The term " language" has two meanings: 1) a certain system of signs 2) a specific ethnic language that exists and functions in a certain society (at a certain time and in a certain space).

Distinguish languages natural and artificial(Esperanto, Volapuk, programming languages, mathematics and other sciences).

Scientists count from 2,500 to 5,000 languages ​​in the world, this discrepancy is due to the fact that many languages ​​do not have a written language, as well as developed dialect features. Most common languages: Chinese, English, Indian, Spanish, French, Russian. Languages ​​may fall out of use, in which case they are called dead, such as Maya. The following languages ​​are now used: Latin (medicine, biology, the Catholic Church), Old Church Slavonic is the official language of the Russian Orthodox Church, Arabic (Islam - worship). In the history of mankind there is a single example of the revival of the language, which later became the state language - HEBREW. In addition, humanity has always sought to create an artificial language. The main goal is to create a universal unified language. There are artificial languages. Volapyuk - ; Esperanto - at the end of the 19th century, was created by a Polish doctor on the basis of Germanic (English, French) and Slavic (Polish, Czech) languages. And he increased his vocabulary from 1000 words at creation to 16000 now.

Any system is a combination of elements that are interdependent on each other and form integrity, unity. The language system is a hierarchy of the following units:

Sound (phoneme);

Morpheme (prefix, root, suffix, ending);

Phrase (free or stable);

Sentence (simple, complex);

Language is inherently multifunctional.

The main function of the language is communicative: language serves as a means of communication, a means of exchanging information.

The second most important function of language is cognitive, or cognitive: with the help of language, a person forms ideas about the surrounding reality and himself. Language is the most important tool in the formation of human thinking and the thinking of society (currently they talk about language as the most important means of manipulating the consciousness of the individual and society in the media).

By helping to create, store and transmit information, language performs in this way accumulative function.

No less significant for human interaction emotional(a person, resorting to the help of language, tries to express his feelings and emotions, express his inner world), phatic(contact-setting) and affecting functions.

In literature, it appears poetic(aesthetic) function of language.

The language performs these functions only when it is used in the process of speech to create an utterance. In this way, speech is a language in action (it is no accident that they speak of a “flow of speech”), the implementation of a particular language.

Being different concepts, language and speech are, nevertheless, closely related: speech practically cannot do without verbal language, and language functions only in speech.

1. If the language as a system, for all its dynamics, is still fundamentally stable. (changes affect mainly the layer of vocabulary), then speech is mobile, dynamic, variable.

2. Speech is unique, relevant, unfolds in time (oral) and in space (written). Speech, drawing funds from the language, is still not limited only to verbal signs: colloquial speech is conditioned by the situation, extralinguistic and paralinguistic factors.

3. Speech reflects the experience of the speaker, his state.

In direct communication, not only language in its speech forms is usually used, but also additional means of non-verbal (non-verbal, bodily) properties: gesticulation and facial expressions.

Gesticulation - significant body movements (head, hands in the first place). Such, for example, as a pointing hand gesture, a bewildered shrug of the shoulders, consent expressed by a nod of the head, etc. The following types of gestures are distinguished: pointing, pictorial, symbolic, emotional, rhythmic, mechanical.

Mimic - significant movements of the muscles of the face, expressing internal mental states or attitudes towards the speech of the interlocutor. A smile can mean location, raised eyebrows - surprise, frowning - discontent, irritation, etc.

In the overwhelming majority of cases, facial expressions and gestures only accompany sound speech, giving it additional emotions or semantic shades. But there are so many of these shades that non-verbal means usually overlap verbal information in quantity (55% of non-verbal - 45% of verbal or 65-35%). About a million non-verbal signals were recorded (with the help of hands - up to seven hundred thousand).

Language, gestures, facial expressions - all these sign systems have developed on the basis of the natural capabilities of a person. And they formed spontaneously, in the process of a very long experience of communication and “polishing” the shades of meanings. Therefore, they are usually called natural (i.e., arising like natural phenomena).

Speech has oral and written forms.

Oral speech(UR) is a sounding speech functioning in the sphere of direct communication, i.e. any spoken word. The oral form of speech is primary - it arose earlier than the written one. The material form of SD is sound waves. The basic unit of SD is an oral statement.

Oral speech is accompanied by:

1. character look

2. spatial arrangement of the speaker

3. facial expressions and gestures

A characteristic feature of SD is irreversibility, progressive and linear nature

Oral speech can be prepared (report, lecture, etc.) and unprepared (conversation, conversation).

1. The prepared SD is distinguished by: 1) thoughtfulness; 2) a clear structural organization;

2. Unprepared SD is characterized by: 1) spontaneity; 2) gradual formation; 3) a large number of pauses. Unprepared SD is characterized by: 1) less lexical accuracy; 2) the presence of speech errors; 3) short sentence length; 4) limiting the complexity of phrases and sentences; 5) the absence of participial and participle turnovers; 6) division of a single proposal into several independent ones.

Unlike written speech, which is built in accordance with the logical movement of thought, oral speech unfolds through associative attachments.

In oral speech, emotionally and expressively colored vocabulary, figurative comparative constructions, phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, colloquial elements are used.

Written speech(ETC)

A letter is an auxiliary sign system created by people, which is used to fix sound language and sound speech. The main function of PR is the preservation and transmission of information.

Written speech is secondary to oral speech. Letters are the material form of written speech.

The basic unit of PR is the offer.

Written speech unfolds not in a temporary, but in a static space - we can return to what has already been written.

Written speech:

1. focused on the perception of the organs of vision;

2. has a clear structural and formal organization (pagination, division into sections, paragraphs, system of links, font selection, etc.);

3. involves the choice of language means to create a particular text.

By the number of participants in the act communication distinguish monologue, dialogue and polylogue.

Dialog- this is a conversation between two or more persons, the nature of which is influenced by the code of relations between communicants. There are three main types of interaction between participants in the dialogue: dependence, cooperation and parity (equality).

Any dialogue has its own structure: the beginning - the main part - the ending. The dimensions of a dialog are theoretically unlimited since its bottom border can be open. In practice, any dialogue has its own ending.

Dialogue is considered as the primary form of verbal communication, therefore it has received its greatest distribution in the sphere of colloquial speech, however, dialogue is presented in scientific, publicistic, and official business speech.

Being the primary form of communication, dialogue is an unprepared, spontaneous type of speech. Even in scientific, journalistic and official business speech, with the possible preparation of remarks, the deployment of the dialogue will be spontaneous, since usually the remarks - the reactions of the interlocutor are unknown or unpredictable.

For the existence of a dialogue, on the one hand, a common information base of its participants is necessary, and on the other hand, an initial minimum gap in the knowledge of the participants in the dialogue. Lack of information can adversely affect the productivity of dialogical speech.

In accordance with the goals and objectives of the dialogue, the situation of communication, the role of the interlocutors, the following main types of dialogues can be distinguished: everyday, business conversation, interview.

Monologue can be defined as a detailed statement of one person. There are two main types of monologue. Firstly, monologue speech is a process of purposeful communication, a conscious appeal to the listener and is characteristic of the oral form of book speech: oral scientific speech, judicial speech, oral public speech. The most complete development of the monologue was in artistic speech.

Secondly, a monologue is a speech alone with oneself. The monologue is not directed to the direct listener and, accordingly, is not designed for the interlocutor's response.

The monologue can be both unprepared and premeditated.

Monologue speech is distinguished by the degree of preparedness and formality. Oratorical speech is always a pre-prepared monologue, delivered in a formal setting. However, to a certain extent, a monologue is an artificial form of speech, always striving for dialogue. In this regard, any monologue can have the means of its dialogization.

Functional-semantic types of speech having their own compositional features, are description, narration and reasoning.

Description- this is a type of speech, with the help of which any phenomenon of reality is depicted by listing its signs or actions (the content of the description can be conveyed on one frame of the camera).

Narration- this is a type of speech, with the help of which it is told about any events in their temporal sequence; reports of successive actions or events.

Narration is a world in motion (one frame after another)

The typical composition of narrative texts includes:

1) the plot (the beginning of events);

2) development of action;

3) climax;

4) denouement (summary of events)

In narrative texts, a special role belongs to verbs, especially in the form of the past tense of the imperfective form (came, saw, developed, etc.), while in the description adjectives are frequent.

Narrative helps to visualize the actions, movements of people and phenomena in time and space.

reasoning- this is a type of speech, with the help of which any position, thought is proved or explained; it talks about the causes and consequences of events and phenomena, assessments and feelings (about what cannot be photographed).

In reasoning texts, a special role belongs to introductory words indicating the connection of thoughts, the sequence of presentation (firstly, secondly, so, thus, therefore, on the one hand, on the other hand), as well as subordinating conjunctions with the meaning of reason, consequences, concessions (in order to, as a result of, since, although, despite the fact that, etc.)

Not always any one type of speech is presented in the text. Much more often there are cases of their combination in various versions: description and narration; description and reasoning; description, narration and reasoning; description with elements of reasoning; narrative with elements of reasoning, etc.

1.4. QUALITIES OF A GOOD SPEECH.

CORRECTNESS OF SPEECH.

Correctness of speech- this is the correspondence of speech to the norms of the modern Russian language) The correctness of speech, according to S.I. Ozhegov, is “the first, lowest, stage of it”, without which it is impossible to talk about the culture of speech in principle. Speech should be correct, normative always, in any situations of communication. Just as a person who violates the laws of the society in which he lives should not be considered a true citizen of his country, in the same way one cannot classify as cultural speech, replete with errors, violations of language rules - the same laws of the language in which we speak (write).

The types and types of norms will be discussed in detail in the next section (“Norms of the Modern Russian Language”).

WEALTH OF SPEECH.

Rich speech is speech in which the stock of words, phrase patterns and sentences in the active dictionary is larger than in the usual set, and is used for uncomplicated and meaningful communication.

An active vocabulary is understood as the stock of words that a speaker (writer) in a given language actively, without difficulty, uses in speech, as opposed to a passive dictionary. This is the human lexicon. Passive vocabulary implies a contextual understanding of language units, but not their use in ordinary speech communication.

Speech is the richer, the more diverse it is in its linguistic structure, the greater the stock of words, their meanings, typical intonations, etc. - the stock from which a person is able to choose the tool he needs and apply it to construct speech that expresses the necessary information .

The active stock of people is not the same. Ellochka Schukina easily and freely managed 30 words and considered herself a cultured lady. A 3-year-old child knows, according to teachers and psychologists, 1000 words.

It has been established that an adult has a lexicon in the range of 5-15 thousand words. An intellectual of our time uses a dictionary of 10-15 thousand words, i.e., on average, about 12 thousand. Pushkin's dictionary contains 21 thousand words (for reference: Shakespeare has 15 thousand words). The 17-volume dictionary of the modern Russian literary language contains approximately 120 thousand words (there are much more words in the Russian folk language, about 300 thousand).

Look at the numbers: 12 thousand and 120 thousand in the dictionary of the literary language. Consequently, our vocabulary is only a tenth of the literary language of the people.

Distinguish speech insufficiency - lack of words to adequately frame their thoughts - and speech redundancy , which is expressed in the form of pleonasm and tautology.

Pleonasm- expression of thought in different words that have the same meaning: free vacancy; price list, potential opportunities (i.e., possible opportunities), final result (incl. final result or total).

Some words “by necessity” entail the appearance of other “satellite” words and give rise to clichés: an unprecedented rise, specific tasks, sharp, principled criticism, a wide scope, completely and completely (this is also a tautology). Stamped speech does not require brain strain. At one time, struggling with the wretchedness of speech, stupidity, A.P. Chekhov formulated the following thought: “In fact, for an intelligent person, speaking badly should be considered as indecent as not being able to read and write ...”

Tautology- this is an unjustified repetition of single-root words in a sentence or text. Often a tautology arises as a result of a person not understanding the exact meaning of a borrowed word. This is how phrases appear young child prodigy, meager little things, interior. Sometimes it is impossible to avoid the repetition of words with the same root (cf.: “Dictionary of foreign words”, “The book was edited by the editor-in-chief”, “Cover the pan with a lid”). Quite often tautological combinations pass into the category of admissible ( period of time, monumental monument, reality).

What can help expand our active vocabulary, make our speech more diverse?

Firstly, knowledge of such properties of the Russian language as polysemy(from Greek poly + sema - ambiguity). Polysemy is understood as the presence of different, but to some extent interconnected meanings and meanings of the same word; different interpretations of the same language model depending on the context.

Polysemy is the most important element of the linguistic expression of the knowledge of the new, since without it expressiveness, figurativeness and flexibility of language and speech cannot be achieved. Russian polysemy is active: about every third word is polysemic. Thus, the lexeme "earth" can be contextually interpreted both as soil, and as land, and as the world, and as a planet, and as a continent, and as a country, state, region, and as a site, and as a substance, etc. These meanings in other languages ​​usually have different names.

Secondly, it is necessary to know such lexical units, which are called in science: homonyms(homographs, homophones), synonyms, antonyms, paronyms, phraseological units.

Homonyms (from the Greek homos + onima - the same name, name) are different words, but having the same sound and spelling. For example, outfit, - clothes and outfit 2 - order; bow / - a plant, bow 2 - a weapon for throwing arrows, etc. Words that coincide only in writing, but differ in pronunciation, are called homographs (from the Greek homos + grapho - the same letter). Homographs usually have stress on different syllables: clap - clap, mugs - mugs, etc. On the contrary, words that are different in spelling, but the same in sound, are called homophones (from the Greek homos + phone - the same sound): pillar - pillar [pillar], threshold - vice [parks], interspersed - mixed up [mixed], etc. Easy possession of homonyms, homographs, homophones is possible only with good knowledge of the specific meanings of words and the ability to distinguish them.

Of great interest in connection with the culture of speech are words that are close to each other in meaning - synonyms Or just sound paronyms.

Synonyms (from the Greek. synonymus - namesake) - words that are close in meaning, but not identical: glorious, good, wonderful; to think, to think, to contemplate, to contemplate; boldness, bravery, bravery.

Synonyms perform a number of functions in the language, and above all, an expressive-stylistic function, the functions of substitution and clarification.

The stylistic coloring of words provides an expression of the attitude of the speaker (writer) to the phenomena they designate. Words are perceived as sublime, solemn or, on the contrary, reduced, colloquial or even rude: to go, to trail, to march; face, face, muzzle; steal, steal, steal, steal, etc. In choosing such synonyms, great attention to the word is required, caution, because a mistake here can offend the feelings of the listener (reader). The stylistic differences of synonyms are the basis of the stylistic diversity of language and speech.

The substitution function makes it possible to avoid unwanted repetition of the same word, allows you to diversify, enliven speech. For example: Everything is ready to welcome guests: porcelain shines, crystal sparkles.

The clarification function associated with the desire to express an idea as clearly as possible, with a high degree of accuracy, has the greatest value. (Compare: It turned out to be a glorious day. - It turned out to be a glorious, fine day.) To do this, you just need to skillfully choose the right, most suitable, accurate and expressive word from the syntactic series of words. So, in the synonymous series bold - brave - courageous, the degree of fearlessness indicated by these words is consistently increasing; in the synonymous series friend - friend - familiar, the degree of closeness of people decreases from word to word. Synonyms to throw - to throw are close in meaning, but the verb to throw also contains an additional shade of sharpness, negligence, rudeness of action. Therefore, words from synonymous series must be chosen with great care and skill, and the criterion in this choice should be the accuracy of the word used.

Paronyms (from the Greek para + onima - near the name) are words that are close, mainly only in sound: ignorant - ignorant, order - order, effect - affect - defect, right - truthful, etc.

The reason for the mixing of paronyms is the insufficient knowledge of the corresponding words that have a close sound image, especially if any of their other characteristics are close, for example, the general scope of use. Then a gross speech error is born. So, paronyms pilot - boatswain denote ship (ship) professions. However, the meanings of these words are different: a pilot-guide of ships who knows the fairway well; boatswain - a person of the junior commanding staff, to whom the ship's crew is subordinate for chores. The replacement of these words leads to a distortion of the essence of these specialties, to semantic confusion: the Pilot commands the sailors cleaning the deck. - The boatswain skillfully led the ship to port. Nonsense will turn out if the paronyms excavator - escalator are mixed: The escalator dug a deep hole (vm. excavator); effect - affect: The performance produced a great affect (vm. effect); provide - submit: It is not possible to fulfill the request (it seems to be); business traveler - business traveler: Business traveler came to the hotel (vm. business traveler). The meaning and tone of the statement will change dramatically depending on which of the two words - flattering or flattering - will be used (cf .: to say a flattering word - to say a flattering word), therefore anyone who wants to achieve clarity, accuracy of speech, its adequacy reflected in her phenomena, must distinguish between paronyms and carefully handle the language.

Antonyms (from the Greek anti + onyma - against the name) are words that are different in sound and have directly opposite meanings: good - evil, truth - lies, wide - narrow, remove - bring closer, etc. Antonyms, as a rule, belong to the same part of speech and form pairs.

Antonymic oppositions of words can also be formed contextually: They came together. Wave and flame, poetry and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other (P.). Mountains separate countries, but bring people together (Gas.). Yes, we paid dearly, but the blood shed was not in vain.

Russian antonymy is a vivid expressive means when creating oppositions, contrasts, antitheses: Softly spread, but hard to sleep (Last.,). The strong are always the weak to blame (Kr.).

The phenomenon of antonymy is also manifested in an oxymoron, which is built on the combination of contrasting, opposite words to give birth to a new, unusual concept: "Living corpse" (L.T.), ... magnificent nature, withering (P.), ... beautifully ill (M .), "Optimistic Tragedy" (Vishn.).

Phraseologisms (phraseology - from the Greek phasis + logos - the doctrine of expressions, turns of speech) - stable, semantically indivisible combinations of words: carelessly, beat with a key, stay with your nose, ate a dog, etc.

Phraseologisms are not created in the process of speech, but are used as they are fixed in the language, therefore, they exclude the replacement of one or another component with a word with a similar meaning. For example, instead of spreading your mind, you can’t say spread your head or scatter your mind, instead of a cat crying - a cat crying

At the same time, there is some variability of phraseological units in the language (for example, spread with the mind and spread with the brains, with all my heart and with all my heart, fail and fail), which, however, is also characterized by the constancy of the lexical composition and requires accurate reproduction in speech. It is also impossible to change the grammatical form of the components (beating the thumbs instead of hitting the thumbs, lowering your sleeves instead of slipping your sleeves).

Phraseologisms are formed by combining several components, although they are often equivalent to one word: slurping without salt - with nothing, the fifth wheel in the cart is superfluous, casting a shadow on the wattle fence - dodge, lie. The words that make up the phraseological unit are either not used independently, or change their usual meaning. So, you can’t say upside down (upside down), bays or floundering (from the floundering bay), a slip (get into a mess). A stable combination of blood and milk means healthy, with a good complexion, with a blush; bite your tongue - shut up; hold a stone in your bosom - hold a grudge; reel fishing rods - run away, disappear; run aground - get into an extremely difficult situation, etc. At the same time, phraseological units do not allow arbitrary declination or truncation of any elements (downcast the sad look vm. downcast your eyes; sprinkle your head vm. sprinkle ashes on your head) and rearrange the components (how many winters how many years vm. how many years, how many winters, everything changes, everything flows vm. everything flows, everything changes).

The use of phraseological units gives speech brightness, liveliness, figurativeness, since the very nature of phraseological units, their stylistic coloring enriches speech, serves as an "antidote" to speech clichés.

The variety of lexical means of the Russian language, of course, is not limited to the described units - synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, paronyms, phraseological units. In his reserves are metaphors, and hyperbole, and personifications, and other comparisons. The richness of the language is also created thanks to an extensive system of stylistic figures (some of them are given by us). All these possibilities of the language not only give variety to speech, but also make it capacious, figurative, unique and expressive.

EXPRESSION OF SPEECH.

Expressiveness is the quality of speech, which, with its properties and features, maintains the attention and interest of listeners (readers). And indeed, no matter how meaningful this or that speech is, it is worth nothing if it is indistinct, hard to hear and replete with such shortcomings that can completely switch the attention of the listeners from its content to the form of presentation.

Expressiveness is, first of all, the figurativeness of speech, its brightness, originality. Figurative speech with its properties affects the consciousness, forms concrete-sensual ideas about reality.

Imagery is created primarily by various language means of expression which are presented below:

Phonetic means(sound recording) : Alliteration - repetition of consonants. Assonance - repetition of vowels. Onomatopoeia – Birds prh ... prh ... fluttered

Lexical and syntactic means:

Antithesis- opposition.

Allegory- the image of an abstract idea (concept) through a specific image. As a trope, allegory is used in fables (hare - cowardice), parables; in the visual arts it is expressed by certain attributes (justice - a woman with scales).

Symbol- a multifaceted image. The titles of the works are often symbolic: "Dead Souls", "Inspector General" by Gogol.

Epithet- artistic (figurative, poetic) definition.

Metaphor- a word or expression that is used in a figurative sense based on the similarity of two objects or phenomena on some basis; hidden comparison . (“All the bristles stick out in the dust / Roadside horsetail.” (Sasha Cherny)

personification(personification) – a kind of metaphor, the assignment of the properties of living beings to objects of inanimate nature. The transfer of human properties to animals is also called personification: “The wind is sleeping, and everything is numb ...” (A. Fet)

Metonymy– trail type based on adjacency association, concise description . If a metaphor is based on a comparison or analogy of such objects of thought that are not really connected with each other (as it is commonly thought), independent of each other, metonymy is based on a real connection, on real attitude between items. These relations, which make two objects of thought logically adjacent to each other, can be of different categories. 1) the name of the place in the sense of its population - " Ukraine was silently worried”, 2) naming a period of time in the sense of the phenomena that occurred during it -“ hungry year», « bronze ve k"438 3) Assimilation of action with its tool: " put to fire and sword», « brisk feather».

Synecdoche(a kind of metonymy) - as if departing from a part (or sign) of an object that catches the eye, obscures the whole: “Rhino”, the name of an outlandish animal, “patched”, in Gogol about Plyushkin, are characteristic synecdoches, where the part is highlighted, and the whole only implied. Also, the replacement of the plural by the singular, the abstract through the concrete and vice versa.

Comparison - a kind of trail, consisting in the comparison, the convergence of objects by their similarity, which can be obvious or distant and unexpected. Comparison is usually expressed using words as, as if, as if, exactly etc. There can be comparisons in the form of instrumental case: Frost fights a wounded bear

A special kind of comparison is the so-called. negative comparisons: That is not a horse .. Not a human rumor ... (A.S. Pushkin)

Litotes- stylistic figure of understatement of the subject ( Thumb boy or Thumbelina girl)

Hyperbole - a figure consisting in an excessive exaggeration of what is being said: A rare bird will fly to the Dnieper(N.V. Gogol). .

Rhetorical question - statement in the form of a question. Who hasn't cursed the stationmasters, who hasn't scolded them!(A. Pushkin) These questions are not posed in order to get answers, but to draw attention to a particular subject, phenomenon, to emotionally express a statement.

The expressiveness of speech is enhanced rhetorical exclamations : Oh, trio! Three bird! ( N. Gogol)

Anaphora- monophony, repetition of the initial parts (sounds, words, syntactic or rhythmic constructions) of adjacent segments of speech (words, lines, stanzas, phrases): " The city is magnificent, the city is poor ... "(A. S. Pushkin).

Epiphora- repetition of the final parts (sounds, words, grammatical forms) of adjacent segments of speech (lines, phrases). Type of epiphora - rhyme.

gradation- (“ladder”), a figure in the form of a syntactic construction, inside which homogeneous expressive means (epithets, comparisons, metaphors, etc.) are arranged in order of strengthening or weakening of a feature.

Inversion- violation of the direct order of words.

Oxymoron- a combination of contrasting in meaning, logically incompatible concepts: Living corpse, optimistic tragedy.

Syntactic parallelism - the same structure of a sentence, a similar arrangement of elements, the same type of construction of sentences or sections of text: A A diamond is polished with a diamond, A line is dictated by a line.

Parceling- expressive syntactic device of the written literary language: the sentence is divided into independent segments graphically as independent sentences ("And again. Gulliver. Standing. Stooping")

Ellipsis - omission of part of the statement. We would have the enemy on the horns, only the skin is expensive ...

It should be noted that imagery can be created without tropes (for example, Pushkin's "I loved you ..." was and remains expressive ... Simple and brilliant!)

I loved you; love still, maybe

In my soul it has not completely died out;

But don't let it bother you anymore;

I don't want to sadden you with anything.

I loved you silently, hopelessly,

Either timidity or jealousy languish;

I loved you so sincerely, so tenderly,

How God forbid you loved to be different.

Imagery is inherent primarily in written speech, in which the author has the opportunity to improve his text as much as possible in order to most fully convey his feelings, thoughts, intentions. It is a well-chosen, bright word that makes speech bright, unforgettable.

The second, no less important means of speech expressiveness is intonation(various shades of the reader's voice, which reflect the semantic and emotional aspects of speech).

Intonation is made up of logical stress, pauses, tempo, strength and pitch of voice, tone. Logical stress is the emphasis by the voice of the most semantic word or group of words in a phrase. There are three types of pauses: logical, psychological and rhythmic. Logical pauses mostly coincide with punctuation marks. Psychological pauses are made before words that are emotionally important for the author (which he especially wants to emphasize), and do not depend on punctuation marks. Rhythmic pauses are found only in poetry (placed after each poetic line). The pace is the speed of speech, its slowdown or acceleration, it depends on the nature of the speech and the tasks of the speaker. The strength of the voice is the degree of loudness of the sound of the speech apparatus (quiet - loud). The power of the voice is logically and psychologically motivated by the content. The pitch of the voice is the movement of the voice up and down, its rise or fall. The pitch of the voice is determined by the logical construction of speech. The strength and height of the voice, the tempo of speech determine the overall melody of its sound. Tone - an expression in the voice of the speaker's state of mind, his personal attitude (feelings) to the object or subject of speech (conversation). The tone conveys the subtext (hidden meaning) that we put into this or that phrase, thereby expressing our true attitude towards the listeners and what we are talking about.

All these elements of intonation are closely interconnected, complement each other, are determined by the content of speech and are determined by the choice of the speaker, that is, they entirely depend on his speech intentions.

Intonation, speech expressiveness is the prerogative of oral speech. In the words of Bernard Shaw, "There are fifty ways to say yes and fifty ways to say no, and only one way to write it." But this does not mean that oral speech should be ugly. On the contrary, the combination of intonational expression with linguistic expression gave rise to examples of true oratory, creations that left the brightest mark on the history of domestic and foreign eloquence.

The expressiveness of oral (sounding) speech is associated with the timbre of the voice, diction, intonation, and correct pausing. If we want to adequately convey our idea intonation, so that we are understood correctly, it is necessary to master the technique of speech.

PURITY OF SPEECH.

Today, the problem of purity of speech is one of the most acute, key problems that concern not only philologists, but also every conscious citizen, a patriot of his native language. The development of a person's general and speech culture begins with the eradication of language means from people's speech that destroy its purity. Dialectisms are among such means.

Dialectisms- words, phrases that belong not to the common language of the people, but to one or another local dialect (territorial dialect). So, for central Russia, the use of such words as: we will solve the problem (we will solve the literary one), varenka (the literary beet), sills (the literary step), forever (the literary always) and other dialect words in official speech they give rise to ambiguity of thought, confusion of concepts, entail the difficulty of mutual communication.

It is permissible to use dialectisms, first of all, in fiction to create realistic images (for example, the colorful figure of grandfather Shchukar from Sholokhov's novel). The use of local words in the works is dictated by artistic expediency. It is also legitimate to use dialectisms in research and other publications in which they become the subject of observation and description. Outside the limits of artistic and special-scientific literature, dialectisms are an undesirable phenomenon.

Another phenomenon that destroys the purity of speech to no lesser extent is barbarisms(from lat. barbaros - mumbling, any foreigner who does not speak Latin) - unjustified borrowing of foreign vocabulary. We are talking about foreign words that are used unnecessarily, for example: we have a happening (meaning we have a mopzhestvo, holiday), pay cash (meaning pay in cash), beautiful face (meaning a beautiful face), etc. Of course, borrowing is natural a process characteristic of all languages, including Russian, in the vocabulary of which there are up to 10% of words of foreign origin. Moreover, there is no doubt about the importance and necessity (fruitfulness) of this process as one of the sources of expansion and replenishment of the language. At the same time, the use of foreign words without a sense of proportion, without need, without sufficient reason, spoils Russian speech and harms both common sense and good taste.

In our speech penetrate and clericalism- verbal patterns, stereotypes that are used in a situation of business communication, when preparing business papers, documents, where stable forms of speech are needed that do not require special speech finds, beauty and expressiveness of the language, but, on the contrary, suggest speech automatism, accepted stencils ( in the case, along the line (along the line of criticism), in part, to highlight the issue, to sharpen the issue, to focus attention, to cover employees, is taking place today, etc.).

Such stamped phrases, getting into a living speech, litter it, depersonalize it, deprive it of naturalness and expressiveness, and interfere with accurately and vividly conveying one's thought. A person whose speech abounds in clericalism seems uninteresting, limited, spiritually poor.

Jargon is also outside the literary language.

jargon- words and set phrases characteristic of the colloquial speech of people united by a common interest, knowledge, social status, age (youth jargon, criminal jargon, jargon of entrepreneurs, etc. bummer, it annoys me, etc.). These are essentially variants of a language that have a closed scope and a limited set of words and expressions, with the help of which certain social groups are trying to separate themselves from society.

The use of jargon outside these social groups is a serious speech defect and leads to a violation of the lexical and stylistic norms of the Russian literary language.

It is unacceptable to use in cultural speech and vernacular words.

colloquial words - a kind of national language that does not meet the norms of literary word usage

(tranway, theirs, no, what (to do), between, helluva, local, bake, etc.).

Vernacular is not limited either territorially (unlike dialects) or socially (unlike jargon). This is an indicator of undereducated people. Therefore, in an official setting, colloquial words are unacceptable.

And, of course, pure speech does not allow foul language, which is so fashionable today, saying that its author only understands the expressiveness of speech in this way, does not know and does not suspect about other means of expressiveness. Among educated people, vulgarism is certainly condemned, because verbal abuse is not only bad manners, a bad habit, but also humiliation of oneself, disrespect and even an insult to those in whose presence it sounds. Foul language is a sign of philistine rudeness, intellectual impotence.

ACCURACY AND CLARITY OF SPEECH.

Accurate speech- speech, in which the words strictly correspond to the designated objects, phenomena of reality and the intentions of the speaker (writer).

How often the right words and perfect phrases are born after our speech has already been delivered! Let us recall the well-known exclamation of Tyutchev: “A thought uttered is a lie” and Fetov’s “Oh, if it were possible to express the soul without a word!”, which speak of the artist’s bitter feeling, of the inconsistency of what he expressed with what he wanted to say. The accuracy of speech is important both for the writer and for you and me, because. the task of the speaker is not only to include his interlocutor in the process of listening, but also to ensure that he reflects with you about what he heard.

Meanwhile, we use the word and do not always think about what is the meaning in it: they say, our language said correctly, the word exists and is expressed in a grammatically accurate form. And so it turns out; "Are you having a meeting? Okay, I'll send a friend over to you." But let's think: in the Russian word send there is a completely accurate connotation - to send secretly with an unseemly purpose. Otherwise, why send, if you can just send.

A lot of people liked the prefix under: "Bring the papers tomorrow." Can't you bring it? “You can come by the end of the day” - “I will run to you tomorrow” ... And someone helpfully says: “I will run to you during the break.” We often hear: "Tell me what time it is." Why tell me, but just saying is no longer good? After all, you can tell what you forgot.

Accuracy as a communicative quality of speech can be divided into semantic accuracy and intentional accuracy, that is, target accuracy.

Semantic accuracy there is a strict correspondence between the chosen word, what this word expresses, the object, the phenomenon of reality and the reality that this word names.

Correspondence of the content of speech to the designated object implies knowledge of the generally accepted meaning of the selected words, the meaning behind them, and comprehensive knowledge of the object itself, the phenomenon of real life, the event of reality that is reported.

So, in the expression to take the throne, a semantic inaccuracy was made, since one can ascend the throne. The use of the phrase to stand on the throne speaks of ignorance of the subject of speech and misunderstanding of the content of the word throne: you can stand on a chair, but not on the throne.

The same violation is observed in the expression: it is necessary to prolong this question. Using the word prolong, the author had in mind - to analyze, study, ensure its further advancement, while prolong means to extend the period of validity. Another example: fell on his back (vm. prone) and hurt his knee. To fall backward means to fall on your back. The semantic inaccuracy of the chosen word leads to nonsense.

A semantic inaccuracy was also made in the following cases: 1,200 tanks grappled hand-to-hand (it's hard to imagine how it could be!), there was a huge rain (rain cannot be huge, it can be strong, weak, etc.).

Poor knowledge of the meanings of the word used, the meaning that is customary to put into it, the inconsistency of the chosen word with the subject, the phenomenon of reality, the indicated events - this is a violation of semantic accuracy.

Intentional Accuracy(from Latin intentio - aspiration, intention, goal, focus of consciousness, will, feelings on any object) - strict compliance with the speaker's (writer's) plan, the goal that he wants to achieve in communication. Intentional accuracy is determined by the achievement of a result: if the achieved result corresponds to our intentions, aspirations, then this speech is intentionally accurate; if the result of influencing someone through speech does not meet our desire, the plan that we realize with the help of certain words, then speech is intentionally inaccurate.

For example, an attempt at a compliment: “What thick (vm. plump) lips you have” is more likely to offend than be perceived as a desire to say something pleasant, to give pleasure. Or the question: "How are you?" (with social inequality) - an indicator of the invasion of privacy. To achieve the desired goal - to demonstrate your interest in the interlocutor - it is better to use another word in the question - study, work, for example.

Intentional accuracy is extremely important in terms of achieving the result of communication, etiquette and ethical standards. An inaccurately chosen word that does not correspond to intentions leads to an unexpected and often undesirable result, to misunderstanding, resentment and even hostility. Therefore, intentional accuracy is an indispensable condition for any communication.

Speech accuracy is determined by:

knowledge of the subject,

logic of thought,

The ability to choose the right words.

Violation of the accuracy of speech as a result of insufficient knowledge of the features of the Russian language is the use of words in an unusual meaning for them; ambiguity not eliminated by the context; generating ambiguity; mixture of paronyms, homonyms.

Each significant word performs a nominative function, that is, it names an object or its quality, action, state. This obliges speakers to pay attention to the meaning of words, to use them correctly.

Thus, the accuracy of speech is an integral part of the general speech culture, but, as a rule, it implies the observance of another communicative quality - consistency.

Logic of speech

Logic of speech- this is a communicative quality, which implies the ability to consistently, consistently and reasonably formulate one's thought.

The logicality of speech is the correspondence of speech to the basic laws of logic:

There are four such laws: law of identity, law of non-contradiction, law of excluded middle, law of sufficient reason.

Logical laws (LL) reflect in the mind of a person certain relationships that exist between objects, reflect the objective in the subjective mind of a person, so they cannot be canceled or replaced by others. have a universal character, because they are the same for people of all races, nations, professions. The main DLs have developed historically as a result of centuries of practice knowledge. They reflect such important properties of correct thinking as its certainty, consistency, validity, clarity of thinking, the choice of "either-or" in certain "hard" situations. In addition to the main ones, there are many non-basic ones. l., which must be performed when operating with concepts, or judgments, or inferences. SPs, both basic and non-basic, in thinking function as principles of correct reasoning in the course of proving true judgments and theories and refuting false judgments and false hypotheses. SP play the role of universal connections of thinking and general principles of any mental activity, expressing the requirements of a methodological nature. Violation of Z. l. leads to logic error- both unintentional - to paralogism (from the Greek. paralogismos), and conscious - to sophism (from the Greek. sophisma - trick, invention, puzzle), although these types of errors also occur in other situations.

The law of identity.

“In the process of a certain reasoning, every concept and judgment must remain identical to itself”

In philosophy, identity is understood as equality, the similarity of two or more objects in any respect. In nature and society there are not even two absolutely identical objects (for example, two twins, two identical flowers, etc.), identity exists in connection with difference. But we digress from existing differences and fix our attention only on identity.

The law of identity in thinking is a normative rule (principle) stating that in the process of reasoning one cannot replace one thought with another, one concept with another, otherwise there will be logical errors called “ substitution of the concept"or " substitution of the thesis”. The law of identity also means that identical thoughts cannot be presented as different, and vice versa, different ones cannot be presented as identical. People who speak not on the topic under discussion or use terms and concepts in a different sense than the accepted one, and do not warn about it, violate the law of identity. Logical errors often occur when using homonyms.

The law of non-contradiction.

Two opposite propositions cannot be true at the same time and in the same respect.. Contradictions do not arise if we are talking about different subjects or about the same subject, but taken in different respects or considered at different times (for example, the judgment "This book is new" and the judgment "This book is not new" do not contradict each other if We are talking about the same book, but considered at different times). The law of non-contradiction does not work in the logic of “fuzzy” sets, because in it, affirmation and negation can be simultaneously applied to “fuzzy” sets, “fuzzy” algorithms (for example, “This man is elderly” and “He is not yet elderly”, i.e. j. the concept of “old man” is a “fuzzy” concept that does not have a clearly defined scope).

The law of non-contradiction qualifies formal-logical contradiction as a serious error, incompatible with logical thinking.

Law of the excluded middle(formulated by Aristotle).

Of two opposing propositions, one is true, the other is false, and the third is not given. The operation of this law is limited by the presence of uncertainty in cognition, the causes of which are various transitional states and situations, i.e. changes, the transition of objects and their individual properties into their opposite (for example, warm food cools down after a while and becomes cold, new shoes eventually becomes old, etc.). In addition, the reflection of the objective world at a certain stage of cognition is always incomplete, inaccurate, because it corresponds only to this stage of human knowledge about the world. For example, it is impossible to say in advance which judgment about some future event will be true until the action has ended. An example of such judgments: "Tomorrow I will certainly cope with the task" or "Tomorrow I will never cope with the task." The law of the excluded middle does not apply when there are three or more truth values ​​for propositions. In three-valued logic, three values ​​​​of the truth of judgments are used (for example, sociological questionnaires offer three answers: "yes", "no" and "I don't know"; when voting, the following positions are provided: "for", "against" and "abstained".

Law of Sufficient Reason(formulated in the 17th century by G. W. Leibniz)

"says that no phenomenon can be real, no statement true without a sufficient reason why this is the case and not otherwise. At present it sounds like this: "Every true thought must be sufficiently substantiated" . In this case, we are talking about justifying only a true thought, because it is impossible to justify a false thesis (false judgment) enough. Unlike laws of identity, non-contradiction, excluded middle, which have a meaningful formulation, and in the mathematical logic expressed in formulas law of sufficient reason there is no formula, because it has only a substantive character.

A sufficient basis for substantiating the truth of the thesis is a proof using verified facts, definitions of concepts, axioms and postulates, laws of science and theorems.

Because the real cause and effect (for example, we turned on the electric stove and the room became warmer) does not always coincide with the logical basis and logical consequence(the thermometer shows a higher temperature than before, which means that the room has become warmer), then you often have to infer from the consequences, from them deriving the cause of a particular phenomenon.

1.4.7. RELEVANCE OF SPEECH

Appropriate speech- speech corresponding to the situation of communication, the conditions of communication. The conditions of communication are the place, time, genre and tasks of the communicative process.

It must be emphasized that any act of human communication takes place in certain cultural conditions, since a person is “woven” into ethno-cultural life circumstances.

In a speech cultural situation, not only what is said is evaluated, but also how it is said, what is the speech behavior of each participant in communication as a whole. Therefore, relevance occupies a special place in its significance among such qualities as richness, expressiveness, purity, accuracy, etc. Relevance regulates the content of each of these qualities in a specific speech cultural situation. Without taking into account the specific conditions of communication, without relying on the appropriateness of speech, one or another communicative quality, for example, accuracy or expressiveness, may lose its need. Imagine how the phrase standing in line for bread will be perceived: “ Venerable gentlemen, would you be so kind as to tell me who is the last?» The phrase is absolutely correct from the point of view of observing correctness, expressiveness and other qualities, but not relevance, since its grandiloquence, bombast does not correspond to the conditions of communication, the everyday situation in which it is uttered.

An important point is also how our speech will affect the interlocutor - whether it will cause bewilderment, whether it will injure him with rudeness, whether it will humiliate his dignity.

In this sense, the appropriateness of speech is a very important quality in the regulation of speech and social behavior. Relevance is associated with knowledge of speech etiquette.

Speech etiquette (RE) are the rules of speech behavior. RE is historically changeable and has national specifics.

RE represents, first of all, a set of speech formulas and involves the creative choice of a certain formula from this set in accordance with the situation.

RE functions: establishing and maintaining contact, removing aggression, distinguishing between "friend" and "alien".

We habitually do not notice the rules of RE. It is just their non-compliance that becomes noticeable (you were told in the store “ you»; you were not thanked for the service, they did not apologize for the misconduct; the acquaintance did not say hello at the meeting ...). But in certain situations of communication, we verbally demonstrate knowledge of these rules, unambiguously refer to this knowledge, which happens, for example, with apologies, excuses, reproaches, etc.

The old truth is true: nothing is so cheap and is not valued so dearly as politeness. Speech etiquette is just that area of ​​​​language units that serve the function of politeness.

Speech etiquette is a system of set expressions that has developed in language and speech and is used in situations of establishing and maintaining contact. Speech etiquette is inseparable from politeness, which is especially important in an official setting and in relationships with strangers. If in communication with relatives and friends there are many ways to convey one's feelings, attitude towards them, then in contact with strangers, from the point of view of speech behavior, politeness implies “non-damaging” by speech (non-insulting), showing signs of attention, showing tact, modesty.

Special expressions that update the polite tone: Kindly... Kindly... Please... Could you...- are impossible without appropriate intonation of the language material and gestures that convey the attitude of the speaker to the addressee and what he is talking about. Moreover, the same phrase, uttered with different intonation and accompanied by different gestures, can take on opposite meanings. A rich set of linguistic means, on the one hand, and a variety of intonation patterns, facial expressions and gestures, on the other hand, make it possible to choose a form of communication that is appropriate for the speech situation and favorable for the addressee, to establish a friendly, relaxed or, conversely, official tone of conversation.

Speech etiquette conveys social information about the speaker and his addressee, about whether they know each other or not, about the relationship of equality / inequality by age, official position, about their personal relationships (if they are familiar), about the environment (official or informal) there is communication, etc.

For example, Good health! may belong to an elderly villager; or Hi!- testifies to the friendly, close relationships of young people.

The linguistic signs of speech etiquette contain, and in speech social signals of the type are implemented: one's own - a stranger, familiar - unfamiliar, distant - close, equal - younger - older in age or position.

Compliance with the rules of etiquette is an unwritten requirement of society and is perceived as social verbal "stroking": Hello- be healthy, Thanks to- thank you, Thanks- God bless you for a good deed, Sorry- I admit my guilt and ask to remove the sin from me. In addition, social relations of a particular era are fixed in the expressions of speech etiquette: I beat with my forehead, your obedient servant.

To soften a word that is not quite convenient for a given situation or an expression that is undesirable from the point of view of cultural and speech norms helps euphemisms(sent to a well-deserved rest instead of sent to an old-age pension) Euphemization helps to resist verbal aggression.

Speech etiquette has a bright national coloring, which is dictated by the traditions and mentality of the people, and is sometimes incomprehensible to representatives of other peoples or misunderstood.

So, the Mongols have greetings-goodwill - " How do you roam?», « How are your livestock?» The Chinese greeting contains a question: « Are you full?», « Have you already had lunch (dinner)?"A resident of Vienna says without hesitation:" I kiss your hand”, - and the Varsovian, when he is introduced to the lady, mechanically kisses her hand. The Englishman, indignant at the antics of his competitor, writes to him: Dear sir, you are a fraud". A Christian, entering a church (church, church), takes off his headdress, and a Jew, entering a synagogue, covers his head. The Japanese, when entering a house (even a restaurant), takes off his shoes. In Europe, the color of mourning is black, in China it is white. In the East, if a guest praised a thing in the owner's house, then the owner should give him this thing - this is required by politeness. If in Russian culture the raised thumb of a folded fist means approval, then the Europeans ask for a ride with this gesture.

The world is diverse, and each nation has its own stereotypes of behavior, customs and rituals. The national specificity of Russian speech etiquette is manifested, for example, in addressing by name and patronymic, which other peoples do not have.

Thus, knowledge and skillful choice of the most appropriate etiquette forms and speech expressions constitute the rules (art) for entering into communication and communication in general.

1.4.7. The effectiveness of speech

The effectiveness of speech- the final stage of speech culture, building on top of the rest and completing a strict stepwise, hierarchical sequence of all nine communicative qualities.

Effective speech is understood as such speech, which, due to its linguistic structure, is capable of exerting a stimulating effect on the listener. Under the influence of such a speech, the views, mood, behavior of the recipient may change, there is a readiness to perform certain actions, deeds. The effectiveness of speech is an important parameter of the effectiveness of speech communication, along with the informativeness and aesthetic characteristics of speech, and is ultimately associated with effectiveness - adequate perception and understanding by the addressee of the meaning of what was said, a change in thoughts and feelings, and, as a result, the behavior of the participants in the dialogue. It is the result that is the criterion for the usefulness of communication.

Effectiveness depends not only on what language means and how they were applied, but also on what information they were used to express. Effective speech does not leave indifferent, encourages action, excites in the listener (reader) his own inner word.

However, sometimes it turns out that a speech constructed in compliance with the correctness and communicative expediency, according to its author, is effective, while the addressee (listener, reader) did not understand what he heard or read, or did not want to change something in his behavior. If the addressee initially had a desire to understand the interlocutor, then this means that the author did not fully convey in his speech his emotional and aesthetic perception and assessment of the world around him and insufficiently took into account the characteristics and capabilities of the addressee, his motivational attitudes (personal, psychophysical characteristics, volume knowledge, age, etc.) - everything that prompts him to adequate action in response. If the addressee learned everything that the author of the speech wanted to say, for what purpose it was generated, then it can be argued that the author effectively used linguistic means both in terms of conveying his intention, and in terms of the features and capabilities of the person to whom this speech addressed.

What do you need to know and take into account a person who wants to make his speech effective, productive?

When building speech (and above all oral speech), it must be remembered that it (as the ancient speakers said) should be tailored to the measurements of the listener (reader), like a dress to the measurements of the customer. In this figurative statement, the key to understanding that it is extremely important in the process of communication is attention to the addressee - personality traits, etc. In choosing and presenting a topic, delicacy is necessary, focus on the interlocutor's reaction, its prediction.

Among the techniques that increase the effectiveness and persuasiveness of oral utterances, special attention should be paid to the means of speech expressiveness, eye and voice contact, the “language of movements”, which make speech vivid, affecting not only the mind, but also the feelings and emotions of listeners. On the contrary, fuzzy diction, “swallowing” endings, a quiet voice, monotony, an incorrect pace of speech (too fast or too slow), violation of orthoepic norms are those shortcomings that affect both the quality of speech itself and the effectiveness of its impact.

It is also necessary to know that, as L. N. Tolstoy wrote, not

One of the main differences between man and the animal world is the presence of a special mental process called speech. Speech is most often defined as the process of communication between people through language.

In order to be able to speak and understand someone else's speech, you need to know the language and be able to use it.

Language- a system of conditional symbols, with the help of which combinations of sounds are transmitted that have a certain meaning and meaning for people.

The language is common to the people who speak it, while speech is always subjective and unique, depending on the individual. Every language has a certain system of words with corresponding meanings ( lexical composition of the language), a certain system of forms of words and phrases ( language grammar) and a certain sound composition ( language phonetics).

There are 4 main speech functions:

Expression - indicates that thanks to speech we have the opportunity to express our attitude to a particular object, situation, person;

Message - due to the fact that it is through words that information is exchanged between people;

Designation - is expressed in giving names to objects and phenomena;

Impact - through speech, we influence the thoughts, emotions, behavior of other people.

The functions of speech are directly related to its main properties:

Clarity - the ability of an individual to use words, sentences that are adequate to the situation and the partner, to use the necessary concepts;

Expressiveness - emotional saturation and coloring, the content of figurative expressions, metaphors, the ability to evoke a response in the interlocutor;

Impact - the ability to influence other people (their beliefs, emotions, motivation, etc.).

Identify different types of speech.

According to whether speech is connected with an appeal to other people or not, they distinguish internal and external speech.

inner speech associated with the use of language outside the processes of real communication between people.

There are three types of inner speech:

1) "speech to yourself"- internal pronunciation, observed, for example, when solving difficult mental problems; in this case, it corresponds to the structure of external speech;

2) speech as a means of thinking; at the same time, various concepts and judgments can be “folded”, encoded in the form of appropriate schemes, images, and, accordingly, this type does not correspond to the structure of external speech;

3) speech as a means of internal programming- the use of words to influence one's state, emotions, motivation.

External speech is focused on other people and is characterized by the transfer of necessary information using the language. External speech, in turn, can be written and oral.

Written speech- communication through words expressed in written texts. This type of speech is characterized by: a rather complex compositional and structural organization, special (unlike oral speech) style and grammatical construction. Reading is the perception of textual information. Reading written speech to oneself is distinguished by high speed (the speed of reading exceeds the process of speaking on average three times).

Oral speech- verbal communication with the help of a language perceived by ear. In oral speech, two processes can be conditionally distinguished: speaking and listening.

speaking- the process of direct appeal to the interlocutor with the help of words. There are two main characteristics of this process - volume of spoken phrases and rate of speech.

listening- the process of perception of oral speech, due to the characteristics of the subject and object of communication, the content of the transmitted information, the situation, etc. It is important that in the course of communication a person not only understands the content of the message, but is also able to perceive the hidden subtext and emotional state of the speaker.

Oral speech can be in the form dialogue or monologue. Dialogic(colloquial) speech- a type of speech characterized by the fact that in the course of communication there is an active exchange of information between two or more interlocutors. As a rule, this speech is based on the use of the simplest forms of speech, does not require detailed provisions, contains emotional coloring.

monologue speech A speech delivered by one person to a specific audience. Unlike dialogic speech, monologue speech is usually more complex, logical, and meaningful.

In psychology, there are also active and passive speech. active speech associated with the speaker passive speech with the listener (it is believed that the listener often repeats what he hears to himself).

To understand the characteristics of the mental development of a child, it is also important to define another type of speech - egocentric.

egocentric speech- the speech of the child, addressed to himself, allowing him to manage and control his activities. According to L. S. Vygotsky, egocentric speech is a kind of transitional stage between external and internal speech. Those. At first, the child passively perceives the speech of other people, then turns to himself aloud to regulate his actions, and on the basis of this, internal speech is subsequently formed and his thinking develops.

Thus, speech, being a means of communication between people, also performs another important function - it acts means of human thought. In his works, L. S. Vygotsky convincingly showed that the formation of higher mental functions (arbitrariness and awareness of cognitive processes) is carried out thanks to speech. This is evidenced by the facts when speech disorders affect the development of all aspects of a person's mental organization, and especially on the intellectual sphere.

Language and speech form a single phenomenon of the human sign system of communication. Language is a set of means of communication between people in the process of exchanging thoughts and the rules for using these means. Language as an entity finds its manifestation in speech. Speech is the use of existing linguistic means and rules in the very linguistic communication of people, therefore speech can be defined as the functioning of the language.

Language and speech are closely related: if there is no speech, then there is no language. Language and speech are a dual entity (dichotomy).

Despite the fact that language and speech form a single whole, each of these entities has its own characteristics:

1) language is a means of human communication, a tool for cognition and transmission of experience accumulated by generations; speech is the embodiment and realization of language, which through speech performs its communicative function;

2) the language is abstract, formal; speech is material, everything that is in the language is realized in it, it consists of specific units perceived by hearing, sight;

3) the language is stable, static; speech is active and dynamic, it is characterized by high variability;

4) the language is the property of the collective, the language develops only in society, the language reflects the “picture of the world” of the people speaking it; speech is individual, it reflects only the experience of an individual;

5) the language is characterized by a level organization, a certain system that introduces hierarchical relationships into the sequence of words; speech has a linear organization, representing a sequence of words connected in a stream of utterance;

6) the language is independent of the situation and the environment of communication; speech is contextually and situationally conditioned; in speech, language units can acquire figurative meanings.

Language regulates the interpersonal and social interaction of individual speakers, coordinates their practical activities, ensures the accumulation and storage of information, forms the consciousness of the individual and the consciousness of society, serves as a material and form of creative activity.

R speech activity- one of the parties human communication. The cause of speech action is always human activity in general. Speech activity can be embodied in different forms. Imagine a well-known situation: the teacher gives a lecture, and the students listen and take notes. Here you can observe all four types of speech activity at once. The teacher's speech is speaking, perception of the lecture by the students hearing, fixing the lecture in the form of a student abstract - letter, following the lecture, the appeal of students to their notes - reading.

speaking- the process of forming and formulating thoughts at the moment of pronouncing the utterance. There are three most important components in speaking: 1) pronunciation; 2) reference and predication; 3) realization of the communicative intention.

Pronunciation is an external form of utterance, which is carried out with the help of voice, intonation, rhythmic organization of the text.

Reference in linguistics is understood as the relation of a word to an object of reality (referent). Predication is the formation of information into a sentence using specific words and phrases.

Hearing- semantic perception of an oral statement, an active thought process aimed at the semantic processing of speech messages. Perception is closely related to the mechanism of auditory memory. The process of human understanding of the text, the possibility of its logical processing depends on the ability to retain the heard segments of speech in memory.

Letter- the process of creating a text with its subsequent graphic fixation. Writing is not only intellectual, but also physical labor, since it is associated with the use of muscle energy, as well as with the performance of mental functions. Creating a text is a complex speech action (thinks, builds a plan, writes down)

Reading- semantic perception of the written text. The result of this process is understanding.

Understanding is a multi-step process. The first step is understanding each word. At the second stage, there is an understanding of each thought expressed with the help of various syntactic constructions. At the final stage, there is a complete and accurate understanding of the information contained in the text and its adequate reproduction for various purposes.

From the point of view of the method of implementation, speech can be oral or written.

Dialog(Greek dia - through, logos - word, speech) is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons.

Speech works that have meaningfulness and integrity are commonly called texts.

Accepted in certain situations and intended to convey certain content, typical methods of constructing speech are called speech genres. So, the genres of monologue speech can be a report, a congratulatory speech, a religious sermon; dialogic speech - interviews, scientific discussion, political debates.

Theoretical material:

Language features

Communicative function

cognitive

phatic

emotive

conative

accumulative

metalinguistic

aesthetic

Types and forms of speech

Oral speech

Written speech

The types of speech are

Silence - even a branch is not crunchy ..t (Bunin). 2. Somewhere in the afternoon, in the midst of continuous rain, a denunciation reached us ..t..sya some strange ..s sounds, they all intensified ..va..t..sya, get stronger, and we understand ..m that a boat is coming (Kazakov). 3. Moved ..sh ..sya to the middle of the raid - the sea hides ..t..sya, but suddenly the whole bay moves apart ..t..sya to the left (Goncharov). 4. It was Abogin who was protesting .. to do stupid things (Chekhov). 5. Another shakes ..t his head, those whisper ..t ..sya, and those laugh ..t ..sya among themselves (Krylov). 6. I keep .. I reserve the right to say my opinion (L. Tolstoy).

Tests for knowledge control

1. Complete the definition: Language is....

A. officially accepted form of address;

B. the current level of knowledge;

B. simple speech forms;

D. the totality of means of communication between people through the exchange of thoughts and the rules for using these means;

D. the property of society, it reflects the "picture of the world" of the people speaking it;

E. the use of existing language tools and rules in the very language communication of people;

G. communication with people at the appropriate level for a particular situation;

Z. officially adopted the form of address;

I. sending sound signals carrying information.

Topic number 1. Language and its main functions. Speech: types and forms of speech.

Theoretical material:

Language is a set of means of communication between people through the exchange of thoughts and the rules for using these means; language as an entity finds its manifestation in speech. Speech is the use of existing language tools and rules in the very language communication of people, so speech can be defined as the functioning of language.
Thus, language and speech are closely interconnected: if there is no speech, then there is no language. Language and speech have their opposite features:

Language is a means of communication; speech is the embodiment and realization of language, which through speech performs its communicative function;
- the language is abstract, formal; speech is material, everything that is in the language is corrected in it, it consists of articulated sounds perceived by the ear;
- the language is stable; speech is active and dynamic, it is characterized by high variability;
- the language is the property of society, it reflects the "picture of the world" of the people speaking it; speech is individual, it reflects only the experience of an individual;

The language is independent of the situation and the environment of communication - speech is contextually and situationally conditioned.

Being the most important means of communication, language unites people, regulates their interpersonal and social interaction, coordinates their practical activities, ensures the accumulation and storage of information that is the result of the historical experience of the people and the personal experience of the individual, forms the consciousness of the individual (individual consciousness) and the consciousness of society (social consciousness). ), serves as a material and form of artistic creativity.

Thus, language is closely connected with all human activity and performs various functions.

Language features

Communicative function means that language is the most important means of human communication, that is, the transmission from one person to another of a message for one purpose or another. Communicating with each other, people convey their thoughts, feelings and emotional experiences, influence each other, achieve a common understanding. Language gives them the opportunity to understand each other and to work together in all spheres of human activity, being one of the forces that ensure the existence and development of human society.

The second main function of the language is cognitive(i.e., cognitive, epistemological), meaning that language is the most important means of obtaining new knowledge about reality. The cognitive function connects language with human mental activity.

In addition to the above, the language performs a number of other functions:

phatic(contact-establishing) - the function of creating and maintaining contact between interlocutors (greeting formulas at a meeting and parting, exchange of remarks about the weather, etc.).

emotive(emotional-expressive) - an expression of the subjective-psychological attitude of the author of the speech to its content. It is realized in the means of evaluation, intonation, exclamation, interjections;

conative- the function of assimilation of information by the addressee, associated with empathy (the magical power of spells or curses in an archaic society or advertising texts in a modern one);
appellative - the function of an appeal, an inducement to certain actions (forms of the imperative mood, incentive sentences);

accumulative- the function of storing and transmitting knowledge about reality, traditions, culture, history of the people, national identity.

metalinguistic(speech commentary) is a function of interpreting linguistic facts. The use of a language in a metalinguistic function is usually associated with difficulties in verbal communication, for example, when talking with a child, a foreigner, or another person who does not fully know the given language, style, or professional variety of the language. The metalinguistic function is realized in all oral and written statements about language - in lessons and lectures, in dictionaries, in educational and scientific literature about language;

aesthetic- 0 function of aesthetic impact, manifested in the fact that speakers begin to notice the text itself, its sound and verbal texture. A single word, turn, phrase begins to like or dislike. The aesthetic attitude towards language means, therefore, that speech (namely, speech itself, and not what is reported) can be perceived as beautiful or ugly, that is, as an aesthetic object. The aesthetic function of language, being the main one for a literary text, is also present in everyday speech, manifesting itself in its rhythm and imagery.

Thus, the language is multifunctional. He accompanies a person in a variety of life circumstances. With the help of language, a person learns the world, remembers the past and dreams of the future, studies and teaches, works, communicates with other people.

Types and forms of speech

There are two forms of speech: oral speech, written speech.

Oral speech- this is a speech uttered in the process of speaking; The most important distinguishing feature of oral speech is its unpreparedness: oral speech, as a rule, is created in the course of a conversation. From oral speech, i.e. speech generated in the process of speaking should be distinguished from speech read or learned by heart; the term "sounding speech" is sometimes used for this type of speech. The unprepared nature of oral speech gives rise to a number of its specific features: an abundance of unfinished syntactic constructions, self-interruptions, repetitions, pickups. In a speech designed for the listener, the structural and logical pattern of the phrase often changes, incomplete sentences are very appropriate (saving the energy and time of the speaker and listener), passing additional thoughts, evaluative phrases are allowed (enriching the text and well separated from the main text by means of intonation). One of the most significant shortcomings of oral speech is its discontinuity (logical, grammatical and intonation), which consists in an unjustified stop of speech, in the break of phrases, thoughts, and sometimes in an unjustified repetition of the same words. The second of the most common shortcomings of oral speech is its inseparability (intonational and grammatical): phrases follow one after another without pauses, logical stresses, without a clear grammatical formulation of sentences.

Written speech- this is a speech created with the help of visible (graphic) characters on paper, other material, a monitor screen. The written form of speech is the main one for the official business and scientific styles of speech, for the language of fiction. Publicistic style uses equally written and oral forms of speech (periodical press and television). The use of the written form allows you to think about your speech longer, build it gradually, correcting and supplementing, which ultimately contributes to the development and application of more complex syntactic structures than is typical of oral speech. Such features of oral speech as repetitions, unfinished constructions in a written text would be stylistic errors. The letter uses punctuation marks, as well as various means of graphical selection of words, combinations and parts of the text;

The types of speech are: speaking - sending sound signals that carry information; listening - the perception of sound signals and their understanding; writing - the use of visible graphic symbols and their understanding.

Language - this is a system of verbal signs, relatively independent of the individual, serving for the purpose of communication, consolidation and transfer of socio-historical experience, thought formation. Language is always ethnicity.

Speech - a specific product of the use of a system of verbal signs by a native speaker, manifested in various speech processes. Speech is a form of communication mediated by language.

Speech processes are divided into active and passive .

Assets The left edge of the rhombus is the leading one.

The right side requires special preparation.

speaking letter

Hearing Vision

listening

(listen to reading

and pony

mother)

Passive

Differences between language and speech:

1) Language is a set of signs and rules for operating them. Speech is the process of using language. If a language is a certain system of signs and rules for their transformation, then speech is a real process of operating a language.

2) Language is stable, speech is dynamic. Speech as a process is the possibility of developing language as a system. If the language is sufficiently stable, stable, and the rules for the transformation of signs remain relatively unchanged, then speech implies dynamics: the use and reproduction of language in a living speech process is expanded, giving rise to new rules and laws.

3) Language is a system of social meanings, speech will allow expressing individual meaning. If language is a system of socially developed generalizations, concepts, then speech reflects the process of their individual appropriation, during and as a result of which concepts can acquire various specific meanings.

4) Speech is first mastered in application, and then the rules are realized. Language first involves familiarity with terms and rules, and then application in speech. Speech and language differ in the ways of mastering them: if a person first acquires a language (foreign or computer) theoretically, gradually mastering its conditional connections, then speech (in the native language) - practically, implementing it even without special awareness of language rules.

Types of speech:

1) Gesture speech and sound

2) Written and oral

3) External and internal

4) Dialogic and monologue

1. Modern speech is predominantly sound speech, but gesture plays a certain role in sound speech as well. The sign language is, as it were, an accompaniment to the main text of sound speech: the gesture has an auxiliary meaning.

2. In oral speech, a person perceives listeners, their reaction to his words. Written speech is addressed to the absent reader, who does not see or hear the writer, will read what is written only after a while. The writer is deprived of the ability to use expressive means (intonation, facial expressions, gestures), thus. Written language is usually less expressive than spoken language. Written speech is more impersonal (business, scientific). However, it allows for a long and thorough work on the verbal expression of thought, and in oral speech there is no time for polishing phrases.

3. External speech serves communication (although sometimes a person can think aloud without communicating with anyone), therefore its main feature is accessibility to the perception (hearing, sight) of other people. Inner speech is an internal silent speech process. It is inaccessible to the perception of other people and cannot be a means of communication. Inner speech is a means of organizing and managing one's own life. Inner speech is the verbal shell of thinking.

Features of internal speech compared to external:

1) predicativity (omitting the subject),

2) abbreviation,

3) fragmentation,

4) the predominance of meaning over meaning, a tendency for words to stick together.

4. Monologue speech is a detailed speech, which is based on both an independent motive and an independent plan. Dialogic - a conversation, usually situational.

Speech functions:

1) Communicative- main function (means of communication),

2) emotional- “affective speech” necessarily possesses it (it is characteristic of humans and animals, it serves to express emotional states, psychological contact with their own kind. It is carried out with the help of signals that reveal the experienced state, and not signs, behind which there are always objects of the outside world.)

3) expressive(included in the set of expressive movements along with gesture, facial expressions, etc.),

4) nominative(naming, denoting)

5) Significative(denoting) - the inside of the sign - meaning,

6) Gnostic(preservation and transfer of social experience in the form of knowledge),

7) intellectual(serves, forms thinking),

8) planning,

9) Regulatory (regulation of actions).

(3) - (6) - functions of external speech, (7) - (9) - functions of internal speech.

Speech- a specific human way of forming and formulating thoughts with the help of linguistic means, a way of communicating and reflecting an emotional attitude to reality.

Speech functions:

1. Nominative - denoting, naming

2. Significative - symbolic, the object is not just called, there is a connection behind the concept, dynamic phenomena

3. Communicative - the exchange of information between people

4. Intellectual - speech as a tool for thinking

5. Cultural and historical - the accumulation and fixation of the experience of other people and the possibility of transferring it to another generation

6. Integrating - integration of mental processes

7. Regulatory, planning, analyzing

The difference between language and speech:

Empirical characteristics of speech:

F Polymorphism - speech has many forms: external and internal, sound and silent, etc.

F Polyfunctionality - speech has many functions that interact with each other

F Objectivity - speech is always related to a specific object or phenomenon that is associated with any object

F Generalization - any concept is already a generalization.

Types of speech:

1. Phenomenological classification (Wecker):

Speech-description, narration, reasoning - the cognitive function of speech

Speech-expression - the expression of one's emotions and the development of one's attitude to the phenomenon

Speech-command - conative function (active-dynamic)

These aspects may be in dissonance or work together. This classification shows that speech is not only a process, but also an activity.

2. Evolutionary classification:

External speech is a communicative function

egocentric

Inner speech is an intellectual function (1. speech as a means of thinking; 2. internal programming; 3. "speech to oneself")

External speech is genetically primary, gradually it turns into egocentric - its task is to carry out internalization (transfer of experience gained outside into the internal plan), it helps to keep attention and motivation.

This classification shows that speech can be transformed in the medium.

3. Types of speech by activity:

Conditionally active processes - speaking, writing (but there may be active listening and reading)

Conditionally reactive processes - listening, reading (but there may be passive speaking and writing)

4. External speech:

Written

Oral dialogic - more emotional, curtailed

monologue - formal, deployed, subject to the laws of the genre

Ontogeny of speech:

3 cooing / cooing (2-3 months) - a completely meaningless sound expression

3 babble (6 months) - the first syllables appear, this is already imitation, often meaningless, by 8 months. The language becomes native and the combination of syllables begins

3 the child begins to use his potential (9-10 months) - parents control the child's speech: they give forms, concepts, their attitude to his speech. By the age of 2, the formal side of speech is formed.

The relationship between speech and thinking in phylogenesis:

Animals have expressive, emotional speech; it is signal in nature, and the intellectual and symbolic functions of speech are absent.

^ The genetic roots of speech and thinking are different

^ The development of speech and thinking goes along different lines independently of each other

^ The relationship between thinking and speech is not a constant value throughout the phylogenetic development, the intellectual stage in the development of speech and the speech stage in the development of thinking are gradually formed

The relationship of speech and thinking:

The function of speech, as the highest function, is possible only due to the fact that a person with the help of thinking generally reflects reality. The meaning of a word (a set of features that serve to distinguish this object from the surrounding reality, ensuring the possibility of its assignment to any class), its generalized reflection is an act of thinking.

The relation of thought to word is a process, it is a movement from thought to word and back from word to thought. External speech is the process of turning thoughts into words, internal speech is thinking with pure meanings, unstable and fluid. Thought does not consist of separate words like speech.