The leading role in primary school age acquires doctrine.

Learning activities- this is an activity directly aimed at the assimilation of knowledge and skills developed by mankind.

science subjects- These are special items with which you need to learn how to act.

Educational activity is not given to a person from birth, it must be formulated. Therefore, the task of elementary school is to teach the child to learn.

In order for the educational activity to be successful, positive motivation is necessary, that is, the child himself really wants to learn. But the motive and the content of educational activity do not correspond to each other, and over time, the motive loses its strength. Therefore, one of the main tasks of the success of educational activities is the formation of cognitive motivation, which is closely related to the content and methods of learning.

A child entering school does not know how to learn, does not know how to study. In the early days of the school, it is mainly the teacher who works. He sets goals for the children, shows how to complete the task, controls and evaluates the work of the child.

Learning activities - leading activity of the younger student. The leading activity in Soviet child psychology is understood as such an activity in the course of which the formation of the basic mental processes and personality traits takes place, the main neoplasms of age appear (arbitrariness, reflection, self-control, an internal plan of action). Educational activities are carried out throughout the child's education in school. But “one or another activity, according to D. B. Elkonin, “carries out its leading function most fully during the period when it is being formed, formed. The younger school age is the period of the most intensive formation of educational activity.

Learning activities - this is a special type of activity, different, for example, from labor. By changing the material, working with it, a person in the process of labor activity creates a new product. The essence of labor activity lies precisely in the creation of the Product. The essence of educational activity is the appropriation of scientific knowledge. The child, under the guidance of a teacher, begins to operate with scientific concepts.

The purpose of teaching in Soviet psychology is considered not only in terms of acquiring knowledge, but mainly in terms of enrichment, "restructuring" the child's personality. According to D. B. Elkonin, “the result of educational activity, during which the assimilation of scientific concepts takes place, is, first of all, a change in the student himself, his development. In general terms, we can say that this change is the acquisition by the child of new abilities, i.e., new ways of acting with scientific concepts. Thus, learning activity is, first of all, such activity as a result of which changes occur in the student himself. This is an activity of self-change, its product is the changes that have occurred in the course of its implementation in the subject itself. These changes are:

Changes in the level of knowledge, skills, training;

Changes in the level of formation of certain aspects of educational activity;

Changes in mental operations, personality traits, i.e., in the level of general and mental development.

Learning activities - it is a specific form of individuality and activity. It is complex in its structure and requires special formation. Like labor, educational activity is characterized by goals, motives. Like an adult doing work, the student must know what to do, why to do it, how to do it, see his mistakes, control and evaluate himself. A child entering school does not do any of this on his own, that is, he does not have educational activity. In the process of educational activity, a junior student not only acquires knowledge, skills and abilities. but also learns to set learning objectives (goals), find ways to assimilate and apply knowledge, control and evaluate their actions.

Product, the result of the activity of the teaching is the change of the student himself. Educational activity is an activity of self-development, self-change (in the level of knowledge, skills, in the level of general and mental development).

Leading role educational activity is expressed in the fact that it mediates the entire system of relations between the child and society (it is social in meaning, content and form of organization), it forms not only individual mental qualities, but also the personality of the younger student as a whole.

The structure of educational activity according to D.B. Elkonin:

- learning motivation - a system of motives that makes the child learn, gives meaning to educational activities.

- learning task , i.e. a system of tasks during which the child masters the most common methods of action;

- learning activities , those with the help of which the learning task is assimilated, i.e. all the actions that the student does in the lesson ( specific for each subject and general);

- control actions - those actions with the help of which the progress of mastering the learning task is controlled;

- evaluation action - those actions by which we evaluate the success of mastering the learning task.

Question number 20.

Major psychological neoplasms

Junior school age.

Neoplasms of primary school age include memory, perception, will, thinking.

In early childhood, big changes take place in cognitive sphere of the child . Memory acquires a pronounced cognitive character. Area Changes memory related to the fact that the child, firstly, begins to realize a special mnemonic task. He separates this task from every other. Secondly, there is an intensive formation of memorization techniques. From the most primitive methods (repetition, careful long-term consideration of the material) at an older age, the child moves to grouping, comprehending the connections of different parts of the material.

In area perception there is a transition from the involuntary perception of a preschooler to purposeful arbitrary observation of an object that is subject to a specific task. In order for the student to more subtly analyze the qualities of objects, the teacher must carry out special work, teaching him to observe. To do this, the child needs to create a preliminary search image so that the child can see what is needed. If preschoolers were characterized by analyzing perception, then by the end of primary school age, with appropriate training, a synthesizing perception appears.

At school, all activities are voluntary in nature, therefore, they are actively developing will and self-organization. The child begins to develop the ability to self-organize, he masters planning techniques, self-control and self-esteem increase.

The most significant changes can be observed in the area thinking, which becomes abstract and generalized. The transition from visual-figurative to verbal-logical thinking, which was outlined in preschool age, is being completed. There is a development of a new form of generalization based on the essential features of objects and phenomena - theoretical thinking. Thanks to the development of a new level of thinking, a restructuring of all other mental processes takes place, that is, according to D. B. Elkonin, “memory becomes thinking, and perception becomes thinking.” Therefore, it is the restructuring of the entire cognitive sphere in connection with the development of theoretical thinking that constitutes the main content of mental development in primary school age.

By the end of primary school age, elements of labor, artistic, and socially useful activities are formed. Prerequisites are being created for development feelings of adulthood the child thinks that he can do everything like an adult.

Leading type of activity. Solving the main task of development requires a special activity. It is called learning activity. How to characterize learning activities? It is usually said that this is a learning activity. But this is not a sufficient feature. A preschool child also learns knowledge, for example, in a didactic game. At preschool age, assimilation is an indirect product of some other activity. Educational activity is an activity that occurs only at school age, but is not always fully formed and not in all children. Teachers and psychologists often note the disorganization of children, their lack of productive ways of mental work and, as a result of all this, failure, lack of motivation and strong-willed efforts, low self-esteem.

Learning activities are not given in a finished form. When the child comes to school, she is not there yet. Learning activities must be formed. Just as a person must be able to work, he must be able to learn. An extremely important problem is the ability to learn by yourself. The task of elementary school lies in the construction of educational activity - first of all, the child must be taught to learn. The first difficulty lies in the fact that the motive with which the child comes to school is not related to the content of the activity that he must perform at school. The motive and the content of the learning activity do not correspond to each other, so the motive gradually begins to lose its strength, it sometimes does not work even by the beginning of the second grade. The learning process should be built in such a way that its motive is connected with its own, internal content of the subject of assimilation. The motive for socially necessary activity, although it remains as a general motive, but the content that the child is taught at school should encourage learning, D.B. Elkonin. It is necessary to form cognitive motivation.

What is a learning activity? Each activity is characterized by its subject. It seems that the subject of learning activity is a generalized experience of knowledge, differentiated into separate sciences. But what objects are subject to change on the part of the child himself? The paradox of educational activity lies in the fact that, while assimilating knowledge, the child himself does not change anything in this knowledge. For the first time, the subject of changes in educational activity becomes the child himself, the subject himself, carrying out this activity. For the first time, the subject appears for itself as self-changing. Educational activity is such an activity that turns the child on himself, requires reflection, an assessment of "what I was" and "what I have become." The process of its own change stands out for the subject himself as a new object. The most important thing in learning activity is the turn of a person towards himself: whether he has become for himself a changing subject every day, every hour.

What is the structure of learning activities? The structure of educational activities includes:

1. The learning task is what the student must master. By definition, V.V. Davydov, a learning task is such a task that forces the student to look for a common way to solve all problems of this type. So, for example, a child will be asked to find the ratio of two quantities: T? A, provided that T = A - U. When solving such problems, the child first masters the general method, and then applies it to particular problems.

2. Learning action is the changes in the educational material necessary for the student to master it, this is what the student must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying. As shown by V.V. Davydov in a mathematics textbook for the first grade of elementary school, the child must first transform the conditions of the problem in such a way as to discover general relations in the educational material, and then model the distinguished relations, present them in a subject, graphic or letter form. Further transformation of the model will allow the child to study the properties of the object in a "pure" form and build on its basis a system of particular problems that can be solved in a general way.

3. The control action is an indication of whether the student correctly performs the action corresponding to the model. In the process of developing educational activity, the child passes from external control by an adult to self-control, which includes predictive control (before work begins), step-by-step control (during work), and final control (after work is completed).

4. The action of assessment is the determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. In the course of training, assessment moves to the level of self-assessment, which can be adequate and inadequate, global and differentiated, predictive and final.

Although elements of learning took place as early as preschool childhood, for younger schoolchildren, learning activity becomes the leading one. The teaching of the younger schoolchild is aimed at intellectual development, but at the same time it expands the horizons of the child, forms his worldview, and contributes to moral and social development.

. Doctrine- the leading activity of younger schoolchildren, manifested in their purposeful assimilation of social experience, and, accordingly, the formation of social competence

. Today, the issue of the formation of a child's competence is relevant - not only her possession of a certain baggage of knowledge, but the ability to critically comprehend them, use them productively and replenish them independently, boga gachuvat

Learning activity has a standard structure that is characteristic of any activity. At the initial stage of a child's education at school, his main goal is to acquire basic knowledge and develop literacy skills. The specific goals of teaching younger students are determined by the program content of education. It is important to differentiate the goals that the teacher sets and the goals that the student is aware of and accepts in the process of teaching. Practically all first graders in the second half of the school year are more or less clearly aware of the goal that the teacher sets for them. However, the problem is that not all junior schoolchildren, even when they realize the significance of learning, accept the goal set by the teacher; far from all junior schoolchildren, the goal set by the teacher becomes their own method.

. Multiple motives at the same time

The educational activity of younger students is polymotivated. There is also a dynamics of learning motivation during this age period. Thus, many first-graders, who perceive learning at school as a game, are attracted by its accompanying features - school supplies, bells, etc. - here there is an outwardly attributive motivation for learning. Subsequently, cognitive interest becomes relevant as the most effective motive for teaching elementary school students. The study of educational motivation of younger schoolchildren, perfect. LI. Bozhovich, revealed the following types of motives for their teaching:

. Rice 246. Motives for the teaching of younger schoolchildren c. Bozovic

Cognitive motives are activated even in first graders, who usually like to study, read, write, and count. Children recognize the importance of learning as a socially valuable activity. Motivation by the content of educational material takes place as the child's desire to learn new facts, the essence of phenomena, their origin. If a younger student shows interest in the learning process itself, he even experiences pleasure from the hem. Anna of the difficulties of solving impetuous tasks, then the motivation of the procesosomes appears.

The dominant motive for teaching a first-grader is often the desire to occupy a new social status - a schoolchild. Subsequently, the motive is transformed into a sense of duty and

Basically, an assessment from the sign of success (failure) in the cognitive activity of the child turns into a sign that evaluates the personality as a whole

. Sun. Mukhina

. Mental activity of a younger student intellectualize those. thinking becomes its central process. LS. Vygotsky

responsibility is associated with an understanding at an accessible level of the social role of education. The majority of younger students are also characterized by narrow-minded motives- satisfaction of self-esteem, the desire for self-affirmation, attempts to excel in a team of peers. Bozovic. LI i. Matyukhin. MV note the huge role of the motive for obtaining a high score among elementary school students, which occupies the first ranking place among twenty other motivations for learning. These data clearly demonstrate the importance of scoring as a pedagogical toolkit for. The youngest x schoolchildren. According to. Sun. Mukhina, feeling the dependence of the attitude of adults and position in the class on the assessment, the child turns her into a fetish - a sign that determines her place in life in life.

Mastering the content of education requires the formation of new necessary actions in younger students. Full-fledged learning depends on the activation and formation of motor, perceptual, mental, speech, freedom and other actions in students. Mental actions come to the fore already in elementary school, providing awareness of educational tasks, understanding and conscious assimilation of new material, etc. In the process of learning, young schoolchildren master many educational activities. So, the mental and practical actions used by them, reproductive and creative actions appear. In the formation of general subject and special educational actions, priority in a given age period is given first, since it is they who determine the general literacy of a younger student. An important role is played by the child's acquisition of the ability for self-education, which requires the skills of self-control and self-assessment.

Younger students, as a rule, are interested in the teacher's value judgments in the first grade and the scores in grades 2-4. Gradually, younger students form a self-assessment of the results of their teaching. Since self-assessment is a powerful mechanism for self-regulation of a child's progress, its significance in primary school age is very significant.

dangerous problem poor academic performance elementary school students. Since teaching is the leading and subjectively significant activity of younger schoolchildren, chronic failures in it injure the child, lower his self-esteem, first cause depression and disappointment, and then apathy, indifference to learning.

. Rice 247. Typical reasons for low academic performance of junior schoolchildren

Children of primary school age are included in various activities: from playing to sports or art. With the child entering school, the leading activities include educational activities, which acquire special significance at this age stage (according to D.B. Elkonin). Educational activity as an independent develops precisely at this age stage and determines the intellectual development of children of this age.

Learning activities is a concept that is interpreted rather ambiguously. Let's define learning activities as an activity directly aimed at the assimilation of knowledge and skills developed by mankind. Only when a special conscious goal is set to learn something new that one did not know or could not do before, one can speak of a special type of activity - doctrine. The subject of the activity of the doctrine- knowledge and actions as elements of culture, science, existing at first objectively in relation to the student. After teaching, this knowledge becomes his property, i.e. there is a transformation of the subject of activity. The result of the activity of the teaching is the change of the student himself. Educational activity is an activity of self-development, self-change. .

The leading role of educational activity lies in the fact that it indirectly affects the entire system of relations between the younger student and society, in which not only individual mental qualities are formed, but also the personality of the child as a whole. This is facilitated by the social atmosphere of his life. If earlier a child could be called good because he had a smart jacket or a bow, now everyone he meets asks how things are at school, what marks. The family allocates a special time for classes, a special place, they buy what the school requires, the school theme is constantly present in the conversation. .

Everything connected with the lessons becomes a point of growth and development. This is a new level of cognitive processes, and volitional qualities of the individual, the desire to follow the prescribed rules and achieve success, and a new level of self-control and self-esteem. The desire to be in school, the desire to earn the teacher's praise helps not only to accept the school requirements, but also to proudly carry out everything to the smallest detail. .

The structure of educational activity is complex in its structure, and there is still no consensus in educational psychology regarding its main elements.

According to A.U. Vardanyan, G.A. Vardanyan, the structure of educational activities includes:

• educational tasks and actions aimed at their resolution;
• the nature of the emotional coloring of educational activities;
• the purpose of educational activity;
• means (methods, ways) of educational activity;
• the result of educational activity (assimilation of educational material and general methods of action in the studied area of ​​reality);
• The nature of the process of educational activity as the content and sequence of the implementation of its constituent actions.

V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin distinguishes the following components in the structure of educational activity:

• motives;
• learning situations (or tasks);
• educational activities;
• · actions of control and an estimation.

To perform an activity, a certain formation of the motivational sphere is required (as a rule, this is a system of various needs, motives, goals and interests).

In the structure of educational activities, the following are distinguished motives:

• broad social motives (to study in order to be cultural, developed; to take a worthy place, etc.). Broad social motives in primary school age belong to the category known, understood (according to A.N. Leontiev);
• Narrow social motives (orientation towards praise, etc.);
• educational and cognitive motives (for example, the desire to learn something new). But, unfortunately, these motives do not occupy a leading place among children of primary school age.

According to V.V. Davydova, educational activity has a specific content - these are developed forms of human consciousness (scientific, artistic, moral). The subjects of science and culture are theoretical, abstract and require a special attitude towards them. It is the theoretical attitude to reality - the penetration into the inner essence of things and the methods of orientation adequate to this - that is the most important, specific need and motives of educational activity. .

Cognitive interests in children of primary school age are expressed to varying degrees, but they do not occupy a leading place. Maintaining cognitive interest in elementary school is associated with playful and emotional methods of organizing classes, etc. Based on these methods, being distracted by them, it is necessary to form internal motivation, theoretical interest. . It is important here to draw the attention of the child to the process of self-change, to single out the phenomenon of the growth of one's own capabilities and give it value, to turn the student to an assessment of himself. .

The most important component of learning activity is the understanding of learning objectives. learning task- this is not some separate task that the student performs at home or at school, but an ordered system of tasks. The learning task involves mastering the general way of solving a whole class of particular practical problems. The main thing here is to overcome the student's orientation towards obtaining the correct result when solving a specific problem and form an orientation towards the correct application of the learned general method of action. .

The next component of learning activity is the student's performance of learning activities. Learning activities These are teaching methods. Some of them are of a general nature and are used in the study of various academic subjects, while others are subject-specific. .

Of great importance, according to V.V. Davydov, has the performance of control and evaluation actions by the student. Function control with is to monitor the correctness and completeness of the implementation of educational actions, and the function estimates- determine how fully the given method of action has been mastered, i.e. Evaluation refers both to the performance of a specific learning task and to learning activities in general. .

A complete learning activity includes the following skills:

• own and hold the task;
• to independently find and assimilate common ways of solving problems;
• adequately assess and control themselves and their activities;
• possess reflection and self-regulation of activity;
• use the laws of logical thinking;
• Own and use different forms of communication, including theoretical ones;
• Has a high level of independent creative activity. .

L.I. Bozhovich studied the role of mental processes for the development of the personality of a child of primary school age: at this age, the child becomes both at school and at home a member of a real work collective, which is the main condition for the formation of his personality. . The transition to the systematic assimilation of knowledge at school is a fundamental fact that influences the formation of the personality of a younger student and gradually restructures his cognitive processes. The educational activity of younger schoolchildren gradually changes their attitude to reality, sets theoretical educational and cognitive tasks for them, makes them penetrate beyond the appearance of things into their inner essence. In educational activity, the abstract logical thinking of the child's personality and the higher forms of his perception and memory are developed and improved. .

The formation of educational activity occurs in the joint activity of the student with the teacher . At first, the teacher does everything: he sets the task, shows the standard ways of performing educational actions and controls the process of their implementation, evaluates the performance of the educational task by the student. Gradually, the teacher includes the student in the structure of educational activities for the independent implementation of its individual components.

Only the formation of all components of educational activity and its independent implementation can be a guarantee that the teaching will fulfill its function as a leading activity.

Going to school is a turning point in a child's life. The leading activity is changing. Now it becomes a learning activity. The educational activity of the child develops just as gradually, through the experience of entering it, like all previous activities (manipulative, objective, play).

Educational activity is one of the main types of human activity, specifically aimed at mastering the methods of objective and cognitive actions, generalized in the form of theoretical knowledge.

Assimilation (learning) is an essential characteristic of learning activity, and yet these are different phenomena.

Assimilation is a process that takes place in any activity, and learning activity is a type of activity, a special form of social activity of an individual.

Educational activity performs a dual function: being a form of activity of the individual, it is a condition and means of his mental development, providing him with the assimilation of theoretical knowledge and thereby the development of his specific abilities, which are crystallized in this knowledge.

At a certain stage of mental development (at primary school age), educational activity plays a leading role in the formation of personality.

As a form of specially regulated cooperation between a child and adults, learning activity is one of the the main means of including the younger generations in the system of social relations, into open collective activity, during which the values ​​and norms that underlie any collective activity are assimilated.

The essence of learning activity is to solve educational problems, main difference which is that their goal and result is to change the acting subject itself, which consists in mastering certain modes of action, and not in changing the objects with which the subject acts.

Thus, learning activity is an activity aimed at the student himself. The child learns not only knowledge, but also how to carry out the assimilation of this knowledge.

Learning activity has its own subject - this.person. In the case of the educational activity of a younger student, this is a child.

Reflecting, he compares his former self and his present self. Own change is traced and revealed at the achievement level. The most important thing in learning is reflection on oneself keeping track of new achievements and changes that have taken place.

“I didn’t know how” - “I can”, “couldn’t” - “I can”, “was” - “became”. These are the key assessments of the result of an in-depth reflection of one's achievements and changes. It is important that the child becomes for himself at the same time the subject of change and the subject that carries out this change in himself.

5.1. The subject and tasks of child psychology. Communication of child psychology with other sciences. The concept of growth and development. The nature of childhood

Child psychology- a science that studies the features of the mental life of a child and the patterns of mental development in childhood.

Subject child psychology is the study of patterns of mental development of the child. Basic task is a description and explanation of the characteristics of the child's mental development at each age stage.

Child psychology, being an independent fundamental science, has close and mutual ties with other disciplines: on the one hand, it is based on philosophy, cultural studies, developmental psychology, and general psychology; on the other hand, it is the scientific foundation for educational psychology, pedagogy and practical psychology.

Growth- is a quantitative change or improvement of any function; the phenomenon of growth, that is, quantitative accumulation.

Development- these are qualitative changes, the emergence of mental neoplasms.

Childhood- the period of the most intensive human development. The nature of childhood. Childhood is the period from the newborn to full social and, consequently, psychological maturity. This is the period of the child becoming a full-fledged member of human society.

Stages of human childhood are a product of history, and they are just as subject to change as they were thousands of years ago. The studies of P. P. Blonsky, L. S. Vygotsky, D. B. Elkonin, ethnographic data on the development of children in various societies showed that childhood,

Being a socio-cultural phenomenon, it has a specific historical character and has its own history of development.

Data on how childhood passes among peoples at different stages of social development show that the lower this stage, the earlier the growing person is included in adult types of labor. In a primitive culture, children literally from the moment they start walking work together with adults. Childhood appeared when the work of adults became inaccessible to the child and began to require a great deal of preliminary preparation. It was singled out by mankind as period of preparation for life and adult activity, during which the child had to acquire the necessary knowledge, skills, mental qualities and personality traits. And each age stage is called upon to play its own special role in this preparation. Adults organize the lives of children, build upbringing in accordance with the place assigned to the child by society.

5. 2. Mental development of the child: prerequisites, factors,