Question #4

XII-XIII centuries in Russia went down in history as a period of feudal fragmentation. After the death of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Kievan Rus splits into many principalities and lands. Undoubtedly, the main reason for the split of a large centralized state was the lack of interest among local princes and boyars in the strong power of the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The development of separate landownership, the possibility of transferring land by inheritance made them absolute masters, independent of Kyiv.

Serious reasons for fragmentation can be called the large size of the state and the associated difficulties of governance, the lack of a clear system of succession to the throne and princely strife.
In the process of decentralization, Kiev, Chernigov-Seversk, Pereslavl, Volyn, Galicia, Vladimir-Suzdal, Polotsk and other principalities are distinguished.

Local princes are reforming the state apparatus, creating their own armed forces - "teams". Principalities are now divided into volosts. Gradually, the role of the people's assembly decreased. Although in Novgorod and Pskov the boyar republic was the form of government.

The principality of Kiev remained the nationwide center, which housed the residence of the metropolitans. In fact, there was only a change in the form of the state system. Some scholars call it the Federal Monarchy, since the main issues of domestic and especially foreign policy were decided collectively by the most influential princes. An important argument in favor of such a policy was the constant threat from the Polovtsians. In the 60s - 70s of the XII century. two centers stand out that are trying to unite the Russian lands around themselves - Kyiv and Vladimir-on-Klyazma. But the strengthening of the influence of the boyars, which put their own local interests above the national interests, again causes an aggravation of princely relations and accelerates the processes of fragmentation. This was used by external enemies - the crusader knights, the Polovtsians. But the Tatar-Mongols inflicted the most catastrophic destruction on Russia.

At the end of the XII - the beginning of the XIII centuries. in Central Asia, a powerful military-feudal Mongolian state is being created. In 1206 it was headed by Temujin, proclaimed Genghis Khan. Conquest wars against neighbors immediately begin, and then the Tatar-Mongols gradually move towards the borders of Kievan Rus. In 1223, on the river Kalka, a 25,000-strong Tatar-Mongolian army inflicted a crushing defeat on the troops of the South Russian princes, who, even in the face of danger, could not overcome discord and act together. The Tatar-Mongols begin the next campaign against Russia in 1237 under the leadership of the grandson of Genghis Khan - Batu. During 1237-1238, the Ryazan, Vladimir, Suzdal, Yaroslavl lands were captured.

In 1239, Batu captured Pereyaslav and Chernigov and entered Kyiv, where the governor Danilo Galitsky - Dmitry ruled. In the autumn of 1240, the assault begins. With the help of battering rams, the conquerors broke into Kyiv, but the townspeople continued to courageously defend themselves. The last point of resistance of the defenders was the Church of the Tithes. The city was robbed and destroyed. According to legend, the life of the governor Dmitry was saved for his courage. Then Kamenets, Izyaslav, Vladimir, Galich become the prey of the conquerors.

Thanks to the numerous and strong organization of the Tatar-Mongolian troops, on the one hand, and the dispersion, military unpreparedness of the Russian troops, on the other, Batu managed to annex to his empire - the Golden Horde, which covered the territory from the Urals to the Black Sea, almost all of Russia.

In addition to the Tatar-Mongols, Crusader knights, Polish and Hungarian feudal lords also wanted to conquer Russia. However, Danilo Romanovich, the Galician-Volyn prince, managed to appease their encroachments.

The Tatar-Mongolian invasions to a large extent slowed down the socio-economic, political and cultural development of ancient Russia. Feudal fragmentation was actually mothballed, the revival of their own statehood was out of the question.

Having fulfilled the role of a buffer for the countries of Western Europe (the Tatar-Mongols no longer had the strength to conquer it), Russia was under the yoke for many years. Only the Galicia-Volyn principality formally managed to maintain limited independence, however, recognizing the power of the Horde. The rest of the lands lost any independence. The princes were forced to recognize themselves as vassals of the Golden Horde, from the hands of the khan they received the right to reign (label) and paid a heavy tribute.

Novgorod land

By the XIII century. Novgorod land turned out to be the most prosperous and cultural region of all that were previously part of Kievan Rus. After the defeat of Byzantium by the crusaders in 1204, the remnants of Russian foreign trade moved to the Baltic Sea, and Novgorod, with Pskov dependent on it, took the place of Kyiv as the business center of the country.

Novgorod land is located in the north-west of Russia. It is characterized by poor and swampy soils, and therefore the conditions for agriculture are unfavorable here. Vast forest spaces provided the opportunity to hunt fur-bearing animals, and along the shores of the White Sea and on the sea. Novgorod is located on the Volkhov River, directly on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks" (Gulf of Finland - Neva - Lake Ladoga - Volkhov). Its geographical position created favorable conditions for trade with Russia and abroad.

The Mongol-Tatars did not sack Novgorod in 1238. They did not reach it for about 100 kilometers. But Novgorod, at the request of its prince Alexander Yaroslavich (after 1240 - Nevsky), paid tribute to them. The Mongol-Tatars did not interfere in the political system of the Novgorod land, they visited these places infrequently and did not actually influence the ethno-cultural processes.

In 1239, the Grand Duke of Vladimir Yaroslav Vsevolodovich restored his supreme power over Smolensk, having conquered it from Lithuania. In 1239-1240. his son Alexander defeated the Swedes on the Neva. In 1241-1242, having enlisted the support of the Horde Tatars, he expelled the Germans from Koporye and their supporters from Pskov, and on April 5, 1242, he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Germans in the Battle of Lake Peipsi (Battle on the Ice). After him, the Livonian Order for 10 years did not dare to take offensive actions against Russia.

The next defeat to the German knights was inflicted by Prince Svyatopolk, defeating them at the Reizen Lake. These Russian victories made a strong impression on the Livonian and Teutonic Orders. And only the lack of complete unity between the princes, as well as the intervention of the German kings and the papal curia, saved the German knights from final defeat. These victories stopped the colonization of Russian lands by foreigners. The Russian princes managed to convince their neighbors, and primarily the German knights and Swedes, of the effectiveness and expediency of conducting a dialogue with them not by sword, but through negotiations.

In 1262 treaty letters were signed between Novgorod and the German representatives of Riga and the Order, as well as with the main city of the German Union of the Baltic cities of Lubeck.

Galicia-Volyn principality formed at the end of the 12th century. as a result of the merger of two principalities - Galicia and Volyn. Galicia-Volyn land - the southwestern outskirts of Russia. These lands were far from the main trade route of Kievan Rus - "from the Varangians to the Greeks", but they were connected by river routes with the Black Sea (Southern Bug, Dniester, Prut) and with the Baltic Sea (San and Western Bug, flowing into the Vistula). Overland trade routes to Poland and Hungary also passed through Galicia and Volhynia.

In Volhynia and in the Galician land, arable farming has long developed, and, in addition, cattle breeding, hunting and fishing. With the establishment of feudal relations, large boyar and princely land ownership quickly grew here. The boyars were also enriched by their extensive trade. The region was located at the intersection of important river and land routes. A very strong economically, the boyars of the region, especially the Galician, turned into an influential political force.

Craft in the XII-XIII centuries. achieved significant development. In the Galician land, large-scale development of salt was carried out, which was also taken to other lands of Russia. Crafts have reached the greatest development in the region: iron-making, jewelry, leather, pottery and construction.
The economic development of the Galician land with the center in the city of Przemysl and the strengthening of the feudal lords here contributed to the fact that in the region already in the first half of the 11th century. began to show a trend towards political isolation. For the first time under Yaroslav the Wise, Przemysl principality was singled out. Attempts to isolate Volhynia from Kyiv began in the middle of the 11th century. The strengthening of the Galician princes, the brothers Volodar and Vasilko Rostislavich (1084-1124), became the reason for the union of the Kyiv and Volyn princes and Poland, and then Hungary. However, Rostislavichi, with the support of local feudal lords and cities, successfully withstood the offensive. The Galician land was finally isolated, while Volyn until the middle of the XII century. remained dependent on Kyiv.

The Galician principality was especially strengthened during the reign of Yaroslav Vladimirovich (1159–1187). This prince persistently sought to strengthen his power. He skillfully attracted allies from the Russian princes to his side, pursued a foreign policy in the interests of not only his principality, but the whole land. The outstanding abilities of Yaroslav were also recognized by his contemporaries, calling him, literate, well-read, fluent in eight languages, a free-thinking person, Osmomysl.

Soon the Principality of Galicia was annexed to Volhynia by Prince Roman Mstislavich (1199-1205). Relying on the growing layer of service feudal lords and with the support of the cities, Roman stubbornly fought to strengthen his power and limit the rights of large secular and spiritual feudal lords. Some of the boyars were exterminated, others were forced to flee. The prince distributed the lands of his opponents to serving feudal lords. Roman achieved the transfer of the Kyiv principality to his protege. The Polovtsy were driven back, and the security of the southern lands of the principality was temporarily ensured.

Roman Mstislavich died in one of the battles, and boyars seized power in Galich under his young sons Daniel and Vasilka.

For decades, boyar rebellions and feudal strife continued in the Galicia-Volyn land, accompanied by invasions of foreign feudal lords.

Only in 1227 Daniil Romanovich, relying on wealthy townspeople and service feudal lords, restored the unity and independence of Volhynia. In 1238, he also became a Galician prince, thus uniting the Galicia-Volyn principality under his rule. Following that, Daniel Romanovich took possession of Kyiv. The forces that gravitated toward the centralization of power, toward political unification, and toward overcoming feudal fragmentation were strengthened.

Daniel was a major statesman, a talented diplomat and commander. He devoted much attention and effort to the construction of cities. With extensive political experience, Daniel skillfully and flexibly fought his opponents, often exploiting their differences. However, soon the circumstances deteriorated sharply: from the east, the Mongol-Tatar invaders began to invade Russia. In 1240 Kyiv fell.

Vladimir-Suzdal land played a special role in the history of our country, forming the basis of the future Russian statehood. It was here, already in the pre-Mongolian period, that significant socio-political changes took place, which were then inherited by the Muscovite state. Rostov-Suzdal (later - Vladimir-Suzdal) land was located in the north-east of Russia and was separated from the Dnieper region by a powerful forest belt. The population of the north-east of the Russian lands was Merya, Meshchera, Muroma, Krivichi and Vyatichi. This territory was far from the traditionally important trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." Most of the northeastern lands were dominated by podzolic soils. Most of the territory was covered with forest. The abundance of forests allowed for a long time to keep hunting and slash-and-burn agriculture among the main occupations of the population.

Until the 12th century this area was a tertiary frontier region. The population there still remained predominantly Finno-Ugric; to this day, almost all rivers, lakes, many settlements have non-Slavic names. The rise of the region began in the 12th century, when its main city Rostov (later Rostov the Great), which arose as the capital in the lands of the Finno-Ugric union of the Merya tribes, became the hereditary property of the younger branch of the family of the Grand Duke of Kyiv Vladimir Monomakh. The first independent ruler of Rostov, the youngest son of Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky (c. 1090-1157), turned out to be a very enterprising colonialist. He built many cities, villages, churches and monasteries and, with generous land grants and tax exemptions, lured settlers from other principalities into his possessions. This policy was continued by his son Andrei Bogolyubsky (c. 1110–1174). Already by the end of the XII century. The Rostov Principality was the most densely populated region of Russia. It was the cradle of Muscovite Russia. In an effort to undermine the leading role of Kyiv, Andrei tried to establish a separate metropolis in Vladimir, but did not get the consent of the Patriarch of Constantinople. In 1174, Andrei was killed by those close to him, dissatisfied with his despotic disposition. After his death, strife broke out. The throne of Vladimir was claimed by the sons of the eldest son of Yuri Dolgoruky Rostislav (long dead) and the younger sons of Yuri Dolgoruky - Mikhail and Vsevolod. Rostislavichs were supported by the old veche cities of Rostov and Suzdal, Mikhail and Vsevolod - the city of Vladimir. In 1176 Mikhail and Vsevolod won. The victory of the princes, who relied on the city of Vladimir, which did not have its own veche, contributed to an even greater weakening of the veche principle in the north-east of Russia. Vsevolod, who after the imminent death of Mikhail became the sole ruler of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia, ruled until 1212. He proclaimed himself the Grand Duke of Vladimir. Thus, in Russia there were two great principalities: Kiev and Vladimir. Vsevolod voluntarily tried to install princes on the throne of Kyiv and interfered in the affairs of other principalities. One of his sons was invited to reign in Novgorod. Russian princes often turned to him with requests to resolve disputes and provide patronage.

After the death of Vsevolod the Big Nest, strife began between his sons. In 1217, the eldest of the Vsevolodoviches, Konstantin, with the support of the Smolensk prince Mstislav Udaly, defeated his younger brothers Yuri and Yaroslav in the Battle of Lipitsa and became the Grand Duke of Vladimir. But Yuri succeeded him, and the sons of Constantine occupied minor princely thrones in the northeastern lands. By the time of the Mongol invasion, North-Eastern Russia was perhaps the most powerful political association in the Russian land.

Here a system has developed that is very different from the system of Kievan Rus. In it, and in all the lands and principalities that emerged from it, except for the northeastern ones, the population appeared before the princes: first settlements were formed, and then political power.

The northeast, by contrast, was for the most part colonized at the initiative and under the leadership of the princes. Here the authorities anticipated the population, primarily, of course, the East Slavic population. Therefore, local princes had prestige and power that their counterparts in Novgorod and Lithuania could not count on. The land, in their opinion, belonged to them, and the people living on it were their servants or tenants on various terms. In any case, they could not claim land and have no inalienable personal rights.

Ownership in medieval Russia was designated by the term "patrimony." The patrimony was land, and slaves, and values, and the rights to fishing and mining, and even ancestors or genealogy. More importantly, it was also political power. There is nothing strange in this, given that in ancient Russia political power, in fact, meant the right to impose tribute, that is, it was an economic privilege.
The inheritance inherited by the prince from his father became his fiefdom, which, when the time came to write a spiritual letter, he, in turn, crushed (together with the newly acquired lands) among his descendants. The epoch during which this fragmentation took place (from the middle of the 12th to the middle of the 15th century) is known in the historical literature under the name of the specific period.
In addition to the princes, the landowners of North-Eastern Russia were the clergy and boyars - spiritual and secular feudal lords. The ancestors of the boyars served in the squads of the Kyiv and Rostov-Suzdal princes. The boyar lands were inherited according to patrimonial law, as well as the princely ones.
The peasants were free people and could move where and when they wanted. Before them stretched, as they said then, through the whole of North-Eastern Russia, "the path is clear, without a border."
It can be seen that the state developed here relatively slowly, public authority was weak, the prince did not actually have a punitive apparatus at his disposal, and even the economic processes on the princely lands went exactly like those of the patrimonial boyars.

At the end of the 11th century, Ancient Russia entered an inevitable period of development of feudal relations, expressed in political fragmentation. The unified state broke up into several independent parts, leading a fierce struggle among themselves. At the heart of the division of the “Russian land” between the Yaroslavichs lay deep reasons.

"Testament" of Yaroslav the Wise and Yaroslavichi

In 1054, Yaroslav the Wise felt the approach of death and made the famous “Testament”, dividing Russia between his sons:

• Izyaslav - Kyiv;
• Svyatoslav - Chernihiv;
• Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl.

Yaroslavichi for a long time peacefully ruled their lands, but in the 70s. a struggle broke out again between them, in which the grandchildren of Yaroslav the Wise already participated.

Rice. 1. Yaroslav the Wise. Reconstruction by M. M. Gerasimov.

In 1097, a congress of 6 princes took place in Lyubech, at which a decision was made: “Everyone and keep his fatherland.”

This decision officially approved political fragmentation and was supposed to end the civil strife.

Immediately after the Lubech Congress, Svyatopolk lured Vasilko Rostislavovich into a trap and blinded him.

"Ladder"

One of the reasons for the political fragmentation of Russia in the 12-13th century was the “ladder” order of the grand ducal heritage, enshrined at the congress in Lyubech. According to this order, Kyiv was given to the eldest son of the Grand Duke, the rest of the sons received inheritances in order of seniority (also starting from larger to smaller ones).

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The next in line were the children of the older brother, then the younger ones. After the death of the next Grand Duke, all the rest moved in seniority from inheritance to inheritance.

Rice. 2. Scheme.

The genus of Rurikovich quickly increased, which led to confusion. Often a nephew was older than his uncle and therefore began to challenge his seniority.

The “ladder” order led to the appearance of outcast princes, who, due to the early death of their father, did not receive appanages at all.

Disputes led to armed conflicts. In the 12th century, they begin to take shape princely land clans:

• Monomashici;
• Mstislavichi;
• Rostislavichi;
• Olgovichi, etc.

Rice. 3. Map "Russian lands in the XII century."

These clans were interested in staying where they were. They considered the liberation from the power of Kyiv to be the main task.

Socio-economic causes of fragmentation

Ancient Russia from the moment of formation consisted of several major principalities:

• Kyiv;
• Chernihiv;
• Galician;
• Volynskoye;
• Vladimirskoe;
• Suzdal;
• Novgorod.

By the beginning of the 13th century, there were already about 30 independent principalities in Russia.

The central cities of these principalities gradually grew, grew richer and subjugated the surrounding territories. They formed their own land nobility, boyars and warriors.

The development of feudal relations "tied" large landowners (princes and boyars) to their lands. It was more profitable for them to strengthen their own principality than to seek the throne of Kyiv.

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Almost every state in the world in the early stages of its development went through fragmentation and disunity. This also applies to Ancient Russia. The period of political fragmentation began in the 12th century and lasted only about a century - however, during this time, both negative and positive consequences were clearly manifested.

Reasons for the political fragmentation of Russia

There are two main reasons.

• Firstly, there were too many applicants for the great reign, and everyone wanted to take the Kyiv table one way or another. This led to endless strife, skirmishes between neighboring principalities, to the impossibility of reaching an agreement.
• Secondly, despite the previous aspect, Kyiv gradually lost its political significance. Fought for him rather out of habit. New centers were formed, developing independently of each other, the inhabitants of Ancient Russia were generally more inclined to migrate to its northeastern part - it was removed from the border with the Steppe and safer.

It should be noted that in 1097, the princes at the Lyubech Congress tried to rectify the situation - to stop strife over Kyiv and to focus on everyone's own lot. It is quite logical that after such a decision, the process of political disengagement only accelerated.

The consequences of the political fragmentation of Russia

Why is fragmentation considered a negative phenomenon?

The answers to this question are obvious.

• Russia lost its military power. Now dozens of principalities opposed the enemies on their own, and did not act as a united front. The steppe nomads did not fail to take advantage of this.
• Quarrels between the princes did not stop, but only became more frequent - now everyone perceived the lands of their neighbor as valuable military booty.

What are the good consequences of fragmentation?

However, the two-hundred-year period of disunity went to Russia not only to the detriment, but also to the good.

• The economy of individual cities flourished, no longer dependent on Kyiv.
• There were unique cultural schools - for example, Suzdal, Novgorod, Kyiv. They had much in common, but they also had significant differences, which is why they are still of great interest to researchers.

Of course, politically divided Russia did not turn into a union of "independent principalities." Formally, the Grand Duke remained the head of the country, in Russia the church common to all destinies continued to operate, a single language and cultural values ​​\u200b\u200bwere preserved. Nevertheless, in the XIII century, in the aspect of the fight against the Mongol yoke, the return to unity became a fundamentally important issue.

· Feudal fragmentation– political and economic decentralization. The creation on the territory of one state of independent independent principalities, formally having a common ruler, a single religion - Orthodoxy, uniform laws of "Russian Truth".

· The energetic and ambitious policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to the growth of the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality on the entire Russian state.

· Yuri Dolgoruky, son of Vladimir Monomakh, received the Vladimir principality in his reign. 1125-1157.

· 1147 Moscow first appears in chronicles. The founder is boyar Kuchka.

Andrey Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky. 1157-1174. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, the new title of the ruler is Tsar and Grand Duke.

· Vladimir-Suzdal principality flourished under Vsevolod the Big Nest. 1176-1212. The monarchy was finally established.

Consequences of fragmentation.

Positive

Growth and strengthening of cities

Active development of crafts

Settling undeveloped lands

Laying roads

Development of domestic trade

The flourishing of the cultural life of the principalities

Strengthening the local self-government apparatus

Negative

Continuation of the process of fragmentation of lands and principalities

Internecine wars

Weak central government

Vulnerability to external enemies

Specific Russia (XII-XIII centuries)

With the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125. the decline of Kievan Rus began, which was accompanied by its disintegration into separate states-principalities. Even earlier, the Lyubech Congress of Princes in 1097 established: "... let each one keep his fatherland" - this meant that each prince becomes the full owner of his hereditary principality.

The collapse of the Kievan state into small principalities-patrimonies, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, was caused by the existing order of succession to the throne. The princely throne was not passed from father to son, but from the elder brother to the middle and younger. This gave rise to strife in the family and the struggle for the division of estates. External factors played a certain role: nomad raids devastated the southern Russian lands and interrupted the trade route along the Dnieper.

As a result of the decline of Kyiv in southern and southwestern Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality rose, in the northeastern part of Russia - the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, and in northwestern Russia - the Novgorod Boyar Republic, from which in the XIII century stood out Pskov land.

All these principalities, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, inherited the political system of Kievan Rus. They were led by princes, relying on their squads. The Orthodox clergy had great political influence in the principalities.

Question

The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Mongolian state was nomadic cattle breeding. The desire to expand their pastures is one of the reasons for their military campaigns. It must be said that the Mongol-Tatars conquered not only Russia, it was not the first state they took. Prior to that, they subjugated Central Asia, including Korea and China, to their interests. From China, they adopted their flamethrower weapons, and because of this they became even stronger. The Tatars were very good warriors. They were armed "to the teeth", their army was very large. They also used psychological intimidation of enemies: in front of the troops were soldiers who did not take prisoners, brutally killed opponents. The very sight of them frightened the enemy.

But let's move on to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia. The first time the Russians faced the Mongols was in 1223. The Polovtsy asked the Russian princes to help defeat the Mongols, they agreed and a battle took place, which is called the Battle of the Kalka River. We lost this battle for many reasons, the main of which is the lack of unity between the principalities.

In 1235, in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a military campaign to the West, including Russia. In 1237, the Mongols attacked the Russian lands, and the first city captured was Ryazan. There is also in Russian literature the work “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, one of the heroes of this book is Yevpaty Kolovrat. The "Tale .." says that after the ruin of Ryazan, this hero returned to his native city and wanted to take revenge on the Tatars for their cruelty (the city was plundered and almost all the inhabitants were killed). He gathered a detachment of the survivors and rode after the Mongols. All wars fought bravely, but Evpaty distinguished himself with special courage and strength. He killed many Mongols, but in the end he himself was killed. The Tatars brought the body of Yevpatiy to Batu, talking about his unprecedented strength. Batu was struck by the unprecedented power of Yevpatiy and gave the body of the hero to the surviving tribesmen, and ordered the Mongols not to touch the Ryazans.

In general, the years 1237-1238 were the years of the conquest of northeastern Russia. After Ryazan, the Mongols took Moscow, which resisted for a long time, and burned it. Then they took Vladimir.

After the conquest of Vladimir, the Mongols split up and began to ravage the cities of northeastern Russia. In 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River, the Russians lost this battle.

The Russians fought with dignity, no matter what city the Mongol attacked, the people defended their homeland (their principality). But in most cases, the Mongols still won, only Smolensk was not taken. Kozelsk also defended for a record long time: as many as seven weeks.

After a trip to the north-east of Russia, the Mongols returned to their homeland to rest. But already in 1239 they returned to Russia again. This time their goal was the southern part of Russia.

1239-1240 - the campaign of the Mongols in the southern part of Russia. First they took Pereyaslavl, then the Principality of Chernigov, and in 1240 Kyiv fell.

This ended the Mongol invasion. The period from 1240 to 1480 is called the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

· First of all, this is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. Europe continued to develop, but Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

· Second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Also, farmers moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this hindered economic development.

· Third- the slowness of the cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.

· Fourth- termination of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and, in case of disobedience of the principalities, carried out punitive campaigns.

· Fifth consequences are highly controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved the political fragmentation in Russia, others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.

Question

In 1236, Alexander was invited to reign in Novgorod, he was then 15 years old, and in 1239 he married the daughter of the Polotsk prince Bryachislav. With this dynastic marriage, Yaroslav sought to consolidate the union of the northwestern Russian principalities in the face of the threat looming over them from the German and Swedish crusaders. The most dangerous situation developed at that time on the Novgorod borders. The Swedes, who had long competed with the Novgorodians for control over the lands of the Finnish tribes of Em and Sum, were preparing for a new onslaught. The invasion began in July 1240. The Swedish flotilla under the command of Birger, the son-in-law of the Swedish king Eric Kortavy, passed from the mouth of the Neva to the fall of the river. Izhora. Here the Swedes made a stop before advancing on Ladoga, the main northern fort of the Novgorodtsev post. Meanwhile, Alexander Yaroslavich, warned by the sentinels about the appearance of the Swedish flotilla, hastily left Novgorod with his squad and a small auxiliary detachment. The calculation of the prince was based on the maximum use of the factor of surprise. The blow should have been delivered before the Swedes, who outnumbered the Russian army, had time to completely disembark from the ships. On the evening of July 15, the Russians swiftly attacked the Swedes' camp, trapping them on a cape between the Neva and Izhora. Thanks to this, they deprived the enemy of freedom of maneuver and at the cost of small losses, all 20 people. This victory secured the northwestern border of the Novgorod land for a long time and earned the 19-year-old prince the glory of a brilliant commander. In memory of the defeat of the Swedes, Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky. In 1241, he expelled the Germans from the fortress of Koporye, and soon freed Pskov. The further advance of the Russian troops to the northwest, bypassing Lake Pskov, ran into fierce resistance from the Germans. Alexander retreated to Lake Peipsi, pulling up all available forces here. The decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The battle formation of the Germans had the traditional wedge shape for the crusaders, at the head of which were several rows of the most experienced heavily armed knights. Knowing about this feature of knightly tactics, Alexander deliberately concentrated all his forces on the flanks, in the regiments of the right and left hands. He left his own squad - the most combat-ready part of the army - in ambush in order to bring it into battle at its most critical moment. In the center, along the very edge of the Uzmeni bank (channels between Lake Peipus and Pskov), he placed the Novgorod infantry, which could not withstand the frontal attack of the knightly cavalry. In fact, this regiment was initially doomed to defeat. But having crushed and thrown it to the opposite shore (to the island of Voronii Kamen), the knights inevitably had to substitute the weakly protected flanks of their wedge under the blow of the Russian cavalry. In addition, now the Russians would have a shore behind their backs, and the Germans would have thin spring ice. The calculation of Alexander Nevsky was fully justified: when the knightly cavalry broke through a pig regiment, it was taken in pincers by the regiments of the Right and Left hands, and a powerful attack by the prince's squad completed the rout.

Yaroslav the Wise tried to prevent civil strife after his death and established between his children order of succession to the throne of Kyiv by seniority: from brother to brother and from uncle to eldest nephew. But even this did not help to avoid a struggle for power between the brothers. AT 1097 Yaroslavichi gathered in the city of Lyubich ( Lubian Congress of Princes) and forbade princes to move to reign from principality to principality. Thus, the prerequisites for feudal fragmentation were created. But this decision did not stop internecine wars. Now the princes took care of expanding the territories of their principalities.

For a short time, the world was restored to the grandson of Yaroslav Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125). But after his death, war broke out with renewed vigor. Kyiv, weakened by the constant struggle against the Polovtsy and internal strife, is gradually losing its leading role. The population is looking for salvation from the constant plunder and moves to more peaceful principalities: Galicia-Volyn (Upper Dnieper) and Rostov-Suzdal (interfluve of the Volga and Oka). In many ways, the boyars, who were interested in expanding their patrimonial lands, pushed the princes to seize new lands. Due to the fact that the princes established the Kievan order of succession in their principalities, processes of fragmentation began in them: if at the beginning of the 12th century there were 15 principalities, then by the end of the 13th century there were already 250 principalities.

Feudal fragmentation was a natural process in the development of statehood. It was accompanied by the revival of the economy, the rise of culture and the formation of local cultural centers. At the same time, during the period of fragmentation, the awareness of national unity was not lost.

Reasons for fragmentation: 1) the lack of solid economic ties between the individual principalities - each principality produced everything necessary within itself, that is, it lived by subsistence farming; 2) the emergence and strengthening of local princely dynasties; 3) weakening of the central power of the Kyiv prince; 4) the decline of the trade route along the Dnieper "from the Varangians to the Greeks" and the strengthening of the importance of the Volga as a trade route.

Galicia-Volyn principality located in the foothills of the Carpathians. Trade routes from Byzantium to Europe passed through the principality. In the principality, a struggle arose between the prince and the big boyars - landowners. Poland and Hungary often intervened in the struggle.

The Galician principality was especially strengthened under Yaroslav Vladimirovich Osmomysl (1157–1182). After his death, the Galician principality was annexed to Volhynia by the prince Roman Mstislavovich (1199–1205). Roman managed to capture Kyiv, declared himself the Grand Duke, and pushed the Polovtsy from the southern borders. Roman's policy was continued by his son Daniel Romanovich (1205–1264). During his time, the Tatar-Mongols invaded and the prince had to recognize the power of the khan over himself. After the death of Daniel, a struggle broke out between the boyar families in the principality, as a result of which Volyn was captured by Lithuania, and Galicia by Poland.

Novgorod principality stretched throughout the Russian North from the Baltic to the Urals. Through Novgorod there was a lively trade with Europe along the Baltic Sea. The Novgorod boyars were also drawn into this trade. After uprisings of 1136 Prince Vsevolod was expelled and the Novgorodians began to invite princes to their place, that is, a feudal republic was established. Princely power was significantly limited city ​​council(meeting) and Council of gentlemen. The function of the prince was reduced to organizing the defense of the city and external representation. The one elected at the veche actually ruled the city posadnik and the council of gentlemen. Veche had the right to expel the prince from the city. The veche was attended by delegates from the city ends ( Konchan veche). All free citizens of this end could participate in the Konchan veche.

The republican organization of power in Novgorod had a class character. Novgorod became the center of the fight against German and Swedish aggression.

Vladimir-Suzdal Principality It was located between the Volga and Oka rivers and was protected from the steppes by forests. Attracting the population to the desert lands, the princes founded new cities, did not allow the formation of urban self-government (veche) and large boyar land ownership. At the same time, settling on princely lands, free community members became dependent on the landowner, that is the development of serfdom continued and intensified.

The beginning of the local dynasty was laid by the son of Vladimir Monomakh Yuri Dolgoruky (1125–1157). He founded a number of cities: Dmitrov, Zvenigorod, Moscow. But Yuri sought to get to the great reign in Kyiv. The real owner of the principality became Andrei Yurievich Bogolyubsky (1157–1174). He founded the city Vladimir-on-Klyazma and moved the capital of the principality there from Rostov. Wanting to expand the boundaries of his principality, Andrei fought a lot with his neighbors. The boyars, removed from power, organized a conspiracy and killed Andrei Bogolyubsky. Andrey's policy was continued by his brother Vsevolod Yurievich Big Nest (1176–1212) and son of Vsevolod Yuri (1218–1238). In 1221 Yuri Vsevolodovich founded Nizhny Novgorod. The development of Russia was slow Tatar-Mongolian invasion of 1237–1241.

Russia in XII - XIIIcenturies. political fragmentation.

AT 1132 The last powerful prince Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, died.

This date is considered the beginning of the period of fragmentation.

Reasons for fragmentation:

1) The struggle of the princes for the best principalities and territories.

2) The independence of the boyars-patrimonials in their lands.

3) Subsistence economy, strengthening the economic and political power of cities.

4) The decline of the Kyiv land from the raids of the steppes.

Characteristic features of this period:

The aggravation of relations between the princes and the boyars

Princely strife

The struggle of the princes for the "Kyiv table"

The growth and strengthening of the economic and political power of cities

The heyday of culture

Weakening of the military potential of the country (fragmentation caused the defeat of Russia in the fight against the Mongols)

The main centers of political fragmentation:

Novgorod land

The supreme power belonged to the veche, which called the prince.

Officials were elected at the veche: the posadnik, the thousand, the archbishop. Novgorod feudal republic

Vladimiro - Suzdal Principality

Strong princely power (Yuri Dolgoruky (1147 - the first mention of Moscow in the annals), Andrei Bogolyubsky, Vsevolod the Big Nest)

Galicia-Volyn principality

Powerful boyars that fought for power with the princes. Famous princes - Yaroslav Osmomysl, Roman Mstislavovich, Daniil Galitsky.

Before the Mongol invasion - the heyday of Russian culture

1223 - the first battle with the Mongols on the Kalka River.

The Russians tried to fight back along with the Polovtsy, but were defeated

1237-1238 - the campaign of Batu Khan to North-Eastern Russia (the Ryazan principality was the first to be defeated)

1239-1240- to South Russia

Reasons for the defeat of Russia in the fight against the Mongol-Tatars

• Fragmentation and strife between the princes
• The superiority of the Mongols in the art of war, the availability of experienced and large army

Effects

1) The establishment of a yoke - the dependence of Russia on the Horde (payment of tribute and the need for princes to receive a label (a khan's letter that gave the prince the right to manage his lands) Baskak - a khan's governor in Russian lands

2) The ruin of lands and cities, the deportation of the population into slavery - undermining the economy and culture

Invasion of German and Swedish knights to the northwestern lands - Novgorod and Pskov

Goals

*seizure of new territories

* Conversion to Catholicism

Novgorod prince Alexander Nevsky at the head of the Russian troops won victories:

Russian principalities and lands in the XII-XIII centuries

on the river Neve over the Swedish knights

1242 on Lake Peipsi over the German knights (Battle on the Ice)

1251 -1263 - the reign of Prince Alexander Nevsky in Vladimir. Establishing friendly relations with the Golden Horde to prevent new invasions from the West

Work plan.

I. Introduction.

II. Russian lands and principalities in the XII-XIII centuries.

1. Causes and essence of state fragmentation. Socio-political and cultural characteristics of Russian lands in the period of fragmentation.

§ 1. The feudal fragmentation of Russia is a natural stage in the development of Russian society and the state.

§ 2. Economic and socio-political reasons for the fragmentation of Russian lands.

Vladimir-Suzdal principality as one of the types of feudal state formations in Russia in the XII-XIII centuries.

§ 4 Features of the geographical location, natural and climatic conditions of the Vladimir-Suzdal land.

Russian lands and principalities in the XII - the first half of the XIII century.

Features of the socio-political and cultural development of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

2. Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia and its consequences. Russia and the Golden Horde.

§ 1. The originality of the historical development and way of life of the nomadic peoples of Central Asia.

Batu's invasion and the formation of the Golden Horde.

§ 3. The Mongol-Tatar yoke and its influence on ancient Russian history.

The struggle of Russia against the aggression of the German and Swedish conquerors. Alexander Nevskiy.

§ 1. Expansion to the East of Western European countries and religious and political organizations at the beginning of the XIII century.

§ 2. The historical significance of the military victories of Prince Alexander Nevsky (Battle of the Neva, Battle of the Ice).

III. Conclusion

I. INTRODUCTION

XII-XIII centuries, which will be discussed in this control work, are barely distinguishable in the fog of the past.

In order to understand and understand the events of this most difficult era in the history of medieval Russia, it is necessary to get acquainted with the monuments of ancient Russian literature, study fragments of medieval chronicles and annals, read the works of historians related to this period. It is historical documents that help to see in history not a simple collection of dry facts, but the most complex science, the achievements of which play an important role in the further development of society, and allow a deeper understanding of the most important events in national history.

Consider the reasons that led to feudal fragmentation - the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of Ancient Russia of practically independent from each other, independent state formations; to understand why the Tatar-Mongol yoke on Russian soil became possible, and what was the domination of the conquerors for more than two centuries in the field of economic, political and cultural life, and what consequences it had for the future historical development of Russia - this is the main task of this work.

XIII century, rich in tragic events, to this day excites and attracts the eyes of historians and writers.

After all, this century is called the “dark period” of Russian history.

However, its beginning was bright and calm. The vast country, larger than any European state, was full of young creative power. The proud and strong people who inhabited it did not yet know the oppressive gravity of the foreign yoke, did not know the humiliating inhumanity of serfdom.

The world in their eyes was simple and whole.

They did not yet know the destructive power of gunpowder. Distance was measured by the span of arms or the flight of an arrow, and time was measured by the change of winter and summer. The rhythm of their life was unhurried and measured.

At the beginning of the XII century, axes were knocked all over Russia, new cities and villages grew. Russia was a country of masters.

Here they knew how to weave the finest lace and build soaring cathedrals, forge reliable, sharp swords and draw the heavenly beauty of angels.

Russia was a crossroads of peoples.

On the squares of Russian cities one could meet Germans and Hungarians, Poles and Czechs, Italians and Greeks, Polovtsians and Swedes... Many were surprised how quickly the “Rusichs” assimilated the achievements of neighboring peoples, applied them to their needs, enriched their own ancient and unique culture.

At the beginning of the XIII century, Russia was one of the most prominent states in Europe. The power and wealth of the Russian princes were known throughout Europe.

But suddenly a thunderstorm approached the Russian land - a hitherto unknown terrible enemy.

A heavy burden fell on the shoulders of the Russian people, the Mongol-Tatar yoke. The exploitation of the conquered peoples by the Mongol khans was ruthless and comprehensive. Simultaneously with the invasion from the East, Russia also faced another terrible misfortune - the expansion of the Livonian Order, its attempt to impose Catholicism on the Russian people.

In this difficult historical era, the heroism and love of freedom of our people manifested itself with particular force, people whose names were forever preserved in the memory of descendants were exalted.

II. RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN THE XII-XIII CENTURIES.

1. CAUSES AND ESSENCE OF STATE Fragmentation. SOCIO-POLITICAL AND CULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUSSIAN LANDS

THE PERIOD OF Fragmentation.

§ 1. FEUDAL Fragmentation of RUSSIA - A NATURAL STAGE

DEVELOPMENT OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY AND THE STATE

From the 30s of the XII century, the process of feudal fragmentation began in Russia.

Feudal fragmentation is an inevitable step in the evolution of feudal society, the basis of which is a subsistence economy with its isolation and isolation.

The natural economy system that had developed by that time contributed to the isolation from each other of all individual economic units (family, community, inheritance, land, principality), each of which became self-sufficient, consuming all the product it produced. There was practically no trade in goods in this situation.

Within the framework of the unified Russian state, independent economic regions have developed over three centuries, new cities have grown, large patrimonial farms have arisen and developed, and the possessions of many monasteries and churches.

Feudal clans grew up and rallied - the boyars with their vassals, the rich top of the cities, church hierarchs. The nobility was born, the basis of whose life was the service to the overlord in exchange for a land grant for the time of this service.

The huge Kievan Rus with its superficial political cohesion, which was necessary, first of all, for defense against an external enemy, for organizing long-range campaigns of conquest, now no longer corresponded to the needs of large cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and craft strata, and the needs of votchinniki.

The need to unite all forces against the Polovtsian danger and the mighty will of the Grand Dukes - Vladimir Monomakh and his son Mstislav - temporarily slowed down the inevitable process of fragmentation of Kievan Rus, but then it resumed with renewed vigor.

“The whole Russian land was irritated,” as the chronicle says.

From the point of view of general historical development, the political fragmentation of Russia is a natural stage on the way to the future centralization of the country, the future economic and political rise on a new civilizational basis.

Europe also did not escape the collapse of the early medieval states, fragmentation and local wars.

Then the process of formation of secular nation-states, which still exist, was developed here. Ancient Russia, having gone through a period of disintegration, could come to a similar result. However, the Mongol-Tatar invasion disrupted this natural development of political life in Russia and threw it back.

§ 2. ECONOMIC AND SOCIO-POLITICAL REASONS

Fragmentation of RUSSIAN LANDS

We can single out the economic and socio-political reasons for feudal fragmentation in Russia:

1.Economic reasons:

- the growth and development of feudal boyar land ownership, the expansion of estates by seizing the lands of smerds-communists, buying land, etc.

All this led to the strengthening of the economic power and independence of the boyars and, ultimately, to the aggravation of the contradictions between the boyars and the Grand Duke of Kyiv. The boyars were interested in such a princely power that could provide them with military and legal protection, in particular in connection with the growing resistance of the townspeople, smerds, contribute to the seizure of their lands and intensify exploitation.

- the dominance of subsistence farming and the lack of economic ties contributed to the creation of relatively small boyar worlds and the separatism of local boyar unions.

- in the XII century, trade routes began to bypass Kyiv, "the path from the Varangians to the Greeks", which once united the Slavic tribes around itself, gradually lost its former meaning, because.

European merchants, as well as Novgorodians, were increasingly attracted to Germany, Italy, and the Middle East.

2. Socio-political reasons :

- strengthening the power of individual princes;

- weakening the influence of the great Kyiv prince;

- princely strife; they were based on the Yaroslavl appanage system itself, which could no longer satisfy the overgrown family of Rurikovich.

There was no clear, precise order either in the distribution of inheritances or in their inheritance. After the death of the great prince of Kyiv, the "table" according to existing law did not go to his son, but to the eldest prince in the family. At the same time, the principle of seniority came into conflict with the principle of “fatherland”: when the princes-brothers moved from one “table” to another, some of them did not want to change their homes, while others rushed to the Kyiv “table” over the heads of their older brothers.

Thus, the preserved order of inheritance of the "tables" created the prerequisites for internecine conflicts. In the middle of the XII century, civil strife reached an unprecedented severity, and the number of their participants increased many times due to the fragmentation of princely possessions.

At that time in Russia there were 15 principalities and separate lands. In the next century, on the eve of Batu's invasion, there were already 50.

- the growth and strengthening of cities as new political and cultural centers can also be considered the reason for the further fragmentation of Russia, although some historians, on the contrary, regard the development of cities as a consequence of this process.

- the fight against nomads also weakened the Kiev principality, slowed down its progress; in Novgorod and Suzdal it was much calmer.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia in the 12th-13th centuries. Specific Russia.

• Feudal fragmentation– political and economic decentralization. The creation on the territory of one state of independent independent principalities, formally having a common ruler, a single religion - Orthodoxy, uniform laws of "Russian Truth".
• The energetic and ambitious policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to the growth of the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality on the entire Russian state.
• Yuri Dolgoruky, son of Vladimir Monomakh, received the Vladimir principality in his reign.

• 1147 Moscow first appears in chronicles. The founder is boyar Kuchka.
• Andrei Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky. 1157-1174. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, the new title of the ruler is Tsar and Grand Duke.
• The Vladimir-Suzdal principality flourished under Vsevolod the Big Nest.

1176-1212. The monarchy was finally established.

Consequences of fragmentation.

Positive

- the growth and strengthening of cities

– Active development of crafts

— Settlement of undeveloped lands

- laying roads

— Development of internal trade

— The flourishing of the cultural life of the principalities

Strengthening the local self-government apparatus

Negative

— continuation of the process of fragmentation of lands and principalities

- internecine wars

- weak central government

- Vulnerability to external enemies

Specific Russia (XII-XIII centuries)

With the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125.

the decline of Kievan Rus began, which was accompanied by its disintegration into separate states-principalities. Even earlier, the Lyubech Congress of Princes in 1097 established: “... let each one keep his fatherland” - this meant that each prince becomes the full owner of his hereditary principality.

The collapse of the Kievan state into small principalities-patrimonies, according to V.O.

Klyuchevsky, was caused by the existing order of succession to the throne. The princely throne was not passed from father to son, but from the elder brother to the middle and younger. This gave rise to strife in the family and the struggle for the division of estates. External factors played a certain role: nomad raids devastated the southern Russian lands and interrupted the trade route along the Dnieper.

As a result of the decline of Kyiv in southern and southwestern Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality rose, in the northeastern part of Russia - the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, and in northwestern Russia - the Novgorod Boyar Republic, from which in the XIII century stood out Pskov land.

All these principalities, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, inherited the political system of Kievan Rus.

They were led by princes, relying on their squads. The Orthodox clergy had great political influence in the principalities.

Question

The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Mongolian state was nomadic cattle breeding.

The desire to expand their pastures is one of the reasons for their military campaigns. It must be said that the Mongol-Tatars conquered not only Russia, it was not the first state they took. Prior to that, they subjugated Central Asia, including Korea and China, to their interests. From China, they adopted their flamethrower weapons, and because of this they became even stronger. The Tatars were very good warriors. They were armed "to the teeth", their army was very large.

They also used psychological intimidation of enemies: in front of the troops were soldiers who did not take prisoners, brutally killed opponents. The very sight of them frightened the enemy.

But let's move on to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia. The first time the Russians faced the Mongols was in 1223. The Polovtsy asked the Russian princes to help defeat the Mongols, they agreed and a battle took place, which is called the Battle of the Kalka River. We lost this battle for many reasons, the main of which is the lack of unity between the principalities.

In 1235, in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a military campaign to the West, including Russia.

In 1237, the Mongols attacked the Russian lands, and the first city captured was Ryazan. There is also in Russian literature the work “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, one of the heroes of this book is Yevpaty Kolovrat. The "Tale .." says that after the ruin of Ryazan, this hero returned to his native city and wanted to take revenge on the Tatars for their cruelty (the city was plundered and almost all the inhabitants were killed). He gathered a detachment of the survivors and rode after the Mongols.

All wars fought bravely, but Evpaty distinguished himself with special courage and strength. He killed many Mongols, but in the end he himself was killed. The Tatars brought the body of Yevpatiy to Batu, talking about his unprecedented strength. Batu was struck by the unprecedented power of Yevpatiy and gave the body of the hero to the surviving tribesmen, and ordered the Mongols not to touch the Ryazans.

In general, the years 1237-1238 were the years of the conquest of northeastern Russia.

After Ryazan, the Mongols took Moscow, which resisted for a long time, and burned it. Then they took Vladimir.

After the conquest of Vladimir, the Mongols split up and began to ravage the cities of northeastern Russia.

In 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River, the Russians lost this battle.

The Russians fought with dignity, no matter what city the Mongol attacked, the people defended their homeland (their principality). But in most cases, the Mongols still won, only Smolensk was not taken. Kozelsk also defended for a record long time: as many as seven weeks.

After a trip to the north-east of Russia, the Mongols returned to their homeland to rest.

But already in 1239 they returned to Russia again. This time their goal was the southern part of Russia.

1239-1240 - the campaign of the Mongols in the southern part of Russia. First they took Pereyaslavl, then the Principality of Chernigov, and in 1240 Kyiv fell.

This ended the Mongol invasion. The period from 1240 to 1480 is called the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

• First of all, this is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe.

Europe continued to develop, but Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

• Second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery).

Russian lands and principalities in the 12th - first half of the 13th centuries

Also, farmers moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this hindered economic development.

• Third- the slowness of the cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.
• Fourth- termination of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe.

Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on the Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and, in case of disobedience of the principalities, carried out punitive campaigns.

• Fifth consequences are highly controversial.

Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved the political fragmentation in Russia, others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.

Question

Alexander is invited to reign in Novgorod, he was then 15 years old, and in 1239 he marries the daughter of the Polotsk prince Bryachislav.

With this dynastic marriage, Yaroslav sought to consolidate the union of the northwestern Russian principalities in the face of the threat looming over them from the German and Swedish crusaders. The most dangerous situation developed at that time on the Novgorod borders. The Swedes, who had long competed with the Novgorodians for control over the lands of the Finnish tribes of Em and Sum, were preparing for a new onslaught. The invasion began in July 1240. The Swedish flotilla under the command of Birger, the son-in-law of the Swedish king Eric Kortavy, passed from the mouth of the Neva to the fall of the river.

Izhora. Here the Swedes made a stop before advancing on Ladoga, the main northern fort of the Novgorodtsev post. Meanwhile, Alexander Yaroslavich, warned by the sentinels about the appearance of the Swedish flotilla, hastily left Novgorod with his squad and a small auxiliary detachment. The calculation of the prince was based on the maximum use of the factor of surprise. The blow should have been delivered before the Swedes, who outnumbered the Russian army, had time to completely disembark from the ships. On the evening of July 15, the Russians swiftly attacked the Swedes' camp, trapping them on a cape between the Neva and Izhora.

Thanks to this, they deprived the enemy of freedom of maneuver and at the cost of small losses, all 20 people. This victory secured the northwestern border of the Novgorod land for a long time and earned the 19-year-old prince the glory of a brilliant commander. In memory of the defeat of the Swedes, Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky. In 1241, he expelled the Germans from the fortress of Koporye, and soon freed Pskov. The further advance of the Russian troops to the northwest, bypassing Lake Pskov, ran into fierce resistance from the Germans.

Alexander retreated to Lake Peipsi, pulling up all available forces here. The decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The battle formation of the Germans had the traditional wedge shape for the crusaders, at the head of which were several rows of the most experienced heavily armed knights. Knowing about this feature of knightly tactics, Alexander deliberately concentrated all his forces on the flanks, in the regiments of the right and left hands. He left his own squad - the most combat-ready part of the army - in ambush in order to bring it into battle at its most critical moment.

In the center, along the very edge of the Uzmeni bank (channels between Lake Peipus and Pskov), he placed the Novgorod infantry, which could not withstand the frontal attack of the knightly cavalry. In fact, this regiment was initially doomed to defeat. But having crushed and thrown it to the opposite shore (to the island of Voronii Kamen), the knights inevitably had to substitute the weakly protected flanks of their wedge under the blow of the Russian cavalry.

In addition, now the Russians would have a shore behind their backs, and the Germans would have thin spring ice. The calculation of Alexander Nevsky was fully justified: when the knightly cavalry broke through a pig regiment, it was taken in pincers by the regiments of the Right and Left hands, and a powerful attack by the prince's squad completed the rout.

The knights turned into a stampede, while, as Alexander Nevsky expected, the ice could not stand it, and the waters of Lake Peipus swallowed up the remnants of the crusading host.

World around 4th grade

Hard times on Russian soil

1. Circle the border of Russia at the beginning of the 13th century with a red pencil.

Mark on the map with arrows the path of Batu Khan in Russia.

Write down the dates when Batu Khan attacked the cities.

Ryazan- end of 1237

Vladimir- in February 1238

Kyiv- in 1240

3. Read the poem by N. Konchalovskaya.

Previously, Russia was specific:
Each city separate
Avoiding all neighbors
Ruled by a specific prince,
And the princes did not live together.
They would need to live in friendship
And one big family
Protect your native land.
I would be afraid then
Horde attack them!

Answer the questions:

• What does specific prince mean?

  Russia by the middle of the XII century broke up into separate principalities, which were ruled by specific princes.

• How did the princes live? The princes did not live together, there were civil strife.
• Why were the Mongol-Tatars not afraid to attack Russian lands? The Russian princes were unable to unite to repulse the enemy because of the fragmentation of the Russian principalities.

Match the battle with its date.

5. Read the description of the battle on Lake Peipsi.

The Russians fought furiously. Yes, and how not to fight without rage, when children and wives were left behind, villages and cities were left, native land with a short and sonorous name Rus was left.
And the crusaders came like robbers.

But where there is theft, there is cowardice side by side.
Fear took the dogs-knights, they see - the Russians are pushing them from all sides. Heavy horsemen cannot turn around in a crush, do not escape.

And then the Russians used hooks on long poles. They will hook the knight - and off the horse. He crashes on the ice, but he cannot get up: it hurts awkwardly in thick armor. Here he is off his head.
When the battle was in full swing, the ice suddenly crackled under the knights and cracked. The crusaders went to the bottom, pulled their heavy armor.
The crusaders did not know such a defeat until that time.
Since then, the knights have looked eastward with fear.

They remembered the words spoken by Alexander Nevsky. And this is what he said:
(O. Tikhomirov)

Answer the questions:

• Why did the Russians fight furiously? They defended their native land
• Why was it hard for the crusader cavalry in battle?

  Russian lands and principalities 12-13 century (p. 1 of 6)

  The Crusader cavalry were heavy, clumsy.

• What did the Russians use hooks for? They hooked the knights with hooks and dragged them off the horse.
• What words of Alexander Nevsky did the knights remember? Underline these words of the Russian prince in the text. Remember them.

The social, political and cultural development of the Old Russian state took place in close interaction with the peoples of the surrounding countries. One of the first places among them was occupied by the mighty Byzantine Empire, the closest southern neighbor of the Eastern Slavs. peaceful economic, political and cultural ties, and sharp military clashes On the one hand, Byzantium was a convenient source of military booty for the Slavic princes and their warriors On the other hand, Byzantine diplomacy sought to prevent the spread of Russian influence in the Black Sea region, and then try to turn Russia into a vassal of Byzantium , especially with the help of Christianization. At the same time, there were constant economic and political contacts. Evidence of such contacts is the existence of permanent colonies of Russian merchants in Constantinople, known to us from Oleg’s agreement with Byzantium (911). reflection in a large number of Byzantine things found on the territory of our country After Christianization, cultural ties with Byzantium intensified

Russian squads, crossing the Black Sea on ships, raided coastal Byzantine cities, and Oleg even managed to take the capital of Byzantium - Constantinople (in Russian - Tsargrad) Igor's campaign was less successful

In the second half of the 10th century, some Russian-Byzantine rapprochement was observed. Olga's trip to Constantinople, where she was friendly received by the emperor, strengthened relations between the two countries. Byzantine emperors sometimes used Russian squads for wars with their neighbors.

A new stage in Russia's relations with both Byzantium and other neighboring nations falls on the reign of Svyatoslav, the ideal hero of Russian chivalry Svyatoslav pursued an active foreign policy. He clashed with the powerful Khazar Khaganate, which once levied tribute from the territory of Southern Russia. , 941 and 944, the Russian warriors made campaigns against the Khazars, having achieved the gradual release of the Vyatichi from paying tribute to the Khazars. Taman Peninsula Tmutarakan Principality and to the liberation from the power of the Khaganate of the Volga-Kama Bulgarians, who after that formed their own state - the first state formation of the peoples of the Middle Volga and Kama region

The fall of the Khazar Khaganate and the advance of Russia in Pricher- 54

In an effort to mutually weaken Russia and Danubian Bulgaria, against which Byzantium pursued an aggressive policy, the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II Phocas offered Svyatoslav a campaign in the Balkans Svyatoslav won a victory in Bulgaria and captured the city of Pereyaslavets on the Danube This result was unexpected for Byzantium There was a threat of uniting the Eastern and Southern Slavs into one state, with which Byzantium would not have been able to cope. Svyatoslav himself said that he would like to transfer the capital of his land to Pereyaslavets

To weaken Russian influence in Bulgaria, Byzantium used Pechenegs This Turkic nomadic people was first mentioned in the Russian chronicle under 915. Initially, the Pechenegs roamed between the Volga and the Aral Sea, and then, under pressure from the Khazars, they crossed the Volga and occupied the Northern Black Sea region. then Byzantium from time to time managed to “hire” the Pechenegs for attacks on the other side. So, during Svyatoslav’s stay in Bulgaria, they, apparently at the instigation of Byzantium, raided Kiev. Svyatoslav had to urgently return to defeat the Pechenegs, but soon he again went to Bulgaria , a war with Byzantium began there. Russian squads fought fiercely and bravely, but the Byzantine forces were too outnumbered.

a peace treaty was concluded, Svyatoslav's squad got the opportunity to return to Russia with all their weapons, and Byzantium was satisfied only with the promise of Russia not to attack

However, on the way, on the Dnieper rapids, apparently having received a warning from Byzantium about the return of Svyatoslav, the Pechenegs attacked him. Svyatoslav died in battle, and the Pecheneg prince Kurya, according to chronicle legend, made a bowl from the skull of Svyatoslav and drank from it at feasts. According to the ideas of that era , this manifested, paradoxically as it may seem, respect for the memory of the fallen enemy, it was believed that the military prowess of the owner of the skull would go to the one who drinks from such a bowl

A new stage of Russian-Byzantine relations falls on the reign of Vladimir and is associated with the adoption of Christianity by Russia. Shortly before this event, the Byzantine emperor Vasily II turned to Vladimir with a request to help with the armed forces in suppressing the uprising of the commander Varda Foka, who captured Asia Minor, threatened the field of Constantine and claimed to the imperial throne In exchange for help, the emperor promised to marry his sister Anna to Vladimir

was in no hurry with the promised marriage.

This marriage was of great political importance. Just a few years earlier, the German emperor Otto II had failed to marry the Byzantine princess Theophano. Byzantine emperors occupied the highest place in the feudal hierarchy of the then Europe, and marriage to a Byzantine princess sharply raised the international prestige of the Russian state.

In order to achieve the fulfillment of the terms of the agreement, Vladimir laid siege to the center of the Byzantine possessions in the Crimea - Chersonese (Korsun) and took it. The emperor had to fulfill his promise. Only after that, Vladimir made the final decision to be baptized, because, having defeated Byzantium, he ensured that Russia did not have to follow in the wake of Byzantine policy. Russia became on a par with the largest Christian powers of medieval Europe.

This position of Russia was also reflected in the dynastic ties of the Russian princes.

So, Yaroslav the Wise was married to the daughter of the Swedish king Olaf - Indigerda. Yaroslav's daughter - Anna was married to the French king Henry I, another daughter - Elizabeth became the wife of the Norwegian king Harald. The Hungarian queen was the third daughter - Anastasia.

The granddaughter of Yaroslav the Wise - Eupraxia (Adelheida) was the wife of the German Emperor Henry IV.

Russian lands and principalities 12-13 century

One of the sons of Yaroslav - Vsevolod was married to a Byzantine princess, the other son Izyaslav - to a Polish one. Among the daughters-in-law of Yaroslav were also the daughters of the Saxon margrave and Count Stadensky.

Russia also had lively trade relations with the German Empire.

Even on the remote periphery of the Old Russian state, on the territory of present-day Moscow, was found dating back to the 11th century. a lead trade seal originating from some Rhenish city.

The constant struggle of Ancient Russia had to be waged with the nomads. Vladimir managed to establish a defense against the Pechenegs. Nevertheless, their raids continued. In 1036, taking advantage of the absence of Yaroslav, who had left for Novgorod, in Kiev, the Pechenegs laid siege to Kiev.

But Yaroslav quickly returned and inflicted a severe defeat on the Pechenegs, from which they were never able to recover. They were forced out of the Black Sea steppes by other nomads - the Polovtsians.

Polovtsy(otherwise - Kipchaks or Cumans) - also a Turkic people - back in the 10th century.

lived in the territory of North-Western Kazakhstan, but in the middle of the X century. moved to the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region and the Caucasus. After they ousted the Pechenegs, a huge territory came under their rule, which was called the Polovtsian steppe or (in Arabic sources) Desht-i-Kipchak.

It stretched from the Syr Darya and the Tien Shan to the Danube. For the first time, the Polovtsians are mentioned in Russian chronicles under 1054, and in 1061.

first encounter with them. 56

“The Polovtsy came first to the Russian land to fight” The second half of the XI-XII centuries - the time of the struggle of Russia with the Polovtsian danger

So, the Old Russian state was one of the largest European powers and was in close political, economic and cultural relations with many countries and peoples of Europe and Asia.

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