry out a complete demobilization of the army and navy. Russia abandoned Kars, Ardagan and Batum in Transcaucasia.
	The offensive of the German troops on the Marne River (the so-called Second Marne). By a counterattack of the allied forces, the German troops were driven back to the Aisne and Vel rivers.
	The Anglo-French armies in the Amiens operation defeated the German troops, who were forced to retreat to the line from which their March offensive began.
	The beginning of the general offensive of the allied forces on the 420th front, from Verdun to the sea. The defense of the German troops was broken through.
	Compiègne truce of the Entente countries with Germany. The surrender of German troops: the cessation of hostilities, the surrender of land and naval weapons by Germany, the withdrawal of troops from the occupied territories.

1919

Treaty of Versailles with Germany. Germany returned Alsace-Lorraine to France (within the borders of 1870); Belgium - the districts of Malmedy and Eupen, as well as the so-called neutral and Prussian parts of Morena; Poland - Poznan, parts of Pomerania and other territories of West Prussia; the city of Danzig (Gdansk) and its district was declared a "free city"; the city of Memel (Klaipeda) was transferred to the jurisdiction of the victorious powers (in February 1923 it was annexed to Lithuania). As a result of the plebiscite, part of Schleswig passed to Denmark in 1920, part of Upper Silesia in 1921 to Poland, the southern part of East Prussia remained with Germany; Czechoslovakia received a small part of the Silesian territory. Saar passed for 15 years under the control of the League of Nations, and after 15 years the fate of the Saar was to be decided by a plebiscite. The coal mines of the Saar were transferred to French ownership. The entire German part of the left bank of the Rhine and a strip of the right bank 50 km wide were subject to demilitarization. Germany recognized the protectorate of France over Morocco and Great Britain over Egypt. In Africa, Tanganyika became a British mandated territory, the Ruanda-Urundi region became a Belgian mandate, the Kyong Triangle (Southeast Africa) was transferred to Portugal (the named territories previously constituted German East Africa), Great Britain and France divided Togo and Cameroon; SA received a mandate for South West Africa. In the Pacific Ocean, the islands belonging to Germany north of the equator went to Japan as mandated territories, German New Guinea to the Australian Union, and Samoa to New Zealand.

The results of the war

The main result of the First World War was huge human losses. In total, more than 10 million people died, with a significant part of the losses being civilians. As a result, hundreds of cities were destroyed, the economies of the participating countries were undermined.

The result of the war was the collapse of four empires - the Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian. Only the British Empire survived.

Literally everything has changed in the world - not only relations between states, but also their inner life. Human life, clothing style, fashion, women's hairstyles, musical tastes, norms of behavior, morality, social psychology, the relationship between the state and society have changed. The First World War led to an unprecedented depreciation of human life and the emergence of a whole class of people who were ready to solve their own and social problems at the cost of violence. Thus ended the period of modern history, and mankind entered another historical epoch.