Corrected and expanded version of the article "Details about the Neanderthal found in the ice of the Alps. Man really did not descend from the Neanderthal." Evidence of the statements from the book "Russia in Crooked Mirrors".
“Homo sapiens - modern man - appeared immediately and everywhere. Moreover, he appeared naked, hairless, weak (compared to the Neanderthal) and simultaneously on all continents. SEVERAL RACES appeared at the behest, at someone’s will, which were quite different from each other, both in skin color and in the structure of the skull, skeleton, type of metabolic processes, but with all this, all these races had one thing in common property - they were compatible with each other and gave viable offspring. By definition, a new species CANNOT appear overnight, without transitional forms and a long process of accumulation and strengthening of positive mutations. Nothing like this in modern man is SIMPLY NOT OBSERVED. The Homo sapiens took and "materialized" FROM NOWHERE. Not a single skeleton has been found older than forty thousand years, although, from that moment to the present, human skeletons are found everywhere.
But according to the skeletons found, the RACES are clearly defined - WHITE, YELLOW, RED AND BLACK. And, at the same time, the “older” the skeletons, the more clearly their racial signs are expressed, which indicates the initial “purity” of these races, which (purity) was preserved until these races began to actively mix with each other. Thus, there could not be any one race (according to orthodox science - BLACK), which, settling from the Center of its appearance - Africa, changed, and as a result, new races arose on its basis - WHITE, YELLOW and RED. The facts say otherwise.
What happened and is happening is not the appearance of new races, but on the contrary - the mixing of these races, the emergence of sub-races and their gradual convergence. In practice, it is already very difficult to find representatives of an absolutely pure nationality or nationality, due to the fact that there has been and is a process of mixing people, both different nationalities within one race, and mixing different races. What this led to and leads to, we will consider further, and now let's return to the question of the appearance of modern man and different races on the planet ...
Hence, by virtue of these data, there should be AT LEAST FOUR TRANSITIONAL HUMANOID SPECIES and, accordingly, four species that have developed the necessary positive mutations. And the most interesting thing is that these positive mutations, and the same ones, should have arisen in these ancestors of modern man SIMULTANEOUSLY, pass SYNCHRONOUSLY in FOUR DIFFERENT HUMANOID SPECIES and SIMULTANEOUSLY END ON DIFFERENT CONTINENTS AND PROVIDE IDENTICAL RESULTS...
This is BOTH PRACTICALLY AND THEORETICALLY SIMPLY IMPOSSIBLE, but this question is delicately hushed up by the “scientists” and even DOES NOT CONFUSE them in any way. Not embarrassed by the fact that so far not a single skeleton of transitional forms has been found. And the alleged ancestors - Neanderthals, moreover, the only humanoid species preceding modern man, WAS NOT AND COULD NOT BE AN ANCESTOR OF MODERN MAN. And this is not an assumption, but a “bare” fact - STUDIES OF THE DNA OF A FOUND NEANDERTHAL, frozen into an alpine glacier, gave a sensational result - MODERN HUMANS AND NEANDERTHAL ARE GENETICALLY INCOMPATIBLE, just as a horse and a zebra are genetically incompatible, although both species belong to the same order of equids, class of mammals. These humanoid species are not only incompatible, they have not even been able to produce sterile hybrids, as occurs, for example, when crossing a horse and a donkey. »
I wrote this article due to the fact that I met people who doubt the veracity of this statement, because they could not find in other sources confirmation of the existence of the discovery of the body of a Neanderthal in the Alps, which is mentioned in the above excerpt from the book “Russia in Crooked mirrors." At the same time, they believe that Nikolai Viktorovich not only lied, but changed the facts! Wait a second ... What kind of substitution of facts are we talking about? It turned out that this idea was directed to them by one interesting piece of news that they discovered during their search:
On September 19, 1991, on the border of Italy and Austria, in the Tyrolean Alps, after an extreme melting of ice on the Similaun glacier at an altitude of 10,500 feet, the body of an ancient man (called him “Otzi”). The amazingly preserved mummy is still fraught with many mysteries, although enough time has passed since the discovery. Dozens of scientists have studied the remains, but prehistoric man continues to hide secrets from modern researchers. (Illustration 1).
It turns out that indeed in the Alps they found the body of a humanoid, but not a Neanderthal, but a Cro-Magnon! That is, N.V. Levashov took this discovery as a basis, replaced one word, and it turned out to be an excellent confirmation of his concept of the past of mankind, but it only seems so at first glance! In fact, there is no change here.
P.S. Further, I will call Otzi not a Cro-Magnon, but a man or a sapiens, since the Cro-Magnon is the Homo sapiens, just a more primitive stage of development. reasonable man - Cro-Magnon, so named at the place of the first find (Cave of Cro-Magnon in France).
Let's take it in order:
I.) Age of find.
Neanderthal, Neanderthal man (lat. Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis; in Soviet literature it was also called a paleoanthrope) is a fossil human species that lived 140-24 thousand years ago, and which, according to modern scientific data, is partly the ancestor of modern man. [ one]
The “Ice Man”, Ötzi or Otzi, is an ice mummy of an ancient man, discovered in 1991 in the Tyrolean Alps on the Similaun glacier in the Ötztal valley at an altitude of 3,200 meters. The age of the mummy, determined by radiocarbon dating, is approximately 5300 years. Currently, scientists continue to study the mummy.
Here critics say that Levashov is lying, there were no Neanderthals 5300 years ago, so this is not a Neanderthal. But is it? Let's not believe the word "scientists", but ask the question: Did they correctly determine the age of Otzi's body and in general how?
So, the main problem that archaeologists faced when studying Otzi was the presence of objects with him that should not have ended up together, because they belonged to different eras. It would seem that everything is normal at first glance: leather shoes with grass for insulation; loincloth made of chamois, mountain goat and deer skins; leather shirt, belt, fur hat, gaiters, straw cape, grass net. With clothes, everything seems to be logical and correct, but with a combination of guns ...
For example, a scraper, arrowheads, a flint knife with a wooden handle belong to three periods of the Paleolithic (Ancient Paleolithic (200 million years ago), Middle Acheulean (200 thousand years ago), Upper Paleolithic (~12 thousand years ago)). In addition, Otzi had an ax and a yew bow! The ax is very reminiscent of products dating from the period 4500-5000 years ago, and the bow seems to be taken from the Middle Ages! (illustrations 2, 3, 4, 5)
Harm Paulsen (German Harm Paulsen), an archaeologist, after making 9 bows on the model of the Ötzi bow and testing them, concluded that the Ötzi bow in its technical characteristics is close to modern sports bows, and that with such a bow you can easily shoot wild animals accurately at a distance of 30-50 m. With such a bow, you can shoot at a distance of 180 m. When pulling the string by 72 cm, the fingers feel a force of 28 kgf.
It turns out that the age of the “ice man” ranges from 200 thousand years ago to 800 years ago. In general - a wide choice! But the “scientists” easily put a verdict in the form of a date exactly “5300 years ago“, they didn’t even take the AVERAGE age (!!!), but simply decided to take an ax from all his outfit and assigned the age of the body according to it.
It turns out that their logic is to choose any item from the “wardrobe” of the mummy and assign this particular date as the moment of the life of the mummy itself. Well then, let's take a bow and say that Otzi lived 800 years ago. Such is our science.
In addition, I want to tell for those who do not know that the question of recognition (fake or original) of any find is solved in the “scientific” environment very simply - VOTING!
And since science is a sub-governmental institution in our country, they will naturally vote as they say, otherwise they will lose their homes, but this is another story and any adequate resident of Russia knows what lawlessness is happening in the labor market.
I also want to immediately preempt possible criticism regarding the alleged discrepancy between the anthropometric characteristics of Otzi's skull and those officially recognized for Neanderthal skulls. The official description of the Neanderthal skull cannot be unambiguous, since there are significant variations in the various parameters of the skull INSIDE THE SPECIES, and this is noticeable even to those who do not “fumble” in anthropometry. If we take the “classic” Neanderthal skull, we see strongly protruding jaws, large brow ridges, a low forehead and a long skull, compared to the sapiens skull (Figure 6). Firstly, Otzi has a long skull, like that of a Neanderthal, compare yourself with the length of the skull of a modern person (illustrations 7, 8, 9). Someone rightly notes that Otzi has a high forehead and the jaw does not protrude far forward, which means that he is a sapiens. But that doesn't mean! Take a look at other classic Neanderthal skulls such as Skhul 5 (Figure 10), Qafzeh 9 (Figure 11), and Amud 1 (Figure 12).
“Amud I is often regarded as a classic Neanderthal, but in a number of ways, especially the facial skeleton, it turns out to be much more sapient than the hominids from the Skhul and Qafzeh caves. For example, the relative size of the upper jaw is much smaller than that of the Neanderthals of Europe, and the shape of the alveolar arch does not differ from the modern one, although the alveolar process is noticeably flattened in front. Sapient form of the alveolar arch and the ratio of the condylar and angular width of the mandible. Unlike the Schuls, Amud I's pelvis is comparatively small, with a fairly short pubic bone. »
The skulls of Skhul 5 and Kafhez 9 have high foreheads, like most sapiens. The jaws of Amud 1 protrude forward like that of a sapiens, the teeth are the same size as ours. So it’s fair to say that Otzi’s skull can be mistaken for both a Neanderthal skull and a sapiens skull. BUT the fact that the skull is long suggests that Otzi still belongs to the Neanderthals.
As a result, according to the anthropometric parameters of the skull, with a margin of one point (the length of the skull), the version that OTCI is a NEANDERTHAL wins.
II.) Analysis of Neanderthal reconstructions.
Let's compare Otzi's reconstruction and the reconstructions of Neanderthals attached to the article, which anyone can see EVEN on Wikipedia or even on the Internet. But all of them have one gross mistake - the lack of a thick woolen cover, more on that below.
Names of reconstructions:
1) An old man from La Chapelle-aux-Seine. Graphic reconstruction by John Hawkes(Illustration 13);
2) Reconstruction from La Ferrassie(Illustration 14);
3) Reconstruction of Shanidar burial(Illustration 15).
So based on the above, it is clear that Otzi, more than possibly, could have lived 25 thousand years ago, this is only 20 thousand years older than announced. And if we take into account the “reserve” of 175 thousand years, based on the maximum age of the find (200 thousand years ago), then this version is more likely than the official one. And since there is no other more probable hypothesis (at least I have not met it), you will have to accept it in order to move forward in the study. We figured out what kind of species Otzi still belongs to.
Note: Like the Otzi reconstruction, the rest of the Neanderthal reconstructions lack the very thick coat they should have (Figures 16 and 17).
The fact is that there are two views of the scientific world on the hairline of Neanderthals:
1) Sparse hair on the chest, back and partly on the arms and legs.
2) Thick hair covering almost the entire body.
Why did they choose the first option for reconstruction?
The answer is simple: this option is more convenient to use for evolutionary theory, where a person comes from primates, they say, gradually, species by species, the hair disappeared. Australopithecus were completely hairy, after them the Neanderthals already had a partial hairline, and finally a reasonable man - almost naked. So this is just a guess, and even more ordered. The second option is much more logical, because earlier the climate was much more severe and the hairline of the whole body would be better suited for the survival of the species. Moreover, Neanderthals naturally did not immediately know how to make themselves a semblance of clothing and would simply die out until they learned. After all, until they thought of it and made the first cape, more than one millennium passed, and did they really manage without thick wool all this time? Of course not! This is the kind of absurdity that orthodox science offers us.
In any case, even she admits that Neanderthal hair was much thicker than that of humans. I also want to note that the muscle mass of the Neanderthal was basically 30-40% more than that of the Cro-Magnon and the skeleton is heavier. Also, Neanderthals adapted better to the subarctic climate, since the large nasal cavity warmed up the cold air better, thereby reducing the risk of colds.
« Before entering the evolutionary arenaHomoSapiens - modern man - his ecological apartment was occupied by a humanoid species called by anthropologistsNeanderthalMan (Neanderthal), who thoroughly mastered this "ecological apartment" for several hundred thousand years of its development. Moreover, Neanderthals ousted all other humanoid species from this ecological niche and the only ones reigned on Earth, and at the same time, they populated the WHOLE EARTH, all its climatic zones, but, nevertheless, for all these millennia, different races of Neanderthals did not appear . Only ONE RACE OF NEANDERTHALS reigned on the whole earth, each of which physically significantly exceeded
Cro-Magnon man, was covered with thick hair, which they never got rid of, and most likely did not even try. The saber-toothed tiger was the only serious enemy that gave them some trouble. Neanderthals ate their own kind.
Moreover, for them prey, food was everyone who was not a member of their clan, herd or tribe. Of course, it is difficult to judge the intelligence of the Neanderthals, but there is also no evidence that they were smarter than the Cro-Magnon. And so, they reigned calmly for hundreds of thousands of years, until, about forty thousand years ago (according to anthropology), no one knows where, suddenly take and appear a modern man in person ... Homo Sapiens - modern man
- appeared immediately and everywhere. Moreover, he appeared naked, hairless, weak (compared to the Neanderthal) and simultaneously on all continents. »
A quote from the book of the scientist - Rus, Nikolai Levashov "Russia in Crooked Mirrors, Volume 1. From Star Russ to Defiled Russians."
Therefore, it is most likely that Otzi, like other Neanderthals, looked in accordance with the reconstruction of František Kupka under the direction of M. Buhl (Figure 18). The only drawback of this reconstruction is that it depicts too primate features of the muzzle; in this aspect of appearance, the three above reconstructions are more realistic. In general, to imagine a complete picture of Otzi's appearance, “stick” thick wool from the reconstruction of František Kupka to the Neanderthal man from La Ferrassie. You get what Zdenek Burian drew (Figure 19), his reconstruction is the most realistic .
III.) Neanderthals were far from stupid.
American and Italian anthropologists dispelled the myth about the low intellectual level of the Neanderthals who inhabited Europe 40-50 thousand years ago. It turned out that they were able to adapt to environmental conditions and invent new weapons.
American and Italian archaeologists during excavations of Neanderthal sites in South and Central Italy noticed that the objects found at one of them differ sharply both in the quality of processing and in type from artifacts from other sites. Anthropologists have found that the Neanderthal tribe that lived in these places made weapons from stone, which differed from the products of other Neanderthal tribes.
According to scientists, the reason for this difference could be that as a result of a cold snap 42-44 thousand years ago, in southern Italy, the number of reservoirs and, accordingly, large game decreased sharply. The Neanderthals who lived here had to hunt smaller prey. In order to increase the efficiency of hunting, they came up with a new technique for processing flintlock weapons, and also made them more elegant.
So the bow and copper ax found at Otzi, based on the latest data on the mind of Neanderthals, are not particularly surprising. Otzi may have made these tools himself, or maybe he stole them from people or simply simply found what was lost by a person. He would definitely have had enough sense to use a copper ax, since the Neanderthals used stone weapons with a bang, and the mechanism of use is similar - to chop, cut and hollow. As for the bow, he could see how people use it and, having stolen one, just carry it with him, knowing that it is a useful thing, and maybe even learned how to use it at a primitive level.
IV.) Genetic incompatibility between Neanderthal and modern man.
Here is what the famous Russian scientist L.N. writes about this. Gumilyov:
« Under circumstances unknown to us, the Neanderthals disappeared and were replaced by people of the modern type - "reasonable people." In Palestine, material traces of the collision of two types of people have been preserved: intelligent and Neanderthal. In the caves of Skhil and Tabun on Mount Carmel, the remains of crossbreeds of two species were found. It is difficult to imagine the conditions for this hybrid, especially considering that Neanderthals were cannibals. In any case, the new mixed species proved to be UNSUSTAINABLE.»
The offspring of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons were NOT SUSTAINABLE, which means that the Neanderthal could not have been the previous link in human evolution. The official theory contradicts the laws of nature, namely, the laws of genetic compatibility of species!!!
For a long time, the evolutionist choir sang everywhere about how genetically similar humans and chimpanzees are. In every work of the followers of the theory of evolution, one could read such lines as "we are 99 percent identical to chimpanzees" or "only 1% of DNA humanized chimpanzees."
Analyzes of certain types of proteins have shown that humans share characteristics not only with chimpanzee molecules, but with even more diverse living organisms. The structure of proteins of all these species is similar to human ones. For example, according to the results of a genetic analysis published in the journal New Scientist, it turned out that the DNA of roundworms and humans coincide by 75%. But this does not mean that a human and a worm differ from each other by only 25%!
The fact is that modern scientists say that only 5% of our DNA is used to process proteins. It is this part of DNA that is of interest to European and American geneticists. These 5% are subjected to study and cataloging in scientific institutions. The remaining 95% have not yet been studied by geneticists and are considered "empty, junk DNA." That is, it is the DNA that is used in digestion that is being studied (more on this later) and it makes up only 5%!!! But on the basis of these, affirmative conclusions are drawn, of course, this is an absurd method and it will not give anything intelligible.
It is quite natural that the human body in its structure has molecules similar to those of other living organisms, because they were all created from the same material, and use the same water and the same air, as well as food consisting of the same smallest particles of atoms. . Of course, their metabolic processes and, accordingly, their genetic structure resemble each other. And yet, this fact does not indicate their evolution from a common ancestor. This "single material" arose from "general design", a single plan according to which all living things were created and has nothing to do with evolutionary processes. This question can be easily explained by the following example: all buildings on Earth are built from the same materials - brick, iron, cement, etc. However, we are not saying that these buildings "evolved" one from the other. They are built separately using common materials. The same thing happened with living organisms. However, the complexity of the structure of living organisms cannot be compared with the design of the bridge.
Also, the external coincidence of DNA of different species cannot be a criterion for assessing their genetic similarity (genetic distance).
Genetic distance (GD) is a measure of genetic difference (divergence) between species, subspecies, or populations of the same species. A small genetic distance means genetic similarity, a larger genetic distance means less genetic similarity.
But there is another way, this is a comparison of halogroups (it is this method that gives a REAL idea of \u200b\u200bcompatibility of species), in this case, Neanderthal and man:
Deciphering the genetic code of the world-famous "Tyrolean ice man" or Otzi, frozen several thousand years ago in the Alpine glaciers and found in 1991, showed that he is not an ancestor of any modern people.
In October 2008, Italian and British scientists, based on data obtained from the analysis of Otzi's mitochondrial genome, concluded that he is not an ancestor of any of modern humans. In 2000, for the first time, scientists thawed the body and took from its intestines samples of DNA contained in mitochondria - a kind of energy stations of cells. Preliminary analysis showed that the ice man belonged to the so-called K1 subhaplogroup. About 8% of modern Europeans belong to haplogroup K, which is divided into sub-haplogroups K1 and K2. K1, in turn, is divided into three clusters.
It turned out that the iceman genome does not fit into any of the three known K1 clusters. For now, this means that no one can claim to be a descendant of Otzi. It is very important to understand that DNA was taken not from bones, as in other cases, but from soft tissues, so this analysis is an order of magnitude more important in determining the genetics of the Neanderthal.
That is, a modern person cannot be a descendant of a Neanderthal, however, some still do not know that dolphins are not fish, but mammals.
Back in 1997, based on the analysis of the DNA of the first Neanderthal, scientists at the University of Munich concluded that the differences in genes are too great to consider Neanderthals the ancestors of Cro-Magnons (that is, modern people). The genetic divergence between modern humans and Neanderthals occurred about 500 thousand years ago, that is, even before the spread of the current human races. These conclusions were confirmed by leading experts from Zurich, and later from all over Europe and America. For a long time (15-35 thousand years), Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons coexisted and were at enmity. In particular, at the sites of both Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons, gnawed bones of a different species were found. In particular, Jean-Jacques Hublen, a professor at the University of Bordeaux, holds this opinion.
This article is another confirmation that man could not appear on this planet, where did he come from then? Perhaps it is worth thinking about it. How much of what we know and have been sure of since childhood is true?
“There is a difference between knowing facts and understanding their full meaning”
A.T. Mahan.
The article was written by Kalachev VecheSlav, 2013.
http://vk.com/vecheslav_k
P.S. Distribution of articles is welcome.
I answer questions about the article only in my group.
List of used literature:
J. L. Bischoff et al. (2003). "The Sima de los Huesos Hominids Date to Beyond U/Th Equilibrium (>350 kyr) and Perhaps to 400–500 kyr: New Radiometric Dates".J. Archaeol. sci.
Stanislav DROBYSHEVSKY,
anthropologist, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor of the Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Biology, Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov, scientific editor of ANTROPOGENEZ.RU:
“Many people ask themselves: how are Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons related to their ancestors? Where did they come from?
Many people know that there were some australopithecines, then early Homo (Habilis, Rudolphensis), then there were Homo erectus, then bam - Neanderthals and sapiens appear. And, on the one hand, it turns out that, if you look from afar, the culture of sapiens and Neanderthals is somewhat similar, while the erectus have some kind of Acheulian axes, cleavers, and they are completely different. And how this, on the one hand, is culturally interconnected, and, on the other hand, biologically, eludes many.
In fact, the opposition of erectus on the one hand and everyone else on the other is completely artificial. That is, this is a legacy of the times when Fulroth found a Neanderthal, Dubois found a Pithecanthropus, and others found a Cro-Magnon man. And there were three points: the erectus were older, then later - the Ice Age - with mammoths and Neanderthals, then also the Ice Age with the same mammoths, but with the Cro-Magnons. And there is a hole between them. 150 years have passed since these finds, and now it is known that there were many more interesting things in between.
Eugène Dubois, Dutch anthropologist who discovered and described the remains of Pithecanthropus in 1891
And, in fact, probably in the middle was the most interesting. And in the middle between erectus and all other late people were Homo heidelbergensis. The name is arbitrary, because the specific name Homo heidelbergensis refers to a specific jaw from the village of Mauer in Germany, which, by the way, is generally not clear who it is, since it is a jaw.
In a broad sense, Homo heidelbergensis or paleoanthropes, or postarchanthropes are the descendants of erectus, on the one hand, the ancestors of the Neanderthals. This is a European line, which then settled in Asia. And African ones are also conditionally Heidelbergensis - they are called Homo rhodesiensis or Homo helmei, they are all the same. These are the ancestors of the sapiens that originated in Africa. At some point, they crawled out of this Africa and began to interact with the Neanderthals. Knowing that there were Homo Heidelbergensis with their cultures, we see that there is a direct, completely immediate succession between erectus and later hominids.
That is, erectors came out of Africa several times. The first exit was, strictly speaking, even before the erectus. These are people in Dmanisi in Georgia. According to their physical type, if they look like someone, then they are like rudolfensis (Homo rudolfensis), who lived in Africa a little earlier. But this line, with a high probability, was a dead end and ended in nothing.
Then, probably, the descendants of these Dmanisians or, perhaps, some kind of their own line once again left Africa, reached Asia, settled there right up to Java, and from there even reached the island of Flores (Indonesia), where hobbits (Homo floresiensis) arose) . In Java, evolution went its own way: people from Ngandong or Solo (river) arose there. Some branches went to Sulawesi - who was there is unknown, only guns were found there. Someone got to the Philippines: there is a dwarf metatarsal bone from the foot, which belonged to a dwarf man.
Someone evolved in Asia, east to south at least Altai. The most famous are the Denisovans, they have their own branch, but very little is known about them. During this entire eastern part of history is still covered in darkness.
It is well known what happened in Europe and Africa. In Europe, these erectus descendants were called Homo heidelbergensis. Scientists have a beautiful chain: Sima del Elefante (Spain), Gran Atapuerca Valley (Spain) and a lot of other finds: Sima de los Huesos (Spain), Stenheim (Germany), Swanscombe (England) and much more . Between these people of Europe probably there were separate specific groups. More archaic - guys with huge eyebrows and scary nape. Or people from Ceprano (Italy) and others - there were quite massive citizens there. There were also quite gracile ones, for example, from the same Swanscombe, they are a little simpler. There were slightly larger ones and slightly smaller ones, but anyway, they were all Homo Heidelbergensis. A lot of interesting things happened to them because, on the one hand, in terms of culture, this is also Ashel, that is, the heritage of African erectus in direct form.
But Ashel is quite beautiful, because if the Acheulean cuts in Africa are all crooked, slanting and clumsy, then the European late Ashel is beautiful. There, the hacks were of perfect symmetry, even and perfectly made. That is, typologically, this is also Ashel, but it is clear that this is a new level. It's like a cart and a normal car - it also seems to have wheels and drives along the road, but this one is all crooked, slanting and dried up, and this one shines and you want to ride it. And these European Heidelbergensis have many wonderful innovations, and they have been actively burning fire since about 350,000 years ago or a little earlier. They have a lot of use of fire, that is, before that, somewhere, somehow, they burned it 20 times in a million years, and then suddenly they begin to actively use it. They start building normal dwellings. True, here many archaeologists argue: many of their traces have been found. They have composite tools, where several elements are interconnected and the idea arises of attaching the tip to the shaft, smearing it there with resin, tying it with ropes, etc. They have some kind of rituals, complexes arise, where it is clear that something was going on in their head, that they were wiser, stalactites were folded in circles, bear skulls were burned and something else was wiser. In the end, they have children's toys when a small tool is also made using Acheulean technology.
And so, slowly, by the time 150,000 years ago, all this flows into the Neanderthals. A couple more ice ages - and now ready-made Neanderthals are already on the way. They are improving the tools that go to a new level Mustier. Everything is completely new, there are decorations, normal burials and many other interesting things. But all this is a direct legacy of these very European Heidelbergensis. And then they “cook” in Europe, go to the Middle East, reach Altai and then start having fun.
At the same time that the Heidelbergensis lived in Europe, in Africa, their closest relatives, who looked almost the same, slowly evolved into sapiens. This is the culture of the so-called Middle Stone Age of Africa, which is not the Middle Paleolithic, but the Middle Stone Age. Oddly enough, these are different words. These are cultures that are also the heirs of Ashel, and they also sometimes have quite beautiful axes, but at the same time they begin to make a lot of arrowheads, actively use ocher, somehow more actively use the resources of the environment: there are plants, almost to hunt seals with whales etc. They massively appear bone tools, at some point individual decorations.
And in the interval from 200,000 years ago, when the influence of Ashel was still quite felt, to 50,000 years ago, when it disappeared completely, sapiens appears. From these very erectoid initial forms: muzzy, with terrible eyebrows, with huge napes, with large jaws without a chin, and the face became smaller, the back of the head was rounder, the brow was weaker, the forehead was more prominent, the jaw began to protrude ... And 50,000 thousand years back already quite a sapiens, maybe even a little earlier, already with a chin and teeth have become smaller. And the weapons change.
Then, when they move to the Middle East, the Pre-Aurignacian culture arises. Here, however, the story is also a bit obscure, because there are different ideas about it, but in a broad sense it remains pre-Aurignac. And, characteristically, there are transitional cultures from the Middle Stone Age in Africa to the Classical Paleolithic in Europe. For example, in the Middle East there is an Acheulean-Yabrudo culture. It is, as it were, Acheulean - Ashelo-Yabrud, and, on the other hand, Yabrud, and there are already plates there. That is, on the one hand, these are axes - terrible and quite erectoid, and, on the other hand, plates, although clumsy, but plates, and the plate technique is the basis of the culture of the Upper Paleolithic. That is, quite sapient. Then these axes disappear completely, only the plates remain. That's it - here we have a beautiful wonderful transition from the classical Acheulean to the classical Upper Paleolithic. Plus 150,000 years of the Middle Stone Age in between where something else was changing. Moreover, there were many different cultures, and they were not always alike.
There is a transition in morphology and there is a transition in culture. They're in the Middle East - these come out sapiens meet the Neanderthals. Neanderthals disappear quite quickly, in just 10,000 years, and only sapiens remain on the entire planet. That's all interaction."
Judging by the studies of human evolution, the Neanderthal could have descended from one of the subspecies of Homo erectus -. Heidelberg man was one of several species and was not the ancestor of man, although he had the ability to make tools and use fire. Neanderthal became his descendant and the last in this evolutionary line.
The very name "Neanderthal" refers to the discovery of the skull of a representative of this species. The skull was found in 1856 in West Germany in the Neandertal Gorge. The gorge itself, in turn, was named after the famous theologian and composer Joachim Neander. It should be noted that this was not the first find. The remains of a Neanderthal were first found in 1829 in Belgium. The second find was discovered in 1848 in Gibraltar. Subsequently, many remains of Neanderthals were found. Initially, they were attributed to the direct ancestors of man, and it was even suggested that human evolution could look like this - Australopithecus-Pithecanthropus-Neanderthal-modern man. However, this view was later rejected. As it turned out, neither Neanderthal nor Neanderthal is related to the ancestors of people and are parallel branches of evolution, completely extinct.
After examining the remains of the Neanderthals, it became clear that they were almost as advanced as the Cro-Magnons. Moreover, there are suggestions that the Neanderthal could be even smarter than the Cro-Magnon, since the volume of his skull was even larger than that of a modern person and amounted to 1400-1740 cm³. Neanderthals were about 165 cm tall. They also had a massive physique. In appearance, they differed from modern people and our ancestors, the Cro-Magnons, who existed at the same time. Distinctive features of their faces were powerful brow ridges, a wide protruding nose and a small chin. The short neck is tilted forward. The hands of the Neanderthal were short, paw-shaped. According to some assumptions, Neanderthals had light skin and red hair. The structure of the brain and vocal apparatus of the Neanderthal suggests that they had speech.
The Neanderthal was clearly more powerful than the Cro-Magnon. He had 30-40% more muscle mass, and the skeleton is heavier. Apparently, having met one on one, the Neanderthal could easily defeat the Cro-Magnon. However, despite this, the Cro-Magnon turned out to be the winner in the interspecies battle. Archaeologists find bones of Neanderthals at the Cro-Magnon sites, on which there are traces characteristic of eating. Neanderthal teeth necklaces have also been found - apparently belonged to warriors and were worn as a trophy showing military merit. Another interesting find is the tibia of a Neanderthal, which was used by the Cro-Magnons as a box that contained ocher powder. These and many other finds suggest that Cro-Magnons and Neanderthals could wage war for territory, and Cro-Magnons even ate Neanderthals for food.
Despite the fact that, according to external signs, the Neanderthals were more powerful, the Cro-Magnons were still able to exterminate them. Scientists make assumptions that this outcome of events occurred due to the fact that there were much more Cro-Magnons, that the Cro-Magnons had a new weapon (throwing, more modern spears, axes), which the Neanderthals did not have. There are also suggestions that by that time the ancestors of people were able to tame a dog / wolf, which made it possible to hunt other species of people more effectively. In addition, there are suggestions that the Neanderthals were not completely destroyed, and some of this species assimilated to the Cro-Magnons.
Neanderthals were able to create tools for labor and hunting. They could use stone-tipped spears for close combat. The Neanderthals also developed art. So, for example, an image of a leopard was found on the bones of a bison, decorations were painted shells with holes. Findings of birds with cut feathers may indicate that Neanderthals decorated themselves with feathers, like the American Indians.
It is believed that the Neanderthals could first appear the beginnings of the emergence of religious ideas, life after death. This conclusion can be drawn from studies of Neanderthal burials. In one of the burials, a Neanderthal man rests in the form of an embryo. Researchers attribute this method of burial to ideas about the rebirth of the soul, when the deceased is given the form of an embryo, believing that this will help him become a newborn again and come into the world in another body. Near another grave of a Neanderthal, flowers, eggs and meat were found, which indicates the cult representations of Neanderthals - feeding the spirit or offerings to spirits. However, other researchers doubt the religious beliefs of the Neanderthals, explaining the presence of colors and poses of the embryo by accidental factors or by later stratifications.
Cro-Magnons. Archaeological finds and reconstructions:
Neanderthals are ancient fossil people - paleoanthropes who lived 200-35 thousand years ago (the end of the early and middle Paleolithic) in Europe, Asia and Africa. Name after one of the first (1856) finds in the Neandertal valley (Neandertal), near Düsseldorf in Germany. Neanderthals occupied an intermediate position between archanthropes and fossil humans of a modern physical type. The Neanderthals of Western Europe are characterized by: short stature (about 160 cm), large brain (up to 1700 cubic centimeters), a skull with a developed supraorbital ridge and a sloping forehead, and a lower jaw without a chin protrusion. Many scientists consider the late Western European Neanderthals as a special branch in human evolution that has not received further development. At the same time, Neanderthals, whose bone remains were found in Western Asia, have (compared to Western European) certain progressive features (for example, the presence of a weakly pronounced chin protrusion, a higher and more rounded cranial vault), bringing them closer to fossil people of a modern physical type.
Paleoanthropes or "archaic sapiens". Hominins of the period from about 500 to 35 thousand years ago are referred to as paleoanthropes or "archaic sapiens". They are systematically divided into "Heidelberg Man" (Homo heidelbergensis or Pithecanthropus heidelbergensis) and Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis).
The biological evolution of hominins continued in the direction of reducing the massiveness of the skull and increasing the volume and complexity of the structure of the brain. It is significant that the volume of the brain grew faster than the structure developed and the shape changed. In some representatives of paleoanthropes, the size of the brain reached modern values; in general, the range of brain volume in them reached 1000-1700 cm3.
According to the complication of the structure of the brain, the behavior of people became more complicated. Whereas early paleoanthropes used the Acheulean stone-working technique, later ones improved upon it. Approximately 200 thousand years ago, the Mousterian technique appeared - more advanced and economical. Typical tools of the Mousterian era are the pointed and scraper. The cultural difference of territorial groups of people increased. In Asia, primitive methods of stone processing were preserved for a long time. In Europe, Mousterian technology reached its peak and became noticeably specialized. African cultures were especially progressive. So, in Africa, traditions of bone processing and the use of ocher appeared very early, possibly for ritual purposes.
Paleoanthropes, like their ancestors, continued to migrate around the planet. What pushed them to long-distance migrations? Or maybe the movement on the Earth was very, very slow, and only in the long term it looks so fast? The motives for migrations were, apparently, the movement after the nomadic herds of ungulates, the depletion of natural resources, and the increase in population. Getting into new ecological conditions, people learned to cope with various natural difficulties. Apparently, the appearance of clothing dates back to this time. The methods of building dwellings were improved, people actively populated the caves, driving out large predators - bears, lions and hyenas. The methods of hunting animals have noticeably improved, as evidenced by the numerous remains of bones in the parking lots. European Neanderthals were, in fact, the main predators of their time. However, there is also evidence of cannibalism among paleoanthropes. Skulls with broken bases, incised and burned human bones in the caves of Sima de los Huesos in Spain, Krapina in Yugoslavia, Steinheim in Germany, Monte Circeo in Italy, Bodo in Ethiopia, the Clasies River in South Africa and many other places testify to the dramatic episodes of human prehistory.
It was noted that the frontal lobe of Neanderthals, which is responsible for social behavior in modern humans, was relatively poorly developed (Kochetkova V.I., 1973). Perhaps this led to greater aggressiveness of the Neanderthals. The progressive development of this area of the cerebral cortex occurred at a significant pace, in parallel with the complication of the behavior and structure of primitive society. a. Important changes took place in the psyche of ancient people. Symbolic activity was born. Its first samples cannot even be called art: these are pits on stones, traced stripes on limestone, bones and pieces of ocher. However, such non-utilitarian activity indicates a significant complication of the mental processes of paleoanthropes.
Even more significant is the archaeological evidence for Neanderthal ritual practices. So, in the caves of Germany, Yugoslavia and the Caucasus, caches were discovered with the skulls of cave bears hidden there. What rituals were celebrated under these vaults? It is not even known whether Neanderthals had speech: the opinions of different scientists on this matter differ. If there was speech, then it was very different from the modern one, since the Neanderthal larynx was different from the modern one. th. The most important evidence of the high level of the Neanderthal psyche is the first burials of the dead. The most ancient of them date back to about 100 thousand years ago. Probably, at the same time, the first ideas about the afterlife appeared, although one can only guess about this. Social relationships among paleoanthropes have become noticeably more complicated in comparison with archanthropes. In addition to the indicated evidence of cannibalism and burials of the dead, care for the sick can also be attributed here. In the cave of Shanidar in Iraq, the skeleton of an old man who suffered from a whole range of serious illnesses was discovered. He could not move independently and get his own food, but he reached a very old age by Neanderthal standards - his age is estimated at 40 years. Obviously, this old man was fed by his relatives, looked after him, and after his death was buried. By the way, in another burial from the same cave, an unusually high concentration of pollen from mountain flowers was found - was the grave covered with them? Outwardly, paleoanthropes differed greatly. They had a huge brow and a high face, a wide nose, a heavy lower jaw with a sloping chin, and a sloping forehead. The back of the head of many paleoanthropes protruded strongly backwards. However, all these signs were not as pronounced as in archanthropes. The early forms attributed to the "Heidelberg Man" were still very similar to the archanthropes, differing in a significantly larger brain. Isolated from the rest of the world, populations in Java remained almost entirely similar to archanthropes and are sometimes distinguished as Pithecanthropus soloensis. Late paleoanthropes, attributed to Neanderthals, had a number of specific features, for example, a very strongly protruding broad face with sloping cheekbones. Many signs of European Neanderthals could have arisen under the influence of the most difficult conditions of the ice age about 60 thousand years ago. The physique of the Neanderthals was very stocky, the legs were relatively short, the chest was barrel-shaped, the shoulders were very wide. The width of the hand and foot of Neanderthals is striking. Obviously, they were very strong people, accustomed to enormous physical exertion. Such specialized forms of Neanderthals are often referred to as "classical" because their skeletons were the first paleoanthropological finds found and described. Interesting analogies to the morphotype of European Neanderthals can be found among modern Arctic peoples - the Chukchi and Eskimos. Broad shoulders, barrel-chested, stocky build are adaptations to the arctic climate. However, in Neanderthals, the biological specialization for cold has gone much further than in modern Arctic human populations. The differences between Neanderthals and modern humans were very significant. They are all the more significant because for at least 5 thousand years Neanderthals coexisted in Europe with modern humans. Were they our ancestors? Scholars answer this question in different ways. Some African and Near Eastern populations synchronous with European Neanderthals were much more similar to modern humans. Many researchers even refer them to the modern form. People from the Clazies River in South Africa, from the caves of Skhul and Jebel Kafzeh in Israel and some others had a chin protrusion, the back of the head was rounded, and the skull was high. The size and shape of the brain of these people is almost indistinguishable from the modern one. Datings exceed 100 thousand years. What - modern people arose simultaneously with the Neanderthals? What happened in Asia? The Middle East and Central Asia were inhabited by two types of people. Some were more like the Neanderthals of Europe, others were more like the progressive paleoanthropes of Africa and the people from the caves of Skhul and Jebel Qafzeh. It is characteristic that the culture of all these people was very similar. In the Far East, the population, synchronous with the Heidelberg people of Europe and Africa - up to 130 thousand years ago, almost did not differ from them externally. The future fate of this population is unclear. Anthropological finds from the Far East in the interval from 130 to 40 thousand years ago are unknown. Then there immediately appear people of a completely modern appearance. What is it - global extinction or incompleteness of our knowledge? So far, we do not have an answer to this question.
3. The emergence of modern man (sapientation). Views on the origin of modern man - sapientation - have changed significantly with the development of science. Currently, there are several alternative views on this problem. All of them are strongly argued, but none can defeat the other.
Sapientation is the process of the emergence of the modern human species Homo sapiens sapiens, which consists both in biological restructuring - an increase in the brain, rounding of the skull, a decrease in the size of the face, the appearance of a chin protrusion - and in sociocultural innovations - the emergence of art, symbolic behavior, technical progress, the development of languages.
First of all, there are several opinions about who should be considered a modern person? The next question depends on the answer - by what time to look in search of the ancestral home? The authors of the early XX century. the question of the origin of man was the question of the origin of races. Then, with new finds and dates, the chronological moment of the appearance of the "first modern man" was constantly pushed back, while the moment of the separation of the races remained in the same place. At present, the emergence of the modern species and the emergence of modern races have become two separate problems and are usually considered separately.
Where do we find the first traces of the first people, indistinguishable from us? In several African localities with dates from 200 to 100 thousand years ago, bones of people were found who did not have a strongly protruding nape, a large superciliary ridge, and at the same time had a very large brain and a protruding chin. Similar finds were made in the Middle East - in the caves of Skhul and Qafzeh. Since about 40 thousand years ago, people of a completely modern appearance, only somewhat more massive than we are - neoanthropes - have been known from almost the entire territory of the ecumene - from Africa, Europe, Asia and Australia. Only America may have been settled somewhat later.
The population of Europe, belonging to the modern species, who lived in the era of the Upper Paleolithic - from 40 to 10 thousand years ago - is called Cro-Magnons. It is easy to see that Cro-Magnons in Europe coexisted with Neanderthals for 5 thousand years in a row. They differed from each other not only in terms of physical structure. The Cro-Magnons had a much more perfect culture. The technique of making tools has grown immeasurably. They began to be made from plates - specially prepared blanks, which made it possible to manufacture much more elegant tools than the Mousterian pointed ones. The Cro-Magnons also widely used animal bones for making tools. The technical equipment of people has grown - bows and arrows have appeared.
The most significant phenomenon is the flowering of Upper Paleolithic art. In the caves of France, Spain and Italy, excellent examples of rock art have been preserved, in the layers of sites from Brittany to Baikal, statuettes of people and animals made of bones and limestone were found. The handles of knives and spear-throwers were decorated with intricate carvings. Clothes were decorated with beads and painted with ocher.
Art had a magical meaning at that time. Images of animals are accompanied by signs of arrows and spears, designed to facilitate the upcoming hunt. Judging by the traces of teenagers in the clay in front of the cave paintings, initiation into hunters was also carried out here. Of course, we can only assume the true meaning of these traces of the spiritual life of our ancestors, but its richness and the fundamental similarity of the psyche of people of that time with ours is undoubted. about. .
The settlements of the Upper Paleolithic people were usually regularly visited hunting camps. Dwellings were built here, the life of society went on, rituals were performed, and the dead were buried. Ritual practice has reached its peak. In the grave with the deceased, the Cro-Magnons put tools, spears, stone knives, and numerous decorations. At the same time, the burial was covered with red ocher, sometimes covered with mammoth bones from above. Obviously, at this time, ideas about the afterlife arise.
In the Upper Paleolithic era, man tamed the wolf, turning it into a dog. So man himself began to actively influence the process of speciation in animals (the phenomenon of the so-called artificial selection).
Much less is known about the population of Africa and Asia during the Upper Paleolithic than about the population of Europe. However, they were fundamentally similar both biologically and culturally.
Where did the world so understandable to us come from, how did it fit in with the completely different world of the Neanderthals? Some biological features of the oldest Upper Paleolithic people suggest that they came to Europe from tropical regions. Long limbs, high stature, elongated body proportions, large jaws, elongated braincase are similar in modern tropical populations and Cro-Magnons. The latter differ only in the large size of the bones, the strong relief of the skull, and coarser features. But, if the Cro-Magnons were aliens, where did they come from? How did they interact with the natives - Neanderthals?
First of all, it is worth mentioning the fate of European Neanderthals. Previously, it was believed that they evolved into modern humans, one stage passed into another. This opinion arose even when only European finds were known. Now such a scenario seems almost unbelievable - the differences in structure and culture are too great, and the coexistence of Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons has already been proven. Perhaps the Neanderthals died out or were exterminated by the Cro-Magnons? However, the Neanderthals were better adapted to the conditions of the ice age, especially given the tropical origin of the Cro-Magnons. Prior to this, Neanderthals lived in this territory for many thousands of years and were perfectly adapted to just such an environment. And physically they were much stronger than the Cro-Magnons. Some scholars believe that an immeasurably higher level of technical equipment and social organization helped the Cro-Magnons in the struggle for territory. In addition, a mixture of some groups of the first neoanthropes and later Neanderthals is not at all excluded. This is evidenced by the finds of skeletons with intermediate features, probably Neanderthal and Cro-Magnon mestizos. One can also recall the features of the Mousterian in the early Upper Paleolithic of Europe and the features of the Upper Paleolithic at some Mousterian sites. And the remains of both late Neanderthals and early Cro-Magnons are associated with the Chatelperron culture. Probably, it was this mixture of genes and cultures that helped the first neoanthropes quickly adapt to completely new natural conditions for them. And haven’t Europeans since then had a relatively wide hand, a wide foot, a massive, compared with the population of other continents, skull and skeleton?
Now there is no unambiguous answer to the question about the fate of the Neanderthals. New research is yet to shed light on this interesting problem.
